Bavarian Soviet Republic

1919 unrecognized socialist state in Germany

Bavarian Soviet Republic

Münchner Räterepublik

1919

Flag

Motto: "Proletarier aller Länder, vereinigt Euch!"
"Workers of the world, unite!"
Anthem: Die Internationale
The Internationale

Territory claimed by the Bavarian Soviet Republic (in red) shown with the rest of the Weimar Republic (in beige)

Status| Unrecognized state
Capital| Munich
Common languages| German
Government| Soviet republic

• 6–12 April 1919

| Ernst Toller

• 12 April 1919 – 3 May 1919

| Eugen Leviné
Historical era| Interwar period
* Revolutions of 1917–1923
* Political violence in Germany (1918–1933)

• Established

| 6 April 1919

• Disestablished

| 3 May 1919
Currency| Mark (ℳ)

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | People's State of Bavaria

|

| Weimar Republic |

|

Free State of Bavaria |
Today part of| Germany

* v
* t
* e

German revolution of 1918–1919

Lead-up events

* Turnip Winter
* Naval unrest in the summer of 1917 [de]
* German strike of January 1918
* Collapse of the Imperial German Army
* Defeat in World War I

I. Fall of the Empire

* Kiel mutiny
* Workers' and soldiers' councils
* Spread of the revolution
* Revolution in Berlin
* Proclamation of the republic in Germany
* Abdication of Wilhelm II
* Abdication of dynastic rulers
* People's State of Bavaria
* Anif declaration
* Mainz Workers' and Soldiers' Council
* Saxony
* Republic of Ostrów

II. Defeat of the radical Left

* 1918 Christmas crisis
* Spartacist uprising
* Bremen Soviet Republic
* Berlin March Battles
* Bavarian Soviet Republic
* Republic of Gniew

The Bavarian Soviet Republic (or Bavarian Council Republic), also known as the Munich Soviet Republic (German: Räterepublik Baiern, Münchner Räterepublik), was a short-lived unrecognised socialist state in Bavaria during the German revolution of 1918–1919.[1]

A group of communists and anarchists declared the Bavarian Soviet Republic on 6 April 1919, forcing the government of the existing People's State of Bavaria to flee to Bamberg in northern Bavaria.[2] The members of the new government, led by playwright Ernst Toller, had no political or administrative experience,[3] and after just six days in power they were ousted in a putsch organized by the Communist Party of Germany (KPD). The new head of state, the Russian-German Bolshevik Eugen Leviné, quickly instituted communist measures such as worker control of factories. Food shortages led to popular unrest, and on 3 May the People's State was put down by soldiers of the German Army supported by paramilitary Freikorps troops. Some 600 people died in the fighting.[4]

On 14 August 1919, the democratic Free State of Bavaria was established as a constituent state of the Weimar Republic.

## Background

[edit]

The roots of the Bavarian Soviet Republic lay in the German Empire's defeat in the First World War and the ensuing German revolution of 1918–1919. Faced with demonstrations and growing unrest in Munich, King Ludwig III of Bavaria fled the city on 7 November 1918. Kurt Eisner of the left-wing Independent Social Democratic Party (USPD), with the support of local revolutionary workers' and soldiers' councils, then became minister-president of the newly proclaimed People's State of Bavaria.[5][6][7] In January, Bavarian voters elected a Landtag (parliament) to draft a republican constitution for Bavaria. On 21 February 1919, the day of the Landtag's first meeting, Eisner was assassinated by a right-wing extremist while on his way to the assembly. After a period during which the workers' councils attempted to form a new government, the Landtag met again on 17 March and chose Johannes Hoffmann of the moderate Social Democratic Party as the new minister-president. He then put together a minority cabinet to govern the People's State along with the Landtag.[8]

## First Toller government

[edit]

On the night of 6–7 April, communists and anarchists, energized by the news of a communist revolution in Hungary, declared a soviet republic, with Ernst Toller as chief of state.[9][10] Toller called on the non-existent Bavarian Red Army to support the new dictatorship of the proletariat and ruthlessly deal with any counter-revolutionary behaviour.[11][12] The KPD reluctantly took part in the newly formed soviet republic, although the party's chairman, Paul Levi, denounced the republic as "revolutionary adventurism".[13]

