Bengal

Region in the eastern Indian subcontinent

For other uses, see Bengal (disambiguation).

Region in Asia

Bengal

* বঙ্গ Bôṅgô
* বাংলা Bāṅlā

Region

Bengal region in Asia

Continent| Asia
Countries|  Bangladesh
India (West Bengal, Karimganj district of Assam)
Iron Age India, Vedic India, Suhma kingdom, Pundravardhana, Vanga kingdom| 1500 – c. 500 BCE
Gangaridai, Nanda Empire| 500 – c. 350 BCE
Mauryan Empire| 4th century – 2nd century BCE
Shunga Empire, Gupta Empire, Later Gupta dynasty| 185–75 BCE, 3rd century CE – 543 CE, 6th–7th century
Gauda Kingdom| 590–633 CE
Pala Empire, Sena Empire, Deva Empire| 8th–11th century, 11th–12th century, 12th–13th century
Delhi Sultanate, Bengal Sultanate| 1204–1339 CE, 1338–1576 CE
Bengal Subah (Mughal Empire), Nawabs of Bengal| 1565–1717 CE, 1717–1765 CE
Bengal Presidency (British India)| 1765–1947 CE
Divisions|

List

* Karimganj
* Barisal
* Burdwan
* Chittagong
* Dhaka
* Jalpaiguri
* Khulna
* Malda
* Medinipur
* Mymensingh
* Presidency
* Rajshahi
* Rangpur
* Sylhet

Area

• Total

| 239,021 km2 (92,287 sq mi)
Population

(2022)

• Total

| 273,610,384
• Density| 1,144/km2 (2,960/sq mi)
Demonym(s)| Bengali
Time zone| UTC+5:30, UTC+6:00
Internet TLD| .bd, .in (English)
.বাংলা, .ভারত (Bengali)
Largest urban areas|

List

* Dhaka
* Kolkata
* Chittagong
* Siliguri

Part of a series on

Bengalis

Bengali history

* Vanga kingdom
* Gangaridai
* Gauda Kingdom
* Pala Empire
* Bengal Sultanate
* Bengal Subah
* Bengal Presidency
* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Eastern Bengal and Assam
* Partition of Bengal (1947)
* East Bengal
* East Pakistan
* Names of Bengal

Bengali homeland

* Bengal
* Bangladesh
* West Bengal
* Tripura
* Barak Valley
* Assam

Bengali people

* Social group:
* Bangal
* Ghotis
* Diaspora
* Religious community:
* Hindus
* Buddhists
* Christians
* Muslims
* Bengali name
* Subgroups:
* Dhakaiyas
* Sylhetis

Bengali culture

* Bangaliana
* Language
* Dialects
* Alphabet
* Romanisation
* Literature
* Poetry
* Science fiction
* Novels
* Folklore
* Art
* Music
* Cinema
* West Bengal
* Bangladesh
* Theatre
* Weddings
* Bengali Hindu wedding
* Cuisine
* Architecture
* Bengal Temple
* Calendar
* Festivals
* New Year
* Spring
* Monsoon
* Harvest

Bengali symbols

* Bangamata
* Joy Bangla
* Bengal tiger
* Bengal cat
* Bungalow
* Bengal fire
* Bengal Renaissance
* Amar Sonar Bangla
* National symbols of Bangladesh
* Fish and rice
* Ilish
* Chingri malai curry
* Rasgulla
* Chomchom
* Jamdani
* Ganges
* Suvarnabhumi
* Bay of Bengal

Bengali nationalism

* List of rulers of Bengal
* United Bengal
* Bangabhumi

* v
* t
* e

This article contains Bengali text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Geographical distribution of the Bengali language

Bengal (/bɛnˈɡɔːl/ ben-GAWL)[1][2][a] is a historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Bengal proper is divided between the modern-day sovereign nation of Bangladesh and the Indian states of West Bengal, and Karimganj district of Assam.

The ancient Vanga Kingdom is widely regarded as the namesake of the Bengal region.[3] The Bengali calendar dates back to the reign of Shashanka in the 7th century CE. The Pala Empire was founded in Bengal during the 8th century. The Sena dynasty and Deva dynasty ruled between the 11th and 13th centuries. By the 14th century, Bengal was absorbed by Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent. An independent Bengal Sultanate was formed and became the eastern frontier of the Islamic world.[4][5][6] During this period, Bengal's rule and influence spread to Assam, Arakan, Tripura, Bihar, and Odisha (formerly- Orissa).[7][8] Bengal Subah later emerged as a prosperous part of the Mughal Empire.

The last independent Nawab of Bengal was defeated in 1757 at the Battle of Plassey by the East India Company. The company's Bengal Presidency grew into the largest administrative unit of British India with Calcutta as the capital of both Bengal and India until 1911. As a result of the first partition of Bengal, a short-lived province called Eastern Bengal and Assam existed between 1905 and 1911 with its capital in the former Mughal capital Dhaka. Following the Sylhet referendum and votes by the Bengal Legislative Council and Bengal Legislative Assembly, the region was again divided along religious lines in 1947.

Bengali culture, particularly its literature, music, art and cinema, are well known in South Asia and beyond. The region is also notable for its economic and social scientists, which includes several Nobel laureates. Once home to the city with the highest per capita income level in British India,[9] the region is today a leader in South Asia in terms of gender parity, the gender pay gap and other indices of human development.[10][11][12][13][14]

## Etymology

[edit]

Main article: Names of Bengal

The name of Bengal is derived from the ancient kingdom of Vanga (pronounced Bôngô),[15][16] the earliest records of which date back to the Mahabharata epic in the first millennium BCE.[16] The reference to 'Vangalam' is present in an inscription in the Brihadisvara Temple at Thanjavur, which is one of the oldest references to Bengal.[17] The term Vangaladesa is used to describe the region in 11th-century South Indian records.[18][19][20] The modern term Bangla is prominent from the 14th century, which saw the establishment of the Sultanate of Bengal, whose first ruler Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah was known as the Shah of Bangala.[21] Arab geographers Ahmad ibn Majid and Sulaiman Al Mahri also mentions the region as 'Bangala' and the 'land of Bang'.[22] The Portuguese referred to the region as Bengala in the Age of Discovery.[23]

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of Bengal

### Antiquity

[edit]

See also: Vanga Kingdom, Gauda Kingdom, Samatata, Pala Empire, and Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah

Pottery with processional scenes from the Chandraketugarh region of West Bengal, India, c. 100 BC. Goddess Durga, Pala period, 10th century. Coin featuring a horseman issued by the Delhi Sultanate celebrating the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti Coinage of Vanga Kingdom, 400–300 BCE Atisa of Bikrampur

Neolithic sites have been found in several parts of the region.[24] In the second millennium BCE, rice-cultivating communities dotted the region. By the eleventh century BCE, people in Bengal lived in systematically aligned homes, produced copper objects, and crafted black and red pottery. Remnants of Copper Age settlements are located in the region.[25] At the advent of the Iron Age, people in Bengal adopted iron-based weapons, tools and irrigation equipment.[26] From 600 BCE, the second wave of urbanisation engulfed the north Indian subcontinent as part of the Northern Black Polished Ware culture. Ancient archaeological sites and cities in Dihar, Pandu Rajar Dhibi, Mahasthangarh, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar emerged. The Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers were natural arteries for communication and transportation.[27] Estuaries on the Bay of Bengal allowed for maritime trade with distant lands in Southeast Asia and elsewhere.[27]

The ancient geopolitical divisions of Bengal included Varendra, Suhma, Anga, Vanga, Samatata and Harikela. These regions were often independent or under the rule of larger empires. The Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription indicates that Bengal was ruled by the Mauryan Empire in the 3rd century BCE.[28] The inscription was an administrative order instructing relief for a distressed segment of the population.[28] Punch-marked coins found in the region indicate that coins were used as currency during the Iron Age.[29][30] The namesake of Bengal is the ancient Vanga Kingdom which was reputed as a naval power with overseas colonies. A prince from Bengal named Vijaya founded the first kingdom in Sri Lanka. The two most prominent pan-Indian empires of this period included the Mauryans and the Gupta Empire. The region was a centre of artistic, political, social, spiritual and scientific thinking, including the invention of chess, Indian numerals, and the concept of zero.[31]

The region was known to the ancient Greeks and Romans as Gangaridai.[32] The Greek ambassador Megasthenes chronicled its military strength and dominance of the Ganges delta. The invasion army of Alexander the Great was deterred by the accounts of Gangaridai's power in 325 BCE, including a cavalry of war elephants. Later Roman accounts noted maritime trade routes with Bengal. 1st century Roman coins with images of Hercules were found in the region and point to trade links with Roman Egypt through the Red Sea.[33] The Wari-Bateshwar ruins are believed to be the emporium (trading centre) of Sounagoura mentioned by Roman geographer Claudius Ptolemy.[34][35] A Roman amphora was found in Purba Medinipur district of West Bengal which was made in Aelana (present-day Aqaba, Jordan) between the 4th and 7th centuries AD.[36]

Buddhist palm leaf manuscript, 10th century CE.