The Hoffmann government fled to Bamberg in northern Bavaria,[14] which it declared the new seat of government.[15]

Initially, the Bavarian Soviet Republic was ruled by USPD members such as Ernst Toller and anarchists like writer Gustav Landauer, economist Silvio Gesell and playwright Erich Mühsam.[16] Toller, who was also a playwright, described the revolution as the "Bavarian Revolution of Love".[17] Among the café society of Schwabing, the new government became known as "the regime of the coffeehouse anarchists".[18]

Toller's cabinet picks were controversial. For instance, a burglar with a conviction for moral turpitude was chosen as police president of Munich.[15] Most infamous was the Commissar of Foreign Affairs Dr. Franz Lipp, who had been admitted several times to psychiatric hospitals. He declared war on Württemberg and Switzerland over the Swiss refusal to lend 60 locomotives to the Republic.[19][18] He claimed to be well acquainted with Pope Benedict XV[20] and informed Vladimir Lenin and the Pope by cable that the ousted former Minister-President Hoffmann had fled to Bamberg and taken the key to the ministry toilet with him.[21]

Toller's brief government was characterized by bold declarations without real enforcement. The minister for public housing published a decree saying that no house could thereafter contain more than three rooms and that the living room must always be above the kitchen and bedroom. It was also declared that Finance Minister Silvio Gesell's concept of Freigeld (lit. 'free money') would be implemented, although it never was.[18]

Members of the Toller cabinet were:[22][23]

Portfolio | Minister | Took office | Left office | Party

|
|
|
|

President|

Ernst Toller

| .| .|  | USPD
Foreign Minister|

Franz Lipp

| .| .|  | USPD
Finance Minister[24]|

Silvio Gesell

| .| .|  | Independent
Interior Minister|

Fritz Soldmann

| .| .|  | USPD
Minister of Military Affairs|

Wilhelm Reichart [de]

| .| .|  | KPD
Minister of Transportation|

Gustav Paulukum [fr]

| .| .|  | USPD
Minister of Education|

Gustav Landauer

| .| .|  | USPD
Minister of Welfare|

August Hagemeister [de]

| .| .|  | USPD
Minister of Justice|

Konrad Kübler [de]

| .| .|  | BB
Ministry of Social Welfare|

Martin Steiner

| .| .|  | BB

## Eugen Leviné government

[edit]

Eugen Leviné, head of the second and more radical government of the Bavarian Soviet Republic

On Saturday 12 April 1919, only six days into Toller's regime, the KPD seized power, led by three Russian-German Bolsheviks, with Eugen Leviné as head of state and Max Levien as the chairman of the Bavarian KPD.[1][25][26] The communists managed to secure power after the Palm Sunday Putsch, when the Bavarian Red Army – which consisted of factory workers and members of the workers' and soldiers' councils under the command of Rudolf Egelhofer – defeated the Bavarian militia forces of the Republican Defense Troop.[27][26] Twenty men died in the fighting.[18]

Having received the blessings of Lenin – who at the annual May Day celebration in Red Square said: "The liberated working class is celebrating its anniversary not only in Soviet Russia but in ... Soviet Bavaria"[25][14][18] – Leviné began to enact more communist reforms, which included forming a "Red Army" from factory workers, seizing cash, food supplies, and privately owned guns, expropriating luxurious apartments and giving them to the homeless, and placing factories under the ownership and control of their workers. One of Munich's main churches was taken over and made into a revolutionary temple which would be presided over by "Goddess Reason". Bavaria was to be in the vanguard of the Bolshevization of central Europe, with all workers to receive military training.[18]

Leviné also had plans to abolish paper money and reform the education system, but he did not have time to implement them. There was time, however, for Max Levien, following Lenin's orders, to arrest aristocrats and members of the middle class as hostages.[18]

During Leviné's short reign, food shortages quickly became a problem, especially the absence of milk. Public criticism over the milk shortage turned political, precipitating the communist government to publicly declare: "What does it matter? ... Most of it goes to the children of the bourgeoisie anyway. We are not interested in keeping them alive. No harm if they die – they'd only grow into enemies of the proletariat."[14]

## Second Ernst Toller government

[edit]

On 27 April, due to disputes over whether negotiations should be held with Hoffmann's People's State of Bavaria, Leviné's committee resigned and re-elected Toller to lead the Bavarian Soviet Republic.[16]

The rival governments – Hoffmann's People's State of Bavaria seated in Bamberg and the Bavarian Soviet Republic located in Munich – clashed militarily at Dachau on 18 April when Hoffmann's 8,000 soldiers met the Soviet Republic's 30,000. The BSR forces led by Ernst Toller were victorious in the first battle at Dachau, but Hoffmann made a deal that gave him the services of 20,000 men of the Freikorps under Lt. General Burghard von Oven [de]. Oven and the Freikorps, along with loyalist elements of the German Army – called the "White Guards of Capitalism" by the communists – then took Dachau and surrounded Munich.[10] In the meantime, supporters of the BSR had occupied the rooms of the Thule Society in the Hotel Vier Jahreszeiten on 26 April and arrested Countess Hella von Westarp, the society's secretary, and six others, who were to be held as hostages.[28] Rudolf Egelhofer, panicked by Munich being surrounded by Hoffmann's forces, had these seven and three other hostages executed on 30 April.[14][10] They included the well-connected Prince Gustav of Thurn and Taxis.[29] The executions were carried out despite Toller's efforts to prevent them.[30]

The Freikorps broke through the Munich defences on 1 May,[30] leading to bitter street fighting that involved "flame-throwers, heavy artillery, armoured vehicles, even aircraft".[31] At least 606 people were killed, of whom 335 were civilians.[14][31] Leviné was later condemned to death for treason and shot by a firing squad in Stadelheim Prison. Gustav Landauer was killed by the Freikorps,[32] and Egelhofer was murdered without trial after being arrested.[33] Numerous others were given prison sentences, such as Toller (5 years) and the anarchist writer Erich Mühsam (15 years); others received longer sentences, 6,000 years' worth in all, some of it to hard labour.[31]

General von Oven declared the city secured on 6 May, ending the reign of the Bavarian Soviet Republic.[30] Although the Hoffmann government was restored, power in Munich had shifted to the right.[34]

The republican Bamberg Constitution [de] was enacted on 14 August 1919, creating the Free State of Bavaria as a constituent state of the new Weimar Republic.

## Aftermath

[edit]

The tumultuous period of the People's State of Bavaria and the Bavarian Soviet Republic was used by conservative and far-right circles to stoke fear and hatred of "Bolshevism" among Bavarian society.[35] The period during which the two states existed was popularly remembered as one of shortages, censorship, restrictions on freedom, violence and general disorder.[36] The many separate strands of Bavarian conservatism found a common enemy in the far left, and Bavaria became profoundly "reactionary, anti-Republican, [and] counter-revolutionary".[35][37] The fact that some of the prominent figures of the People's State and the Soviet Republic were Jewish was used to push the conspiracy theory of "Jewish Bolshevism" in Bavaria.[38][39]

## Notable people

[edit]

One notable supporter of the Soviet Republic was the artist Georg Schrimpf, then aged 30, who was arrested when the movement was crushed.[40] His friend, the writer Oskar Maria Graf, who was also arrested, wrote about the events in his 1927 autobiographical novel, Wir sind Gefangene (Prisoners All). The famed anarchist novelist Ret Marut (later known as B. Traven) was an active participant in the establishment of soviet power and worked as head of the Press Department of the Soviet Republic.[41] During the early days of the Soviet Republic, representatives of cultural life also played an important role in the revolution. Some intellectuals such as the economist Lujo Brentano, the conductor Bruno Walter and the writers Heinrich Mann and Rainer Maria Rilke formed the Rat der geistigen Arbeit (Council of Intellectual Work) with Mann as its chairman.[42][43]

Adolf Hitler's longstanding chauffeur and first leader of the Schutzstaffel (SS) Julius Schreck signed up and served as a member of the Red Army in late April 1919. Balthasar Brandmayer, one of Hitler's closest wartime friends, remarked "how he at first welcomed the end of the monarchies" and the establishment of the republic in Bavaria.[44]