The first unified Bengali polity can be traced to the reign of Shashanka. The origins of the Bengali calendar can be traced to his reign. Shashanka founded the Gauda Kingdom. After Shashanka's death, Bengal experienced a period of civil war known as Matsyanyayam.[37] The ancient city of Gauda later gave birth to the Pala Empire. The first Pala emperor Gopala I was chosen by an assembly of chieftains in Gauda. The Pala kingdom grew into one of the largest empires in the Indian subcontinent. The Pala period saw advances in linguistics, sculpture, painting, and education. The empire achieved its greatest territorial extent under Dharmapala and Devapala. The Palas vied for control of Kannauj with the rival Gurjara-Pratihara and Rashtrakuta dynasties. Pala influence also extended to Tibet and Sumatra due to the travels and preachings of Atisa. The university of Nalanda was established by the Palas. They also built the Somapura Mahavihara, which was the largest monastic institution in the subcontinent. The rule of the Palas eventually disintegrated. The Chandra dynasty ruled southeastern Bengal and Arakan. The Varman dynasty ruled parts of northeastern Bengal and Assam. The Sena dynasty emerged as the main successor of the Palas by the 11th century. The Senas were a resurgent Hindu dynasty which ruled much of Bengal. The smaller Deva dynasty also ruled parts of the region. Ancient Chinese visitors like Xuanzang provided elaborate accounts of Bengal's cities and monastic institutions.[38]

Muslim trade with Bengal flourished after the fall of the Sasanian Empire and the Arab takeover of Persian trade routes. Much of this trade occurred with southeastern Bengal in areas east of the Meghna River. Bengal was probably used as a transit route to China by the earliest Muslims. Abbasid coins have been discovered in the archaeological ruins of Paharpur and Mainamati.[39] A collection of Sasanian, Umayyad and Abbasid coins are preserved in the Bangladesh National Museum.[40]

### Sultanate period

[edit]

See also: Bengal Sultanate

Chinese manuscript showing an African giraffe gifted to China by the Sultan of Bengal in 1414

In 1204, the Ghurid general Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji began the Islamic conquest of Bengal.[41] The fall of Lakhnauti was recounted by historians circa 1243. Lakhnauti was the capital of the Sena dynasty. According to historical accounts, Ghurid cavalry swept across the Gangetic plains towards Bengal. They entered the Bengali capital disguised as horse traders. Once inside the royal compound, Bakhtiyar and his horsemen swiftly overpowered the guards of the Sena king who had just sat down to eat a meal. The king then hastily fled to the forest with his followers.[42] The overthrow of the Sena king has been described as a coup d'état, which "inaugurated an era, lasting over five centuries, during which most of Bengal was dominated by rulers professing the Islamic faith. In itself this was not exceptional, since from about this time until the eighteenth century, Muslim sovereigns ruled over most of the Indian subcontinent. What was exceptional, however, was that among India's interior provinces only in Bengal—a region approximately the size of England and Scotland combined—did a majority of the indigenous population adopt the religion of the ruling class, Islam".[42] Bengal became a province of the Delhi Sultanate. A coin featuring a horseman was issued to celebrate the Muslim conquest of Lakhnauti with inscriptions in Sanskrit and Arabic. An abortive Islamic invasion of Tibet was also mounted by Bakhtiyar. Bengal was under the formal rule of the Delhi Sultanate for approximately 150 years. Delhi struggled to consolidate control over Bengal. Rebel governors often sought to assert autonomy or independence. Sultan Iltutmish re-established control over Bengal in 1225 after suppressing the rebels. Due to the considerable overland distance, Delhi's authority in Bengal was relatively weak. It was left to local governors to expand territory and bring new areas under Muslim rule, such as through the Conquest of Sylhet in 1303.

In 1338, new rebellions sprung up in Bengal's three main towns. Governors in Lakhnauti, Satgaon and Sonargaon declared independence from Delhi. This allowed the ruler of Sonargaon, Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, to annexe Chittagong to the Islamic administration. By 1352, the ruler of Satgaon, Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, unified the region into an independent state. Ilyas Shah established his capital in Pandua.[43] The new breakaway state emerged as the Bengal Sultanate, which developed into a territorial, mercantile and maritime empire. At the time, the Islamic world stretched from Muslim Spain in the west to Bengal in the east.

The initial raids of Ilyas Shah saw the first Muslim army enter Nepal and stretched from Varanasi in the west to Orissa in the south to Assam in the east.[44] The Delhi army continued to fend off the new Bengali army. The Bengal-Delhi War ended in 1359 when Delhi recognised the independence of Bengal. Ilyas Shah's son Sikandar Shah defeated Delhi Sultan Firuz Shah Tughluq during the Siege of Ekdala Fort. A subsequent peace treaty recognised Bengal's independence and Sikandar Shah was gifted a golden crown by the Sultan of Delhi.[45] The ruler of Arakan sought refuge in Bengal during the reign of Ghiyasuddin Azam Shah. Jalaluddin Muhammad Shah later helped the Arakanese king to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state of the Bengal Sultanate. Bengali influence in Arakan persisted for 300 years.[46] Bengal also helped the king of Tripura to regain control of his throne in exchange for becoming a tributary state. The ruler of the Jaunpur Sultanate also sought refuge in Bengal.[47] The vassal states of Bengal included Arakan, Tripura, Chandradwip and Pratapgarh. At its peak, the Bengal Sultanate's territory included parts of Arakan, Assam, Bihar, Orissa, and Tripura.[7] The Bengal Sultanate experienced its greatest military success under Alauddin Hussain Shah, who was proclaimed as the conqueror of Assam after his forces led by Shah Ismail Ghazi overthrew the Khen dynasty and annexed large parts of Assam. In maritime trade, the Bengal Sultanate benefited from Indian Ocean trade networks and emerged as a hub of re-exports. A giraffe was brought by African envoys from Malindi to Bengal's court and was later gifted to Imperial China. Ship-owing merchants acted as envoys of the Sultan while travelling to different regions in Asia and Africa. Many rich Bengali merchants lived in Malacca.[48] Bengali ships transported embassies from Brunei, Aceh and Malacca to China. Bengal and the Maldives had a vast trade in shell currency.[49] The Sultan of Bengal donated funds to build schools in the Hejaz region of Arabia.[50]

The five dynastic periods of the Bengal Sultanate spanned from the Ilyas Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Bengali converts, to the Hussain Shahi dynasty, to a period of rule by Abyssinian usurpers; an interruption by the Suri dynasty; and ended with the Karrani dynasty. The Battle of Raj Mahal and the capture of Daud Khan Karrani marked the end of the Bengal Sultanate during the reign of Mughal Emperor Akbar. In the late 16th century, a confederation called the Baro-Bhuyan resisted Mughal invasions in eastern Bengal. The Baro-Bhuyan included twelve Muslim and Hindu leaders of the Zamindars of Bengal. They were led by Isa Khan, a former prime minister of the Bengal Sultanate. By the 17th century, the Mughals were able to fully absorb the region to their empire.

### Mughal period

[edit]

See also: Bengal Subah

Mughal painting showing Emperor Akbar offering prayers after the conquest of Bengal Art of Murshidabad. An ivory elephant tusk crafted into a model of the Royal Peacock Barge of the Nawab of Bengal

Mughal Bengal had the richest elite and was the wealthiest region in the subcontinent. Bengal's trade and wealth impressed the Mughals so much that it was described as the Paradise of the Nations by the Mughal Emperors.[51] A new provincial capital was built in Dhaka. Members of the imperial family were appointed to positions in Mughal Bengal, including the position of governor (subedar). Dhaka became a centre of palace intrigue and politics. Some of the most prominent governors included Rajput general Man Singh I, Emperor Shah Jahan's son Prince Shah Shuja, Emperor Aurangzeb's son and later Mughal emperor Azam Shah, and the influential aristocrat Shaista Khan. During the tenure of Shaista Khan, the Portuguese and Arakanese were expelled from the port of Chittagong in 1666. Bengal became the eastern frontier of the Mughal administration. By the 18th century, Bengal became home to a semi-independent aristocracy led by the Nawabs of Bengal.[52] Bengal premier Murshid Quli Khan managed to curtail the influence of the governor due to his rivalry with Prince Azam Shah. Khan controlled Bengal's finances since he was in charge of the treasury. He shifted the provincial capital from Dhaka to Murshidabad.

In 1717, the Mughal court in Delhi recognised the hereditary monarchy of the Nawab of Bengal. The ruler was officially titled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa", as the Nawab ruled over the three regions in the eastern subcontinent. The Nawabs began issuing their own coins but continued to pledge nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor. The wealth of Bengal was vital for the Mughal court because Delhi received its biggest share of revenue from the Nawab's court. The Nawabs presided over a period of unprecedented economic growth and prosperity, including an era of growing organisation in textiles, banking, a military-industrial complex, the production of fine quality handicrafts, and other trades. A process of proto-industrialisation was underway. Under the Nawabs, the streets of Bengali cities were filled with brokers, workers, peons, naibs, wakils, and ordinary traders.[53] The Nawab's state was a major exporter of Bengal muslin, silk, gunpowder and saltpetre. The Nawabs also permitted European trading companies to operate in Bengal, including the British East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company, the Austrian East India Company, the Ostend Company, and the Dutch East India Company. The Nawabs were also suspicious of the growing influence of these companies.

Bengali manuscript painting, 17th century.

Under Mughal rule, Bengal was a centre of the worldwide muslin and silk trades. During the Mughal era, the most important centre of cotton production was Bengal, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka, leading to muslin being called "daka" in distant markets such as Central Asia.[54] Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks.[55] From Bengal, saltpetre was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan,[56] cotton cloth was exported to the Americas and the Indian Ocean.[57] Bengal also had a large shipbuilding industry. In terms of shipbuilding tonnage during the 16th–18th centuries, economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates the annual output of Bengal at 223,250 tons, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771.[58]

Since the 16th century, European traders traversed the sea routes to Bengal, following the Portuguese conquests of Malacca and Goa. The Portuguese established a settlement in Chittagong with permission from the Bengal Sultanate in 1528 but were later expelled by the Mughals in 1666. In the 18th century, the Mughal Court rapidly disintegrated due to Nader Shah's invasion and internal rebellions, allowing European colonial powers to set up trading posts across the territory. The British East India Company eventually emerged as the foremost military power in the region; and defeated the last independent Nawab of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey in 1757.[52]

### Colonial era (1757–1947)

[edit]

Main article: Bengal Presidency

Victoria Memorial in Calcutta The Battle of Plassey in 1757 ushered British rule

The British East India Company began influencing and controlling the Nawab of Bengal from 1757 after the Battle of Plassey, thus signalling the start of British influence in India. British control of Bengal increased between 1757 and 1793 while the Nawab was reduced to a puppet figure.[59] with the Presidency of Fort William asserting greater control over the entire province of Bengal and neighbouring territories. Calcutta was named the capital of British territories in India in 1772. The presidency was run by a military-civil administration, including the Bengal Army, and had the world's sixth earliest railway network. Between 1833 and 1854, the Governor of Bengal was concurrently the Governor-General of India for many years. Great Bengal famines struck several times during colonial rule (notably the Great Bengal famine of 1770 and Bengal famine of 1943).[60][61] Under British rule, Bengal experienced the deindustrialisation of its pre-colonial economy.[62]

Company policies led to the deindustrialisation of Bengal's textile industry.[63] The capital amassed by the East India Company in Bengal was invested in the emerging Industrial Revolution in Great Britain, in industries such as textile manufacturing.[62][64] Economic mismanagement, alongside drought and a smallpox epidemic, directly led to the Great Bengal famine of 1770, which is estimated to have caused the deaths of between 1 million and 10 million people.[65][66][67][68]

In 1862, the Bengal Legislative Council was set up as the first modern legislature in India. Elected representation was gradually introduced during the early 20th century, including with the Morley-Minto reforms and the system of dyarchy. In 1937, the council became the upper chamber of the Bengali legislature while the Bengal Legislative Assembly was created. Between 1937 and 1947, the chief executive of the government was the Prime Minister of Bengal.

The Bengal Presidency was the largest administrative unit in the British Empire. At its height, it covered large parts of present-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Malaysia, and Singapore. In 1830, the British Straits Settlements on the coast of the Malacca Straits was made a residency of Bengal. The area included the erstwhile Prince of Wales Island, Province Wellesley, Malacca and Singapore.[69] In 1867, Penang, Singapore and Malacca were separated from Bengal into the Straits Settlements.[69] British Burma became a province of India and a later a Crown colony in itself. Western areas, including the Ceded and Conquered Provinces and The Punjab, were further reorganised. Northeastern areas became Colonial Assam.

Bengal roofs seen on Mughal architecture, c. 1600s

In 1876, about 200,000 people were killed in Bengal by the Great Backerganj Cyclone of 1876 in the Barisal region.[70] About 50 million were killed in Bengal due to massive plague outbreaks and famines which happened in 1895 to 1920, mostly in western Bengal.[71]

Wedding at night, Murshidabad, Bengal, 1810 The Ganges-Brahmaputra delta

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was initiated on the outskirts of Calcutta, and spread to Dhaka, Chittagong, Jalpaiguri, Sylhet and Agartala, in solidarity with revolts in North India. The failure of the rebellion led to the abolition of the Company Rule in India and establishment of direct rule over India by the British, commonly referred to as the British Raj. The late 19th and early 20th century Bengal Renaissance had a great impact on the cultural and economic life of Bengal and started a great advance in the literature and science of Bengal. Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two: Bengal proper and the short-lived province of Eastern Bengal and Assam where the All India Muslim League was founded.[72] In 1911, the Bengali poet and polymath Rabindranath Tagore became Asia's first Nobel laureate when he won the Nobel Prize in Literature.

Bengal played a major role in the Indian independence movement, in which revolutionary groups were dominant. Armed attempts to overthrow the British Raj began with the rebellion of Titumir, and reached a climax when Subhas Chandra Bose led the Indian National Army against the British. Bengal was also central in the rising political awareness of the Muslim population—the All-India Muslim League was established in Dhaka in 1906. The Muslim homeland movement pushed for a sovereign state in eastern India with the Lahore Resolution in 1943. Hindu nationalism was also strong in Bengal, which was home to groups like the Hindu Mahasabha. In spite of a last-ditch effort by politicians Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy, Sarat Chandra Bose to form a United Bengal,[73] when India gained independence in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines.[74] The western joined India (and was named West Bengal) while the eastern part joined Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan, giving rise to Bangladesh in 1971). The circumstances of partition were bloody, with widespread religious riots in Bengal.[74][75]

### Partition of Bengal (1947)

[edit]

See also: United Bengal, History of Bangladesh, and History of West Bengal

Main article: Partition of Bengal (1947)

On 27 April 1947, the last Prime Minister of Bengal Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy held a press conference in New Delhi where he outlined his vision for an independent Bengal. Suhrawardy said "Let us pause for a moment to consider what Bengal can be if it remains united. It will be a great country, indeed the richest and the most prosperous in India capable of giving to its people a high standard of living, where a great people will be able to rise to the fullest height of their stature, a land that will truly be plentiful. It will be rich in agriculture, rich in industry and commerce and in course of time it will be one of the powerful and progressive states of the world. If Bengal remains united this will be no dream, no fantasy".[76] On 2 June 1947, British Prime Minister Clement Attlee told the US Ambassador to the United Kingdom that there was a "distinct possibility Bengal might decide against partition and against joining either Hindustan or Pakistan".[77]

On 3 June 1947, the Mountbatten Plan outlined the partition of British India. On 20 June, the Bengal Legislative Assembly met to decide on the partition of Bengal. At the preliminary joint meeting, it was decided (126 votes to 90) that if the province remained united, it should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan. At a separate meeting of legislators from West Bengal, it was decided (58 votes to 21) that the province should be partitioned and West Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of India. At another meeting of legislators from East Bengal, it was decided (106 votes to 35) that the province should not be partitioned and (107 votes to 34) that East Bengal should join the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan if Bengal was partitioned.[78] On 6 July, the Sylhet district of Assam voted in a referendum to join East Bengal.

The English barrister Cyril Radcliffe was instructed to draw the borders of Pakistan and India. The Radcliffe Line created the boundary between the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan, which later became the Bangladesh-India border. The Radcliffe Line awarded two-thirds of Bengal as the eastern wing of Pakistan, although the historic Bengali capitals of Gaur, Pandua, Murshidabad and Calcutta fell on the Indian side close to the border with Pakistan. Dhaka's status as a capital was also restored.

## Geography

[edit]

Main articles: Geography of Bangladesh and Geography of West Bengal

Most of the Bengal region lies in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, but there are highlands in its north, northeast and southeast. The Ganges Delta arises from the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers and their respective tributaries. The total area of Bengal is 237,212 square kilometres (91,588 sq mi)—West Bengal is 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi) and Bangladesh 148,460 km2 (57,321 sq mi).

The flat and fertile Bangladesh Plain dominates the geography of Bangladesh. The Chittagong Hill Tracts and Sylhet region are home to most of the mountains in Bangladesh. Most parts of Bangladesh are within 10 metres (33 feet) above the sea level, and it is believed that about 10% of the land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 metre (3.3 feet).[79] Because of this low elevation, much of this region is exceptionally vulnerable to seasonal flooding due to monsoons. The highest point in Bangladesh is in Mowdok range at 1,052 metres (3,451 feet).[80] A major part of the coastline comprises a marshy jungle, the Sundarbans, the largest mangrove forest in the world and home to diverse flora and fauna, including the royal Bengal tiger. In 1997, this region was declared endangered.[81]

West Bengal is on the eastern bottleneck of India, stretching from the Himalayas in the north to the Bay of Bengal in the south. The state has a total area of 88,752 km2 (34,267 sq mi).[82] The Darjeeling Himalayan hill region in the northern extreme of the state belongs to the eastern Himalaya. This region contains Sandakfu (3,636 m (11,929 ft))—the highest peak of the state.[83] The narrow Terai region separates this region from the plains, which in turn transitions into the Ganges delta towards the south. The Rarh region intervenes between the Ganges delta in the east and the western plateau and high lands. A small coastal region is on the extreme south, while the Sundarbans mangrove forests form a remarkable geographical landmark at the Ganges delta.

At least nine districts in West Bengal and 42 districts in Bangladesh have arsenic levels in groundwater above the World Health Organization maximum permissible limit of 50 μg/L or 50 parts per billion and the untreated water is unfit for human consumption.[84] The water causes arsenicosis, skin cancer and various other complications in the body.

### Geographic distinctions

[edit]

Kangchenjunga, the third highest mountain in the world, seen from a tea garden in Bangladesh. Kangchenjunga is often visible from the plains of Tetulia in the northernmost tip of Bangladesh.

#### North Bengal

[edit]

North Bengal is a term used for the north-western part of Bangladesh and northern part of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part comprises Rajshahi Division and Rangpur Division. Generally, it is the area lying west of Jamuna River and north of Padma River, and includes the Barind Tract. Politically, West Bengal's part comprises Jalpaiguri Division and most of Malda division (except Murshidabad district) together and Bihar's parts include Kishanganj district. Darjeeling Hilly are also part of North Bengal. The people of Jaipaiguri, Alipurduar and Cooch Behar usually identify themselves as North Bengali. North Bengal is divided into Terai and Dooars regions. North Bengal is also noted for its rich cultural heritage, including two UNESCO World Heritage Sites. Aside from the Bengali majority, North Bengal is home to many other communities including Nepalis, Santhal people, Lepchas and Rajbongshis.

#### Northeast Bengal

[edit]

Tanguar Haor in Sunamganj District, Bangladesh. Haor are a common sight in the Northeast of Bengal.

Northeast Bengal[85] refers to the Sylhet region, which today comprises the Sylhet Division of Bangladesh and Karimganj district in the Indian state of Assam. The region is famous for its fertile land terrain, many rivers, extensive tea plantations, rainforests and wetlands. The Brahmaputra and Barak river are the geographic markers of the area. The city of Sylhet is its largest urban centre, and the region is known for its unique regional Sylheti language. The ancient name of the region is Srihatta and Nasratshahi.[86] The region was ruled by the Kamarupa and Harikela kingdoms as well as the Bengal Sultanate. It later became a district of the Mughal Empire. Alongside the predominant Bengali population resides a small Garo, Bishnupriya Manipuri, Khasia and other tribal minorities.[86]

The region is the crossroads of Bengal and northeast India.

Central Bengal, one of the most urban and developed regions in Bengal

#### Central Bengal

[edit]

Central Bengal refers to the Dhaka Division of Bangladesh. It includes the elevated Madhupur tract with a large Sal tree forest. The Padma River cuts through the southern part of the region, separating the greater Faridpur region. In the north lies the greater Mymensingh and Tangail regions.