Active participants in the Freikorps units – those of Oven, Franz Ritter von Epp, and Hermann Erhardt – that suppressed the Bavarian Soviet Republic included future powerful members of the Nazi Party, including Rudolf Hess, a member of the Freikorps Epp.[45][46][47]

In his 1952 memoir Witness, Whittaker Chambers named Eugene Leviné as one of three people whom he most admired as he joined the Communist Party USA, along with Felix Dzerzhinsky and Igor Sazonov:[48]

> During the Bavarian Soviet Republic in 1919, Leviné was the organizer of the Workers and Soldiers Soviets. When the Bavarian Soviet Republic was crushed, Leviné was captured and courtmartialed. The court-martial told him: "You are under sentence of death." Leviné answered: "We communists are always under sentence of death." That is another thing that it meant to be a Communist.

### Hitler's role

[edit]

Adolf Hitler was present in the Munich area at the time of the Bavarian Soviet Republic as part of the 16th Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment.[49] He had been appointed a deputy battalion representative (deputy Vertrauensmann) for his army regiment on April 3 – before the soviet period – a position that was created by the German Army High Command; part of the duties of the role were education and propaganda.[50][51][52] Although authors such as Ian Kershaw[53] and others claim that Hitler held the role as early as February, it contradicts evidence put forth by Othmar Plöckinger in his book Unter Soldaten und Agitatoren ("Among Soldiers and Agitators").[54]

Hitler's unit and regiment declared themselves neutral and refused to join the Bavarian Red Army (an act of passive resistance). They did not give their allegiance to the new regime nor were they under its control. Author Sjoerd de Boer notes that there is no evidence of Hitler having aided the Soviet Republic personally, despite the claim of some authors. In fact, information originating from Hitler's barracks assisted the advancing Freikorps units in capturing the city.[55] After the fighting ended, Hitler was part of a committee that prosecuted soldiers for aiding the soviet revolt. Hitler was next employed by the occupying ‘"White" forces in the information bureau led by Captain Karl Mayr of Reichswehr Gruppen Kommando 4, which was responsible for countering soviet activity. Mayr had likely been impressed by Hitler’s role on the prosecuting committee, making it unlikely that he would have brought him on had he been involved with the soviet forces.[56]

Certain authors have argued that Hitler was in attendance at Kurt Eisner’s funeral.[57][58] A separate photo and video have been used as evidence that he was: in a photograph, a man purported to be Hitler (based on physical appearance) is shown observing a memorial procession from the side while Russian prisoners of war carry a portrait of Eisner. In the footage of Eisner's funeral, another man (actually participating) is claimed to be Hitler.[58] Historians debate about the authenticity of the claim, especially with regard to the graininess of the footage. Thomas Weber believes that Hitler did attend but concluded that it was impossible to know for sure; other historians dismiss the claim outright.[59][60] Representatives of Hitler’s unit were ordered to attend a memorial procession for Eisner, but that was on 3 April 1919, separate from the funeral in February.[54] As of May 1919 Hitler was an informant for the Reichswehr.[61] Author Peter den Hartog has concluded Hitler’s attendance at Eisner's funeral can safely be considered a “myth”.[55]

## See also

[edit]

* Alsace Soviet Republic
* Aftermath of World War I
* History of Bavaria
* Bremen Soviet Republic

* German Democratic Republic
* German Revolution
* History of Germany

* Hungarian Soviet Republic
* People's State of Bavaria – predecessor to the Bavarian Soviet Republic
* Free State of Bavaria (Weimar Republic)
* Soviet (council)