#### South Bengal

[edit]

Main article: South Bengal

Cox's Bazar has the longest uninterrupted sea beach in the world

South Bengal covers the southwestern Bangladesh and the southern part of the Indian state of West Bengal. The Bangladeshi part includes Khulna Division, Barisal Division and the proposed Faridpur Division[87] The part of South Bengal of West Bengal includes Presidency division, Burdwan division and Medinipur division.[88][89][90]

The Sundarbans, a major biodiversity hotspot, is located in South Bengal. Bangladesh hosts 60% of the forest, with the remainder in India.

#### Southeast Bengal

[edit]

Main article: Greater Chittagong

Sunset at Potenga Beach, Chittagong, Bangladesh

Southeast Bengal[91][92][93] refers to the hilly-coastal Chittagonian-speaking and coastal Bengali-speaking areas of Chittagong Division in southeastern Bangladesh. The region is noted for its thalassocratic and seafaring heritage. The area was dominated by the Bengali Harikela and Samatata kingdoms in antiquity. It was known to Arab traders as Samandar in the 9th century.[94] During the medieval period, the region was ruled by the Chandra dynasty, the sultanate of Bengal, the kingdom of Tripura, the kingdom of Mrauk U, the Portuguese Empire and the Mughal Empire, prior to the advent of British rule. The Chittagonian language, a sister of Bengali is prevalent in coastal areas of southeast Bengal. Along with its Bengali population, it is also home to Tibeto-Burman ethnic groups, including the Chakma, Marma, Tanchangya and Bawm peoples.

Southeast Bengal is considered a bridge to Southeast Asia and the northern parts of Arakan are also historically considered to be a part of it.[95]

### Places of interest

[edit]

There are four World Heritage Sites in the region, including the Sundarbans, the Somapura Mahavihara, the Mosque City of Bagerhat and the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Other prominent places include the Bishnupur, Bankura temple city, the Adina Mosque, the Caravanserai Mosque, numerous zamindar palaces (like Ahsan Manzil and Cooch Behar Palace), the Lalbagh Fort, the Great Caravanserai ruins, the Shaista Khan Caravanserai ruins, the Kolkata Victoria Memorial, the Dhaka Parliament Building, archaeologically excavated ancient fort cities in Mahasthangarh, Mainamati, Chandraketugarh and Wari-Bateshwar, the Jaldapara National Park, the Lawachara National Park, the Teknaf Game Reserve and the Chittagong Hill Tracts.

Cox's Bazar in southeastern Bangladesh is home to the longest natural sea beach in the world with an unbroken length of 120 km (75 mi). It is also a growing surfing destination.[96] St. Martin's Island, off the coast of Chittagong Division, is home to the sole coral reef in Bengal.

### Other regions

[edit]

Today, Standard Bengali is still spoken in areas beside Bengal proper, including the Barak Valley, Tripura and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Bengal was a regional power of the Indian subcontinent. The administrative jurisdiction of Bengal historically extended beyond the territory of Bengal proper. In the 9th century, the Pala Empire of Bengal ruled large parts of northern India. The Bengal Sultanate controlled Bengal, Assam, Arakan, Bihar and Orissa at different periods in history. In Mughal Bengal, the Nawab of Bengal had a jurisdiction covering Bengal, Bihar and Orissa. Bengal's administrative jurisdiction reached its greatest extent under the British Empire, when the Bengal Presidency extended from the Straits of Malacca in the east to the Khyber Pass in the west. In the late-19th and early-20th centuries, administrative reorganisation drastically reduced the territory of Bengal.

Several regions bordering Bengal proper continue to have high levels of Bengali influence. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali majority population. Bengali influence is also prevalent in the Indian regions of Assam, Meghalaya, Bihar and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands; as well as in Myanmar's Rakhine State.

#### Arakan

[edit]

Bengal and Arakan in 1638.

Arakan (now Rakhine State, Myanmar) has historically been under strong Bengali influence. Since antiquity, Bengal has influenced the culture of Arakan. The ancient Bengali script was used in Arakan.[97] An Arakanese inscription recorded the reign of the Bengali Candra dynasty. Paul Wheatley described the "Indianization" of Arakan.[98]

According to Pamela Gutman, "Arakan was ruled by kings who adopted Indian titles and traditions to suit their own environment. Indian Brahmins conducted royal ceremonies, Buddhist monks spread their teachings, traders came and went and artists and architects used Indian models for inspiration. In the later period, there was also influence from the Islamic courts of Bengal and Delhi".[99] Arakan emerged as a vassal state of the Bengal Sultanate.[100] It later became an independent kingdom. The royal court and culture of the Kingdom of Mrauk U was heavily influenced by Bengal. Bengali Muslims served in the royal court as ministers and military commanders.[100] Bengali Hindus and Bengali Buddhists served as priests. Some of the most important poets of medieval Bengali literature lived in Arakan, including Alaol and Daulat Qazi.[101] In 1660, Prince Shah Shuja, the governor of Mughal Bengal and a pretender of the Peacock Throne of India, was forced to seek asylum in Arakan.[102][103] Bengali influence in the Arakanese royal court persisted until Burmese annexation in the 18th century.

The modern-day Rohingya population is a legacy of Bengal's influence on Arakan.[104][101] The Rohingya genocide resulted in the displacement of over a million people between 2016 and 2017, with many being uprooted from their homes in Rakhine State.

#### Assam

[edit]

Region of the Bengali-Assamese languages.

The Indian state of Assam shares many cultural similarities with Bengal. The Assamese language uses the same script as the Bengali language. The Barak Valley has a Bengali-speaking majority population. During the Partition of India, Assam was also partitioned along with Bengal. The Sylhet Division joined East Bengal in Pakistan, with the exception of Karimganj which joined Indian Assam. Previously, East Bengal and Assam were part of a single province called Eastern Bengal and Assam between 1905 and 1912 under the British Raj.[105]

Assam and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms, including Kamarupa, Gauda and Kamata. Large parts of Assam were annexed by Alauddin Hussain Shah during the Bengal Sultanate.[106] Assam was one of the few regions in the subcontinent to successfully resist Mughal expansion and never fell completely under Mughal rule.

#### Andaman and Nicobar Islands

[edit]

Bengali is the most spoken language among the population of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a strategically important archipelago which is controlled by India as a federal territory. The islands were once used as a British penal colony. During World War II, the islands were seized by the Japanese and controlled by the Provisional Government of Free India. Anti-British leader Subhash Chandra Bose visited and renamed the islands. Between 1949 and 1971, the Indian government resettled many Bengali Hindus in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[107]

#### Bihar

[edit]

Bengal in 1880, including Bihar, Orissa and Assam.

In antiquity, Bihar and Bengal were often part of the same kingdoms. The ancient region of Magadha covered both Bihar and Bengal. Magadha was the birthplace or bastion of several pan-Indian empires, including the Mauryan Empire, the Gupta Empire and the Pala Empire. Bengal, Bihar and Orissa together formed a single province under the Mughal Empire. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.[108]

#### Chittagong Hill Tracts

[edit]

The Chittagong Hill Tracts is the southeastern frontier of Bangladesh. Its indigenous population includes Tibeto-Burman ethnicities, including the Chakma people, Bawm people and Mro people among others. The region was historically ruled by tribal chieftains of the Chakma Circle and Bohmong Circle. In 1713, the Chakma Raja signed a treaty with Mughal Bengal after obtaining permission from Emperor Farrukhsiyar for trade with the plains of Chittagong.[109][110] Like the kings of Arakan, the Chakma Circle began to fashion themselves using Mughal nomenclatures and titles. They initially resisted the Permanent Settlement and the activities of the East India Company.[110] The tribal royal families of the region came under heavy Bengali influence. The Chakma queen Benita Roy was a friend of Rabindranath Tagore. The region was governed by the Chittagong Hill Tracts manual under colonial rule. The manual was significantly amended after the end of British rule; and the region became fully integrated with Bangladesh.[111]

#### Malay Archipelago

[edit]

Extent of the Bengal Presidency between 1858 and 1867, including the Straits Settlements

Through trade, settlements and the exchange of ideas; parts of Maritime Southeast Asia became linked with Bengal.[112][113] Language, literature, art, governing systems, religions and philosophies in ancient Sumatra and Java were influenced by Bengal. Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms in Southeast Asia depended on the Bay of Bengal for trade and ideas. Islam in Southeast Asia also spread through the Bay of Bengal, which was a bridge between the Malay Archipelago and Indo-Islamic states of the Indian subcontinent.[114][115] A large number of wealthy merchants from Bengal were based in Malacca.[48] Bengali ships were the largest ships in the waters of the Malay Archipelago during the 15th century.[116]

Between 1830 and 1867, the ports of Singapore and Malacca, the island of Penang, and a portion of the Malay Peninsula were ruled under the jurisdiction of the Bengal Presidency of the British Empire.[117] These areas were known as the Straits Settlements, which was separated from the Bengal Presidency and converted into a Crown colony in 1867.[118]: 980

#### Meghalaya

[edit]

The Indian state of Meghalaya historically came under the influence of Shah Jalal, a Muslim missionary and conqueror from Sylhet. During British rule, the city of Shillong was the summer capital of Eastern Bengal and Assam (modern Bangladesh and Northeast India). Shillong boasted the highest per capita income in British India.[9]

#### North India

[edit]

A sepoy of the Bengal Army, which played a key role in the expansion of the Bengal Presidency into the northern reaches of India up to the Khyber Pass.

The ancient Mauryan, Gupta and Pala empires of the Magadha region (Bihar and Bengal) extended into northern India. The westernmost border of the Bengal Sultanate extended towards Varanasi and Jaunpur.[119][47] In the 19th century, Punjab and the Ceded and Conquered Provinces formed the western extent of the Bengal Presidency. According to the British historian Rosie Llewellyn-Jones, "The Bengal Presidency, an administrative division introduced by the East India Company, would later include not only the whole of northern India up to the Khyber Pass on the north-west frontier with Afghanistan, but would spread eastwards to Burma and Singapore as well".[120]

#### Odisha

[edit]

Odisha, previously known as Orissa, has a significant Bengali minority. Historically, the region has faced invasions from Bengal, including an invasion by Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah.[121] Parts of the region were ruled by the Bengal Sultanate and Mughal Bengal. The Nawab of Bengal was styled as the "Nawab of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa" because the Nawab was granted jurisdiction over Orissa by the Mughal Emperor.[108]

#### Tibet

[edit]

During the Pala dynasty, Tibet received missionaries from Bengal who influenced the emergence of Tibetan Buddhism.[122][123] One of the most notable missionaries was Atisa. During the 13th century, Tibet experienced an Islamic invasion by the forces of Bakhtiyar Khalji, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal.[124]

#### Tripura

[edit]

The princely state of Tripura was ruled by the Manikya dynasty until the 1949 Tripura Merger Agreement. Tripura was historically a vassal state of Bengal. After assuming the throne with military support from the Bengal Sultanate in 1464, Ratna Manikya I introduced administrative reforms inspired by the government of Bengal. The Tripura kings requested Sultan Barbak Shah to provide manpower for developing the administration of Tripura. As a result, Bengali Hindu bureaucrats, cultivators and artisans began settling in Tripura.[125] Today, the Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-majority population. Modern Tripura is a gateway for trade and transport links between Bangladesh and Northeast India.[126][127] In Bengali culture, the celebrated singer S. D. Burman was a member of the Tripura royal family.

### Flora and fauna

[edit]

The Bengal tiger

The flat Bengal Plain, which covers most of Bangladesh and West Bengal, is one of the most fertile areas on Earth, with lush vegetation and farmland dominating its landscape. Bengali villages are buried among groves of mango, jackfruit, betel nut and date palm. Rice, jute, mustard and sugarcane plantations are a common sight. Water bodies and wetlands provide a habitat for many aquatic plants in the Ganges-Brahmaputra delta. The northern part of the region features Himalayan foothills (Dooars) with densely wooded Sal and other tropical evergreen trees.[128][129] Above an elevation of 1,000 metres (3,300 ft), the forest becomes predominantly subtropical, with a predominance of temperate-forest trees such as oaks, conifers and rhododendrons. Sal woodland is also found across central Bangladesh, particularly in the Bhawal National Park. The Lawachara National Park is a rainforest in northeastern Bangladesh.[130] The Chittagong Hill Tracts in southeastern Bangladesh is noted for its high degree of biodiversity.[131]

The littoral Sundarbans in the southwestern part of Bengal is the largest mangrove forest in the world and a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[132] The region has over 89 species of mammals, 628 species of birds and numerous species of fish.[133] For Bangladesh, the water lily, the oriental magpie-robin, the hilsa and mango tree are national symbols. For West Bengal, the white-throated kingfisher, the chatim tree and the night-flowering jasmine are state symbols. The Bengal tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh and India. The fishing cat is the state animal of West Bengal.

## Politics

[edit]

Today, the region of Bengal proper is divided between the sovereign state of the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal.[134] The Bengali-speaking Barak Valley forms part of the Indian state of Assam. The Indian state of Tripura has a Bengali-speaking majority and was formerly the princely state of Hill Tipperah. In the Bay of Bengal, St. Martin's Island is governed by Bangladesh; while the Andaman and Nicobar Islands has a plurality of Bengali speakers and is governed by India's federal government as a union territory.

### Bangladeshi Republic

[edit]

Main article: Politics of Bangladesh

Bangabhaban (the House of Bengal) is the presidential palace of Bangladesh

The state of Bangladesh is a parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system, with a written constitution and a President elected by parliament for mostly ceremonial purposes. The government is headed by a Prime Minister, who is appointed by the President from among the popularly elected 300 Members of Parliament in the Jatiyo Sangshad, the national parliament. The Prime Minister is traditionally the leader of the single largest party in the Jatiyo Sangshad. Under the constitution, while recognising Islam as the country's established religion, the constitution grants freedom of religion to non-Muslims.

Between 1975 and 1990, Bangladesh had a presidential system of government. Since the 1990s, it was administered by non-political technocratic caretaker governments on four occasions, the last being under military-backed emergency rule in 2007 and 2008. The Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) were the two most dominant political parties in Bangladesh until the  July Revolution of 2024, which led to the ousting of Sheikh Hasina following mass protests and a nationwide uprising. In the aftermath, a non-partisan  interim government was formed under Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus to restore democratic governance and oversee institutional reforms. Much like the technocratic caretaker governments between 1990 and 2008, this interim administration pledged neutrality and began preparations for constitutional changes and future elections.

Bangladesh is a member of the UN, WTO, IMF, the World Bank, ADB, OIC, IDB, SAARC, BIMSTEC and the IMCTC. Bangladesh has achieved significant strides in human development compared to its neighbours.

### Indian Bengal

[edit]

Main article: Politics of West Bengal

Writers' Building, the official seat of the Government of West Bengal Raj Bhavan the official residence of the Governor of West Bengal, India

West Bengal is a constituent state of the Republic of India, with local executives and assemblies\- features shared with other states in the Indian federal system. The president of India appoints a governor as the ceremonial representative of the union government. The governor appoints the chief minister on the nomination of the legislative assembly. The chief minister is the traditionally the leader of the party or coalition with most seats in the assembly. President's rule is often imposed in Indian states as a direct intervention of the union government led by the prime minister of India. The Bengali-speaking zone of India carries 48 seats in the lower house of India, Lok Sabha.

Each state has popularly elected members in the Indian lower house of parliament, the Lok Sabha. Each state nominates members to the Indian upper house of parliament, the Rajya Sabha.

The state legislative assemblies also play a key role in electing the ceremonial president of India. The former president of India, Pranab Mukherjee, was a native of West Bengal and a leader of the Indian National Congress. The former leader of opposition of India, Adhir Ranjan Chowdhury is from West Bengal. He has been elected from Baharampur Lok Sabha constituency.

The major political forces in the Bengali-speaking zone of India are the Left Front and the Trinamool Congress, the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party. The Bengali-speaking zone of India is considered stronghold for Communism in India. Bengalis are known not to vote on communal lines but in recent years this conception has how changed.[135] The West Bengal based Trinamool Congress is now the third largest party of India in terms of number of MP or MLA after the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Indian National Congress. Earlier the Communist Party of India (Marxist) held this position.

### Crossborder relations

[edit]

Main articles: Bangladesh-India relations, Indians in Bangladesh, and Bangladeshis in India

A meeting between the naval commanders of India and Bangladesh

India and Bangladesh are the world's first and eighth most populous countries respectively. Bangladesh-India relations began on a high note in 1971 when India played a major role in the liberation of Bangladesh, with the Indian Bengali populace and media providing overwhelming support to the independence movement in the former East Pakistan. The two countries had a twenty five-year friendship treaty between 1972 and 1996. However, differences over river sharing, border security and access to trade have long plagued the relationship. In more recent years, a consensus has evolved in both countries on the importance of developing good relations, as well as a strategic partnership in South Asia and beyond. Commercial, cultural and defence co-operation have expanded since 2010, when Prime Ministers Sheikh Hasina and Manmohan Singh pledged to reinvigorate ties.

The Bangladesh High Commission in New Delhi operates a Deputy High Commission in Kolkata and a consular office in Agartala. India has a High Commission in Dhaka with consulates in Chittagong and Rajshahi. Frequent international air, bus and rail services connect major cities in Bangladesh and Indian Bengal, particularly the three largest cities- Dhaka, Kolkata and Chittagong. Undocumented immigration of Bangladeshi workers is a controversial issue championed by right-wing nationalist parties in India but finds little sympathy in West Bengal.[136] India has since fenced the border which has been criticised by Bangladesh.[137]

## Economy

[edit]

Main articles: Economy of Bangladesh and Economy of West Bengal

Downtown Dhaka Kolkata skyline consists of The 42, the tallest building in Bengal region, and the tallest building in India outside Mumbai.

The Ganges Delta provided advantages of fertile soil, ample water, and an abundance of fish, wildlife, and fruit.[138] Living standards for Bengal's elite were relatively better than other parts of the Indian subcontinent.[138] Between 400 and 1200, Bengal had a well-developed economy in terms of land ownership, agriculture, livestock, shipping, trade, commerce, taxation, and banking.[139] The apparent vibrancy of the Bengal economy in the beginning of the 15th century is attributed to the end of tribute payments to the Delhi Sultanate, which ceased after the creation of the Bengal Sultanate and stopped the outflow of wealth. Ma Huan's travelogue recorded a booming shipbuilding industry and significant international trade in Bengal.

In 1338, Ibn Battuta noticed that the silver taka was the most popular currency in the region instead of the Islamic dinar.[140] In 1415, members of Admiral Zheng He's entourage also noticed the dominance of the taka. The currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty for the Sultan of Bengal. The Sultanate of Bengal established an estimated 27 mints in provincial capitals across the kingdom.[141][142] These provincial capitals were known as Mint Towns.[143] These Mint Towns formed an integral aspect of governance and administration in Bengal.