|
|

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b Gaab 2006, p. 58.
2. ^ Bartolf & Miething 2019, pp. 226–228.
3. ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 112–116; Mitcham 1996, p. 11, 30; Evans 2003, pp. 158–161
4. ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 112–116.
5. ^ Mitchell 1982, p. 65.
6. ^ Bartolf & Miething 2019, pp. 223–224.
7. ^ Riddell 1986, p. 73.
8. ^ Winkler, Heinrich August (1993). Weimar 1918–1933. Die Geschichte der ersten deutschen Demokratie [Weimar 1918–1933. The History of the FIrst German Democracy] (in German). Munich: C.H. Beck. p. 77\. ISBN 3-406-37646-0.
9. ^ Ernst Toller. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 17 Feb 2012.
10. ^ a b c Bartolf & Miething 2019, p. 225.
11. ^ Mühsam, Erich (1929). Von Eisner bis Leviné [From Eisner to Leviné] (in German). Berlin: Fanal Verlag. p. 47.
12. ^ Mitcham 1996, pp. 32–33.
13. ^ Heynen 2019, pp. 52–53.
14. ^ a b c d e Burleigh 2000, p. 40.
15. ^ a b Mitcham 1996, p. 33.
16. ^ a b Bronner 2019, p. 244.
17. ^ Gaab 2006, p. 59.
18. ^ a b c d e f g Evans 2003, pp. 158–161.
19. ^ Taylor, Edumund (1963). The Fall of the Dynasties: The Collapse of the Old Order. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 365.
20. ^ Noske, Gustav (2015). Von Kiel bis Kapp [From Kiel to Kapp] (in German). Norderstedt: Vero Verlag. p. 136\. ISBN 978-3-737-22351-5.
21. ^ Frölich, Paul (2001). Die Bayerische Räte-Republik. Tatsachen und Kritik [The Bavarian Soviet Republic. Facts and Criticism] (in German). Cologne: Neuer Isp Verlag. p. 144\. ISBN 978-3-929-00868-5.
22. ^ Bischel, Matthias (22 March 2019). "Räterepublik Baiern (1919)" [Bavarian Soviet Republic]. Historisches Lexikon Bayerns (in German). Retrieved 11 June 2024.
23. ^ Khunchukashvili, David; Kliewer, Natalja; Lisov, Maja; Piorun, Carolin; Rikić, Bojana; Türmer, Philipp; Winterer, Beate. "Die Verflechtungen zwischen der Oktoberrevolution 1917 und der Münchner Räterepublik" [The Entanglements between the October Revolution of 1917 and the Munich Soviet Republic]. Fachinformationsdienst Ost-, Ostmittel- und Südosteuropa (in German). Retrieved 8 August 2024.
24. ^ Onken, Werner [in German] (2018). Silvio Gesell in der Münchener Räterepublik. Eine Woche Volksbeauftragter für das Finanzwesen im April 1919 [Silvio Gesell in the Munich Soviet Republic. One week as People's Representative for Finance in April 1919] (in German). Oldenburg. ISBN 978-3-933891-31-0.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
25. ^ a b Bullock, Alan (1991). Hitler and Stalin: Parallel Lives. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 70\. ISBN 0-394-58601-8.
26. ^ a b Bartolf & Miething 2019, pp. 230–231.
27. ^ Sepp, Florian; Bischel, Matthias (23 September 2021). "Palmsonntagsputsch, 13. April 1919". Historisches Lexikon Bayerns. Retrieved 10 December 2021.
28. ^ Bracher 1970, pp. 109–110.
29. ^ "Timebase Multimedia Chronology: Timebase 1919". humanitas-international. Archived from the original on 29 September 2006. Retrieved 23 September 2006.
30. ^ a b c Mitcham 1996, pp. 34–35.
31. ^ a b c Kershaw 1999, pp. 112–116.
32. ^ Horrox, James. "Gustav Landauer (1870–1919)". Anarchy Archives. Retrieved 20 October 2015.
33. ^ "Egelhofer, Rudolf". Bavarikon (in German). Retrieved 10 April 2025.
34. ^ Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. p. 33.
35. ^ a b Kershaw 1999, p. 115.
36. ^ Kershaw 1999, pp. 114–115.
37. ^ Heynen 2019, p. 53.
38. ^ Friedländer, Saul (2007). Das Dritte Reich und die Juden. Die Jahre der Verfolgung 1933–1939. Die Jahre der Vernichtung 1939–1945. Die Jahre der Vernichtung 1939–1945 [The Third Reich and the Jews. The Years of Persecution 1933–1939] (in German) (One-volume special ed.). Munich: Beck. p. 1072, footnote 80. ISBN 978-3-406-56681-3.