The taka continued to be issued in Mughal Bengal, which inherited the sultanate's legacy. As Bengal became more prosperous and integrated into the world economy under Mughal rule, the taka replaced shell currency in rural areas and became the standardised legal tender. It was also used in commerce with the Dutch East India Company, the French East India Company, the Danish East India Company and the British East India Company. Under Mughal rule, Bengal was the centre of the worldwide muslin trade. The muslin trade in Bengal was patronised by the Mughal imperial court. Muslin from Bengal was worn by aristocratic ladies in courts as far away as Europe, Persia and Central Asia. The treasury of the Nawab of Bengal was the biggest source of revenue for the imperial Mughal court in Delhi. Bengal had a large shipbuilding industry. The shipbuilding output of Bengal during the 16th and 17th centuries stood at 223,250 tons annually, which was higher than the volume of shipbuilding in the nineteen colonies of North America between 1769 and 1771.[58]

Historically, Bengal has been the industrial leader of the subcontinent. Mughal Bengal saw the emergence of a proto-industrial economy backed up by textiles and gunpowder. The organised early modern economy flourished till the beginning of British rule in the mid 18th-century, when the region underwent radical and revolutionary changes in government, trade, and regulation. The British displaced the indigenous ruling class and transferred much of the region's wealth back to the colonial metropole in Britain. In the 19th century, the British began investing in railways and limited industrialisation. However, the Bengali economy was dominated by trade in raw materials during much of the colonial period, particularly the jute trade.[144]

The partition of India changed the economic geography of the region. Calcutta in West Bengal inherited a thriving industrial base from the colonial period, particularly in terms of jute processing. East Pakistan soon developed its industrial base, including the world's largest jute mill. In 1972, the newly independent government of Bangladesh nationalised 580 industrial plants. These industries were later privatised in the late 1970s as Bangladesh moved towards a market-oriented economy. Liberal reforms in 1991 paved the way for a major expansion of Bangladesh's private sector industry, including in telecoms, natural gas, textiles, pharmaceuticals, ceramics, steel and shipbuilding. In 2022, Bangladesh was the second largest economy in South Asia after India.[145][146]

The region is one of the largest rice producing areas in the world, with West Bengal being India's largest rice producer and Bangladesh being the world's fourth largest rice producer.[147] Three Bengali economists have been Nobel laureates, including Amartya Sen and Abhijit Banerjee who won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics and Muhammad Yunus who won the Nobel Peace Prize.

Bengal  | Real Economy (Nominal
GDP Per Capita) in 2023–2024)  | Nominal Economy
(Nominal GDP in 2023–2024)  | Population
(2021)

|
|
|

Bangladesh's Dhaka (Dhaka Municipal Corporation Area) | $5,000  | $70 Billion  | 1.4 crore
West Bengal's Kolkata District (Kolkata Municipal Corporation Area) | $4,400  | $20 Billion  | 45 lakh
Bangladesh (East Bengal)  | $2,700  | $460 Billion  | 17 crore
India's West Bengal | $2,400  | $240 Billion  | 10 crore

### Stock markets

[edit]

* Dhaka Stock Exchange
* Chittagong Stock Exchange
* Calcutta Stock Exchange

### Ports and harbours

[edit]

* Port of Chittagong
* Port of Kolkata
* Port of Mongla
* Port of Haldia
* Port of Payra
* Port of Pangaon
* Port of Farakka
* Port of Narayanganj
* Port of Ashuganj
* Port of Barisal
* Matarbari Port
* Land port of Benapole-Petrapole

### Chambers of commerce

[edit]

* Bengal Chamber of Commerce and Industry
* Bengal National Chamber of Commerce & Industry
* Federation of Bangladesh Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FBCCI)
* Chittagong Chamber of Commerce & Industry
* Dhaka Chamber of Commerce & Industry (DCCI)
* Metropolitan Chamber of Commerce and Industry (MCCI)

### Intra-Bengal trade

[edit]

Bangladesh and India are the largest trading partners in South Asia, with two-way trade valued at an estimated US$16 billion.[148] Most of this trade relationship is centred on some of the world's busiest land ports on the Bangladesh-India border. The Bangladesh Bhutan India Nepal Initiative seeks to boost trade through a Regional Motor Vehicles Agreement.[149]

## Demographics

[edit]

Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh, Demographics of West Bengal, and Languages of Bangladesh

Language in Bengal

1. Bengali (92.0%)
2. Others (8.00%)

The Bengal region is one of the most densely populated areas in the world. With a population of 300 million, Bengalis are the third largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.[b] According to provisional results of 2011 Bangladesh census, the population of Bangladesh was 149,772,364;[150] however, CIA's The World Factbook gives 163,654,860 as its population in a July 2013 estimate. According to the provisional results of the 2011 Indian national census, West Bengal has a population of 91,347,736.[151] "So, the Bengal region, as of 2011[update], has at least 241.1 million people. This figures give a population density of 1003.9/km2; making it among the most densely populated areas in the world.[152][153]

Bengali is the main language spoken in Bengal. Many phonological, lexical, and structural differences from the standard variety occur in peripheral varieties of Bengali across the region. Other regional languages closely related to Bengali include Sylheti, Chittagonian, Chakma, Rangpuri/Rajbangshi, Hajong, Rohingya, and Tangchangya.[154]

According to the 2011 Indian census, 18% of the Bengali-speakers are bilingual of whom half can speak Hindi, and 5% are trilingual.[155]

In general, Bengalis are followers of Islam, Hinduism, Christianity and Buddhism with a significant number are Irreligious.

Population trends for major religious groups in the Bengal region (West Bengal and Bangladesh) under the British India (1881–1941)  Religious
group  | Population
% 1881  | Population
% 1891  | Population
% 1901  | Population
% 1911  | Population
% 1921  | Population
% 1931  | Population
% 1941

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Islam  | 50.16% | 50.7% | 51.58% | 52.74% | 53.99% | 54.87% | 54.73%
Hinduism  | 48.45% | 47.27% | 46.60% | 44.80% | 43.27% | 43.04% | 41.55%
Christianity  | 0.2% | – | – | – | – | – | –
Buddhism  | 0.69% | – | – | – | – | – | –
Other religions  | 0.5% | – | – | – | – | –  | \-
Bengal region religious diversity as per 2011 census[156][157][158] Religion  | Population

|

Muslims ()  | 159,274,952
Hindus ()  | 86,138,190
Christians ()  | 1,718,887
Buddhists ()  | 1,278,871
Other or no religion  | 1,707,917
Total  | 250,118,816

In addition, several minority ethnolinguistic groups are native to the region. These include speakers of other Indo-Aryan languages (e.g., Bishnupriya Manipuri, Oraon Sadri, various Bihari languages), Tibeto-Burman languages (e.g., A'Tong, Chak, Koch, Garo, Megam, Meitei (officially called "Manipuri"), Mizo, Mru, Pangkhua, Rakhine/Marma, Kok Borok, Riang, Tippera, Usoi, various Chin languages), Austroasiatic languages (e.g., Khasi, Koda, Mundari, Pnar, Santali, War), and Dravidian languages (e.g., Kurukh, Sauria Paharia).[154]

Life expectancy is around 72.49 years for Bangladesh[159] and 70.2 for West Bengal.[160][161] In terms of literacy, West Bengal leads with 77% literacy rate,[152] in Bangladesh the rate is approximately 72.9%.[162][c] The level of poverty in West Bengal is at 19.98%, while in Bangladesh it stands at 12.9%[163][164][165]

West Bengal has one of the lowest total fertility rates in India. West Bengal's TFR of 1.6 roughly equals that of Canada.[166]

### Major cities

[edit]

The Bengal region is home to the some of major urban areas of the world, Dhaka is the 4th largest urban areas of the world. Kolkata is 17th largest urban area.[citation needed]

List of million plus urban areas of Bengal  Rank  | City  | Country  | Population (2024)  | Image

|
|
|
|

1 | Dhaka |  Bangladesh | 24,653,000[167] | Dhaka
2 | Kolkata |  India | 15,845,000[168] | Kolkata
3 | Chittagong |  Bangladesh | 5,653,000[169] | Chittagong
4 | Asansol |  India | 1,565,000[170] | Asansol
5 | Siliguri |  India | 1,191,000[171] | Siliguri

#### Other major cities in West Bengal

[edit]

Other important cities of West Bengal region such as Howrah, Kalyani, Basirhat, Kharagpur, Durgapur, Coochbehar, Malda, Chandannagar, Bardhaman, Darjeeling  etc.[172]

#### Other major cities in Bangladesh

[edit]

Other important cities in Bangladesh such as Sylhet, Khulna, Jessore, Rajshahi, Rangpur, Cox's Bazar etc.

## Culture

[edit]

Main article: Culture of Bengal

### Language

[edit]

Main article: Bengali language

Bengali Letters

The Bengali language developed between the 7th and 10th centuries from Apabhraṃśa and Magadhi Prakrit.[173] It is written using the indigenous Bengali alphabet, a descendant of the ancient Brahmi script. Bengali is the 5th most spoken language in the world. It is an eastern Indo-Aryan language and one of the easternmost branches of the Indo-European language family. It is part of the Bengali-Assamese languages. Bengali has greatly influenced other languages in the region, including Odia, Assamese, Chakma, Nepali and Rohingya. It is the sole state language of Bangladesh and the second most spoken language in India.[174] It is also the seventh most spoken language by total number of speakers in the world.

Bengali binds together a culturally diverse region and is an important contributor to regional identity. The 1952 Bengali Language Movement in East Pakistan is commemorated by UNESCO as International Mother Language Day, as part of global efforts to preserve linguistic identity.

### Currency

[edit]

Main article: History of the taka

A silver coin with Proto-Bengali script, 9th century

In both Bangladesh and West Bengal, currency is commonly denominated as taka. The Bangladesh taka is an official standard bearer of this tradition, while the Indian rupee is also written as taka in Bengali script on all of its banknotes. The history of the taka dates back centuries. Bengal was home one of the world's earliest coin currencies in the first millennium BCE. Under the Delhi Sultanate, the taka was introduced by Muhammad bin Tughluq in 1329. Bengal became the stronghold of the taka. The silver currency was the most important symbol of sovereignty of the Sultanate of Bengal. It was traded on the Silk Road and replicated in Nepal and China's Tibetan protectorate. The Pakistani rupee was scripted in Bengali as taka on its banknotes until Bangladesh's creation in 1971.

### Literature

[edit]

Main articles: Bengali literature and Bangladeshi English literature

Rabindranath Tagore, known as the Bengali Shakespeare, being hosted at the Parliament of Iran in the 1930s

Bengali literature has a rich heritage. It has a history stretching back to the 3rd century BCE, when the main language was Sanskrit written in the brahmi script. The Bengali language and script evolved c. 1000 CE from Magadhi Prakrit. Bengal has a long tradition in folk literature, evidenced by the Chôrjapôdô, Mangalkavya, Shreekrishna Kirtana, Maimansingha Gitika or Thakurmar Jhuli. Bengali literature in the medieval age was often either religious (e.g. Chandidas), or adaptations from other languages (e.g. Alaol). During the Bengal Renaissance of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Bengali literature was modernised through the works of authors such as Michael Madhusudan Dutta, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay, Rabindranath Tagore, Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay, Kazi Nazrul Islam, Satyendranath Dutta, Begum Rokeya and Jibanananda Das. In the 20th century, prominent modern Bengali writers included Syed Mujtaba Ali, Jasimuddin, Manik Bandopadhyay, Tarasankar Bandyopadhyay, Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay, Buddhadeb Bose, Sunil Gangopadhyay and Humayun Ahmed.

Prominent contemporary Bengali writers in English include Amitav Ghosh, Tahmima Anam, Jhumpa Lahiri and Zia Haider Rahman among others.

### Personification

[edit]

Main article: Mother Bengal

The Bangamata is a female personification of Bengal which was created during the Bengali Renaissance and later adopted by the Bengali nationalists.[175] Hindu nationalists adopted a modified Bharat Mata as a national personification of India.[176] The Mother Bengal represents not only biological motherness but its attributed characteristics as well – protection, never ending love, consolation, care, the beginning and the end of life. In Amar Sonar Bangla, the national anthem of Bangladesh, Rabindranath Tagore has used the word "Maa" (Mother) numerous times to refer to the motherland i.e. Bengal.

The nationalist sentiments that this painting evoked transformed Abanindranath Tagore's initial thoughts "Bangamata" after the Partition of Bengal (1905) into Bharat Mata (Mother India), a pan-Indian figure, inspiring people across the length and breadth of the nation during the Indian independence movement.

Mother Language Day Monument in Kolkata, West Bengal representing Language Matyrs on the lap of Bangamata (Mother Bengal) during Bangladesh Liberation War.

### Art

[edit]

See also: Bangladeshi art

Bangladeshi paintings on sale at an art gallery in Dhaka

The Pala-Sena School of Art developed in Bengal between the 8th and 12th centuries and is considered a high point of classical Asian art.[177][178] It included sculptures and paintings.[179]

Islamic Bengal was noted for its production of the finest cotton fabrics and saris, notably the Jamdani, which received warrants from the Mughal court.[180] The Bengal School of painting flourished in Kolkata and Shantiniketan in the British Raj during the early 20th century. Its practitioners were among the harbingers of modern painting in India.[181] Zainul Abedin was the pioneer of modern Bangladeshi art. The country has a thriving and internationally acclaimed contemporary art scene.[182]

### Architecture

[edit]

Main article: Architecture of Bengal

Bungalows originated from Bengali architecture

Classical Bengali architecture features terracotta buildings. Ancient Bengali kingdoms laid the foundations of the region's architectural heritage through the construction of monasteries and temples (for example, the Somapura Mahavihara). During the sultanate period, a distinct and glorious Islamic style of architecture developed the region.[183] Most Islamic buildings were small and highly artistic terracotta mosques with multiple domes and no minarets. Bengal was also home to the largest mosque in South Asia at  Adina. Bengali vernacular architecture is credited for inspiring the popularity of the bungalow.[184]

The Bengal region also has a rich heritage of Indo-Saracenic architecture, including numerous zamindar palaces and mansions. The most prominent example of this style is the Victoria Memorial, Kolkata.

In the 1950s, Muzharul Islam pioneered the modernist terracotta style of architecture in South Asia. This was followed by the design of the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban by the renowned American architect Louis Kahn in the 1960s, which was based on the aesthetic heritage of Bengali architecture and geography.[185][186]

### Sciences

[edit]

Main article: Science and technology in Bangladesh

A sculpture of the Bengali-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan at Sears Tower in the United States

The Gupta dynasty, which is believed to have originated in North Bengal, pioneered the invention of chess, the concept of zero, the theory of Earth orbiting the Sun, the study of solar and lunar eclipses and the flourishing of Sanskrit literature and drama.[31][187]

The educational reforms during the British Raj gave birth to many distinguished scientists in Bengal. Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose pioneered the investigation of radio and microwave optics, made significant contributions to plant science, and laid the foundations of experimental science in the Indian subcontinent.[188] IEEE named him one of the fathers of radio science.[189] He was the first person from the Indian subcontinent to receive a US patent, in 1904. In 1924–25, while researching at the University of Dhaka, Satyendra Nath Bose well known for his works in quantum mechanics, provided the foundation for Bose–Einstein statistics and the theory of the Bose–Einstein condensate.[190][191][192] Meghnad Saha was the first scientist to relate a star's spectrum to its temperature, developing thermal ionization equations (notably the Saha ionization equation) that have been foundational in the fields of astrophysics and astrochemistry.[193] Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri was a physicist, known for his research in general relativity and cosmology. His most significant contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems.[194]

In the United States, the Bangladeshi-American engineer Fazlur Rahman Khan emerged as the "father of tubular designs" in skyscraper construction. Ashoke Sen is an Indian theoretical physicist whose main area of work is string theory. He was among the first recipients of the Fundamental Physics Prize "for opening the path to the realisation that all string theories are different limits of the same underlying theory".[195]

### Music

[edit]

Main articles: Music of Bengal and Music of Bangladesh

A Baul musician. The Baul ballads of Bangladesh are classified by UNESCO as humanity's intangible cultural heritage

The Baul tradition is a unique heritage of Bengali folk music.[196] The 19th century mystic poet Lalon Shah is the most celebrated practitioner of the tradition.[197] Other folk music forms include Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Hason Raja is a renowned folk poet of the Sylhet region. Folk music in Bengal is often accompanied by the ektara, a one-stringed instrument. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. The region also has a rich heritage in North Indian classical music.

### Cuisine

[edit]

Main articles: Bengali cuisine and Bangladeshi cuisine

Bengali cuisine is the only traditionally developed multi-course tradition from the Indian subcontinent. Rice and fish are traditional favourite foods, leading to a saying that "fish and rice make a Bengali".[198] Bengal's vast repertoire of fish-based dishes includes Hilsa preparations, a favourite among Bengalis. Bengalis make distinctive sweetmeats from milk products, including Rôshogolla, Chômchôm, and several kinds of Pithe. The old city of Dhaka is noted for its distinct Indo-Islamic cuisine, including biryani, bakarkhani and kebab dishes.

### Boats

[edit]

See also: Country boats in Bangladesh

18th century painting of a budgerow

There are 150 types of Bengali country boats plying the 700 rivers of the Bengal delta, the vast floodplain and many oxbow lakes. They vary in design and size. The boats include the dinghy and sampan among others. Country boats are a central element of Bengali culture and have inspired generations of artists and poets, including the ivory artisans of the Mughal era. The country has a long shipbuilding tradition, dating back many centuries. Wooden boats are made of timber such as Jarul (dipterocarpus turbinatus), sal (shorea robusta), sundari (heritiera fomes), and Burma teak (tectons grandis). Medieval Bengal was shipbuilding hub for the Mughal and Ottoman navies.[199][200] The British Royal Navy later utilised Bengali shipyards in the 19th century, including for the Battle of Trafalgar.

### Attire

[edit]

Traditional bride of Bangladesh

Bengali women commonly wear the shaŗi , often distinctly designed according to local cultural customs. In urban areas, many women and men wear Western-style attire. Among men, European dressing has greater acceptance. Men also wear traditional costumes such as the panjabi[201] with dhoti or pyjama, often on religious occasions. The lungi, a kind of long skirt, is widely worn by Bangladeshi men.[citation needed]

### Festivals

[edit]

Main articles: List of festivals in Bangladesh and List of festivals in West Bengal

Mangal Shobhajatra parade during the Bengali New Year in Bangladesh

For Bengali Muslims, the major religious festivals are Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, and Shab-e-Barat. For Bengali Hindus, the major religious festivals include Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra. In honour of Bengali Buddhists and Bengali Christians, both Buddha's Birthday and Christmas are public holidays in the region. The Bengali New Year is the main secular festival of Bengali culture celebrated by people regardless of religious and social backgrounds. The biggest congregation in Bengal is the Bishwa ijtema, which is also the world's second largest Islamic congregation. Other Bengali festivals include the first day of spring and the Nabanna harvest festival in autumn.

### Media

[edit]

See also: Mass media in Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a diverse, outspoken and privately owned press. English-language titles are popular in the urban readership.[202] West Bengal had 559 published newspapers in 2005,[203] of which 430 were in Bengali, with the largest circulated Bengali language newspapers and magazines in the world.[203] Bengali cinema is divided between the media hubs of Dhaka and Kolkata.

### Sports

[edit]

See also: Bangladesh Games and Bengali traditional games

Cricket and football are popular sports in the Bengal region. Local games include sports such as Kho Kho and Kabaddi, the latter being the national sport of Bangladesh. An Indo-Bangladesh Bengali Games has been organised among the athletes of the Bengali speaking areas of the two countries.[204]

## See also

[edit]

* Bangladeshi diaspora
* List of Bengalis
* Zerat

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Bengali: বঙ্গ, romanized: Bôṅgô, pronounced [ˈbɔŋɡo] ⓘ or Bengali: বাংলা, romanized: Bāṅlā, pronounced [ˈbaŋla]
2. ^ Roughly 163 million in Bangladesh and 100 million in the Republic of India (CIA Factbook 2014 estimates, numbers subject to rapid population growth); about 3 million Bangladeshis in the Middle East, 1 million Bengalis in Pakistan, 0.4 million British Bangladeshi.
3. ^ CRI do not give a breakdown by gender or state the age bracket for the data