39. ^ Bronner 2019, pp. 237, 252.
40. ^ Friedrich, Julia, ed. (2012). Modernist Masterpieces. The Haubrich Collection at Museum Ludwig. Munich: König. ISBN 978-3-863-35174-8.
41. ^ Richter, Armin (1970). "B. Traven und die Münchner Zensur : unveröffentlichte Dokumente aus der Zeit des 1. Weltkrieges" [B. Traven and the Munich Censors: Unpublished Documents from the Time of the First World War]. Geist und Tat (in German). 4 (October–December): 225–233\. OCLC 86154513.October–December&rft.pages=225-233&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info:oclcnum/86154513&rft.aulast=Richter&rft.aufirst=Armin&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Bavarian+Soviet+Republic" class="Z3988">
42. ^ Gross, David (1973). "Heinrich Mann and the Politics of Reaction". Journal of Contemporary History. 8 (1): 125–145\. doi:10.1177/002200947300800107. ISSN 0022-0094. JSTOR 260072. S2CID 155049742.
43. ^ Veitenheimer, Bernhard. "Heinrich Mann und der Politische Rat geistiger Arbeiter München – Versuch einer Chronik" [Heinrich Mann and the Political Council of Intellectual Workers in Munich – Attempt at a Timeline]. literaturkritik.de (in German). Retrieved 12 October 2021.
44. ^ Kershaw 1999, p. 119.
45. ^ Mitcham 1996, p. 35.
46. ^ Manvell, Roger; Fraenkel, Heinrich (1971). Hess: A Biography. London: MacGibbon & Kee. p. 20\. ISBN 0-261-63246-9.
47. ^ Padfield, Peter (2001). Hess: The Fuhrer's Disciple. London: Cassell & Co. p. 13\. ISBN 0-304-35843-6.
48. ^ Chambers, Whittaker (1952). Witness. New York: Random House. p. 6.
49. ^ Williams, John Frank (2005). Corporal Hitler and the Great War 1914-1918: The List Regiment. London: Psychology Press. p. 1\. ISBN 978-0-415-35854-5.
50. ^ Simms, Brendan (2019). Hitler: A Global Biography. New York: Basic Books. pp. Chapter 3. The 'Colonization' of Germany (e-book). ISBN 978-1-541-61820-6.
51. ^ Studies Prepared for the President's Commission on an All-Volunteer Armed Force. Vol. 2\. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1971. p. III-2-104.
52. ^ den Hertog, Peter (2020). Why Did Hitler Hate the Jews?: The Origins of Adolf Hitler's Anti-Semitism and its Outcome. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. p. 46\. ISBN 978-1-526-77241-1.
53. ^ Kershaw, Ian (18 January 2010). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. p. 69\. ISBN 978-0-393-07562-5. Retrieved 11 July 2025.
54. ^ a b Longerich, Peter (2019). Hitler: A Biography. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 982\. ISBN 978-0-19-005673-5.
55. ^ a b de Boer, Sjoerd J. (2022). The Hitler Myths: Exposing the Truth Behind the Stories About the Führer. Barnsley, UK: Pen & Sword Books. pp. (e-book). ISBN 978-1-399-01906-4.
56. ^ den Hertog 2020, pp. 47–48.
57. ^ Knopp, Guido (2002). Hitler – Eine Bilanz [Hitler – A Balance] (in German). Munich: Orbis-Verlag. pp. 111–114\. ISBN 978-3-572-01338-8.
58. ^ a b Weber, Thomas (2010). Hitler's First War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 251.
59. ^ Weber, Thomas (2017). Becoming Hitler: The Making of a Nazi. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 351\. ISBN 978-0-199-66462-7.
60. ^ Brenner, Michael (2022). In Hitler's Munich: Jews, the Revolution, and the Rise of Nazism. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 169\. ISBN 978-0-691-19103-4.
61. ^ Harper, David (2023). Exposing the Reich: How Hitler Captivated and Corrupted the German People. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 38\. ISBN 978-1-538-18090-7.

### Works cited

[edit]

* Riddell, John, ed. (1986). The German Revolution and the Debate on Soviet Power: Documents: 1918-1919 Preparing the Founding Congress. Pathfinder Press.
* Bartolf, Christian; Miething, Dominique (2019). "Gustav Landauer and the Revolutionary Principle of Non-violent Non-cooperation". In Kets, Gaard; Muldoon, James (eds.). The German Revolution and Political Theory. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 215–236\. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13917-9_11. ISBN 978-3-030-13917-9. ISSN 2524-7131.
* Bracher, Karl Dietrich (1970). The German Dictatorship. Translated by Steinberg, Jean. New York: Penguin Books. p. 110\. ISBN 0-14-013724-6.
* Bronner, Stephen Eric (2019). "Revolutionary Principles and Strategy in the November Revolution: The Case of the USPD". In Kets, Gaard; Muldoon, James (eds.). The German Revolution and Political Theory. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 237–254\. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13917-9_12. ISBN 978-3-030-13917-9. ISSN 2524-7131.
* Burleigh, Michael (2000). The Third Reich: A New History. New York: Hill and Wang. ISBN 0-8090-9325-1.
* Evans, Richard J. (2003). The Coming of the Third Reich. New York: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-303469-3.
* Gaab, Jeffrey S. (2006). Munich: Hofbräuhaus & History: Beer, Culture, and Politics. Lausanne, Switzerland: Peter Lang. ISBN 978-0-820-48606-2.
* Hett, Benjamin Carter (2018). The Death of Democracy. New York: St. Martin's. ISBN 978-1-250-21086-9.
* Heynen, Robert (2019). "The German Revolution and the Radical Right". In Kets, Gaard; Muldoon, James (eds.). The German Revolution and Political Theory. Marx, Engels, and Marxisms. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 45–68\. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-13917-9_3. ISBN 978-3-030-13917-9. ISSN 2524-7131.
* Kershaw, Ian (1999). Hitler: 1889–1936 Hubris. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0-393-04671-0.
* Mitcham, Samuel W. Jr. (1996). Why Hitler? The Genesis of the Nazi Reich. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger. ISBN 0-275-95485-4.
* Mitchell, Allan [in German] (1982). Revolution in Bayern 1918/1919. Die Eisner-Regierung und die Räterepublik [Revolution in Bavaria 1918/1919. The Eisner government and the Soviet Republic] (in German) (2nd ed.). Munich: Beck. ISBN 3-406-02003-8.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Bavarian Council Republic.

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* Angola
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* Burkina Faso
* Congo-Brazzaville
* Egypt
* Ethiopia
* 1974–1987
* 1987–1991
* Guinea
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Mozambique
* Seychelles
* Somalia
* Sudan

|

Americas|

* Cuba
* Grenada
* Chile
* Nicaragua

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Burma
* Cambodia
* 1975–1979
* 1979–1992
* 1982–1992
* China
* Iraq
* North Korea
* Laos
* Mongolia
* South Yemen
* Syria
* Tuva
* Vietnam
* North Vietnam

| Short-lived|

* Azerbaijan People's Government
* East Turkestan
* Far East
* Fujian
* Gilan
* Inner Mongolia
* Jiangxi
* Kuwait
* Kurdish Republic of Mahabad
* North Korea (1946–1947)
* North Korea (1947–1948)
* Democratic Republic of Yemen
* South Vietnam

|

Europe|

* Albania
* Bulgaria
* Czechoslovakia
* Czech Republic
* Slovakia
* East Germany
* Hungary (1949–1989)
* Poland
* Romania
* Soviet Union
* Yugoslavia

| Short-lived|

* Alsace-Lorraine
* Banat
* Baranya–Baja
* Bavaria
* 1918–1919
* 1919
* Bessarabia
* Byelorussia (1919)
* Bremen
* Bihać
* Crimea (1919)
* Finland
* 1918
* 1939–1940
* Estonia (1918–1919)
* Galicia
* Hungary (1919)
* Ireland
* Naissaar
* Saxony
* Slovakia (1919)
* Tarnobrzeg
* Užice
* Würzburg
* Brussels Soldiers' Council

|

History of socialism

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Yale LUX

48°08′N 11°34′E﻿ / ﻿48.133°N 11.567°E﻿ / 48.133; 11.567
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