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Bengal". The Chambers Dictionary (9th ed.). Chambers. 2003. ISBN 0-550-10105-5.
2. ^ "Oxford Dictionaries". Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 22 February 2017.
3. ^ "Vanga | ancient kingdom, India". Encyclopædia Britannica.
4. ^ "The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760".
5. ^ "Welcome to Encyclopaedia Iranica".
6. ^ "Know your history". Dhaka Tribune. 27 November 2022.
7. ^ a b David Lewis (31 October 2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. pp. 44–45. ISBN 978-1-139-50257-3.
8. ^ Perween Hasan (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. I.B.Tauris. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-84511-381-0. "[Husayn Shah pushed] its western frontier past Bihar up to Saran in Jaunpur ... when Sultan Husayn Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur fled to Bengal after being defeated in battle by Sultan Sikandar Lodhi of Delhi, the latter attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur ruler. Unable to make any gains, Sikandar Lodhi returned home after concluding a peace treaty with the Bengal sultan."
9. ^ a b "Looking ahead retrospectively: A Bangladeshi perspective | ORF".
10. ^ Bhattacharya, Pramit (25 December 2014). "Why West Bengal is like Canada, and Bihar like Swaziland". Mint. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
11. ^ "Bangladesh ahead of India in social indicators: Amartya". The Daily Star. 23 February 2015. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
12. ^ Grover, Priyamvada (11 October 2018). "Bangladesh is better off than India, not a poor, backward neighbour anymore". ThePrint. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
13. ^ "New directions for human development in Bangladesh".
14. ^ "Bangladesh marches ahead of India in Global Gender Gap Index". The Times of India. 20 December 2019. Retrieved 20 January 2025.
15. ^ Rahman, Urmi (2014). Bangladesh – Culture Smart!: The Essential Guide to Customs & Culture. Kuperard. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-1-85733-696-2.
16. ^ a b "Vanga". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 July 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
17. ^ Sengupta, Nitish K. (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. p. 10\. ISBN 978-0-14-341678-4. "Also, we have the reference to 'Vangalam' in an inscription in the Vrihadeshwara temple at Tanjore in south India as one among the countries overrun by the Cholas. This is perhaps the earliest reference to Bengal as such."
18. ^ Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 220\. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. "In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon."
19. ^ Allan, J.; Haig, T. Wolseley; Dodwell, H. H. (1934). Dodwell, H. H. (ed.). The Cambridge Shorter History of India. Cambridge University Press. p. 145.
20. ^ Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999) [First published 1988]. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 281\. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
21. ^ Hasan, Perween (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. I.B.Tauris. pp. 13–. ISBN 978-1-84511-381-0.
22. ^ Siddiq, Mohammad Yusuf (19 November 2015). Epigraphy and Islamic Culture: Inscriptions of the Early Muslim Rulers of Bengal (1205-1494). Routledge. p. 29\. ISBN 978-1-317-58745-3.
23. ^ Lach, Donald F.; Kley, Edwin J. Van (1998). Asia in the Making of Europe, Volume III: A Century of Advance. Book 3: Southeast Asia. University of Chicago Press. pp. 1124–. ISBN 978-0-226-46768-9.
24. ^ "Prehistory". Banglapedia.
25. ^ "Wari-Bateshwar: In search of origins". The Daily Star. 18 August 2008.
26. ^ "The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760".
27. ^ a b Eaton, R. M. (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-20507-9. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
28. ^ a b "Mahasthan Brahmi Inscription". Banglapedia.
29. ^ "Punch Marked Coins". Banglapedia.
30. ^ "About Taka Museum". bb.org.bd.
31. ^ a b Murray, H. J. R. (1913). A History of Chess. Benjamin Press (originally published by Oxford University Press). ISBN 978-0-936317-01-4. OCLC 13472872. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
32. ^ Chowdhury, AM. "Gangaridai". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 2 June 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
33. ^ "A Family's Passion". Archaeology Magazine. November–December 2013.
34. ^ Mizanur Rahman; et al. "Wari-Bateshwar and Vikrampura: 2 Successful Case Studies in Bangladesh 3 Archaeobotany" (PDF). University College London. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
35. ^ Hossain, Emran (19 March 2008). "Wari-Bateshwar one of earliest kingdoms". The Daily Star.
36. ^ Sarkar, Sebanti (19 February 2018). "In rural Bengal, an indefatigable relic hunter has uncovered a hidden chapter of history". Scroll.in. Retrieved 18 February 2024.
37. ^ "Matsyanyayam". Banglapedia.
38. ^ "Hiuen-Tsang". Banglapedia.
39. ^ "Coins". Banglapedia.
40. ^ "Microsoft Word – 4_H_942 Revised_ Monir m.doc" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 6 February 2022.
41. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (1993). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. University of California Press. "By the time Muhammad Bakhtiyar conquered northwestern Bengal in 1204"
42. ^ a b "The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760".
43. ^ "Iliyas Shah". Banglapedia.
44. ^ "Iliyas Shah". Banglapedia.
45. ^ Nitish K. Sengupta (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin Books India. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-14-341678-4.
46. ^ Chowdhury, Mohammed Ali (25 November 2004). Bengal-Arakan Relations, 1430–1666 A.D. Firma K.L.M. ISBN 9788171021185.
47. ^ a b Perween Hasan (2007). Sultans and Mosques: The Early Muslim Architecture of Bangladesh. I.B.Tauris. pp. 16–17\. ISBN 978-1-84511-381-0. "[Husayn Shah pushed] its western frontier past Bihar up to Saran in Jaunpur ... when Sultan Husayn Shah Sharqi of Jaunpur fled to Bengal after being defeated in battle by Sultan Sikandar Lodhi of Delhi, the latter attacked Bengal in pursuit of the Jaunpur ruler. Unable to make any gains, Sikandar Lodhi returned home after concluding a peace treaty with the Bengal sultan."
48. ^ a b Irfan Habib (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500. Pearson Education India. p. 185. ISBN 978-81-317-2791-1.
49. ^ Boomgaard, P. (1 January 2008). Linking Destinies: Trade, Towns and Kin in Asian History. BRILL. ISBN 9789004253995. Archived from the original on 6 January 2017. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
50. ^ "Ghiyasia Madrasa". Banglapedia.
51. ^ A Collection of Treaties and Engagements with the Native Princes and States of Asia: Concluded on Behalf of the East India Company by the British Governments in India, Viz. by the Government of Bengal Etc. : Also Copies of Sunnuds Or Grants of Certain Privileges and Imunities to the East India Company by the Mogul and Other Native Princes of Hindustan. United East-India Company. 1812. p. 28. Retrieved 23 August 2013.
52. ^ a b Ahmed, F. S. (2011). A Comprehensive History of Medieval India: Twelfth to the Mid-Eighteenth Century. Pearson. ISBN 9788131732021. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
53. ^ "Murshidabad". Banglapedia.
54. ^ Richard Maxwell Eaton (1996), The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760, page 202, University of California Press
55. ^ Om Prakash, "Empire, Mughal", History of World Trade Since 1450, edited by John J. McCusker, vol. 1, Macmillan Reference USA, 2006, pp. 237–240, World History in Context. Retrieved 3 August 2017
56. ^ John F. Richards (1995), The Mughal Empire, page 202, Cambridge University Press
57. ^ Giorgio Riello, Tirthankar Roy (2009). How India Clothed the World: The World of South Asian Textiles, 1500–1850. Brill Publishers. p. 174\. ISBN 9789047429975.
58. ^ a b Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857). Routledge. p. 174\. ISBN 978-1-136-82552-1.
59. ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 251\. ISBN 978-1-107-50718-0.
60. ^ 5 of the worst atrocities carried out by the British Empire. The Independent. 19 January 2016.
61. ^ Churchill's policies contributed to 1943 Bengal famine – study. The Guardian. 29 March 2019.
62. ^ a b Ray, Indrajit (2011). Bengal Industries and the British Industrial Revolution (1757–1857). Routledge. pp. 7–10\. ISBN 978-1-136-82552-1.
63. ^ "Cornwallis Code". Encyclopædia Britannica. 4 February 2009. Retrieved 24 February 2017.
64. ^ Shombit Sengupta, Bengals plunder gifted the British Industrial Revolution, The Financial Express, 8 February 2010
65. ^ Roy, Tirthankar (2019), How British Rule Changed India's Economy: The Paradox of the Raj, Springer, pp. 117–, ISBN 978-3-030-17708-9, "The 1769-1770 famine in Bengal followed two years of erratic rainfall worsened by a smallpox epidemic."
66. ^ Datta, Rajat (2000). Society, economy, and the market : commercialization in rural Bengal, c. 1760–1800. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors. pp. 262, 266. ISBN 81-7304-341-8. OCLC 44927255.
67. ^ Amartya Sen (1981). Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation. Oxford University Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0-19-828463-5.
68. ^ Fredrik Albritton Jonsson (18 June 2013). Enlightenment's Frontier: The Scottish Highlands and the Origins of Environmentalism. Yale University Press. pp. 167–170\. ISBN 978-0-300-16374-2.
69. ^ a b "The Straits Settlements becomes a residency – Singapore History". Eresources.nlb.gov.sg. Retrieved 30 March 2020.
70. ^ Chowdhury, Masud Hasan. "Cyclone". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
71. ^ The "Gandhians" of Bengal: Nationalism, Social Reconstruction and Cultural Orientations 1920–1942. p. 19\. "Malaria was endemic in rural areas during the 19th century, particularly in western Bengal. This was ... The famine of 1769–70 resulted in about ten million deaths, while 50 million died of malaria, plague and famine between 1895 and 19206."
72. ^ Baxter, Craig (1997). Bangladesh: From a Nation to a State. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. pp. 39–40\. ISBN 0-8133-2854-3.
73. ^ Chitta Ranjan Misra. "United Independent Bengal Movement". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 5 August 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
74. ^ a b Harun-or-Rashid. "Partition of Bengal, 1947". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 2 July 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
75. ^ Suranjan Das. "Calcutta Riot (1946)". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 1 August 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
76. ^ "Why did British prime minister Attlee think Bengal was going to be an independent country in 1947?". Scroll.in. 6 January 2019.
77. ^ "UK PM Attlee believed Bengal may opt to be a separate country". Dawn. Pakistan. 28 December 2018.
78. ^ Bose, Sugata (1986). Agrarian Bengal: Economy, Social Structure and Politics. Cambridge University Press. p. 230\. ISBN 978-0-521-30448-1.
79. ^ Ali, A (1996). "Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 92 (1–2): 171–179\. Bibcode:1996WASP...92..171A. doi:10.1007/BF00175563. S2CID 93611792.1–2&rft.pages=171-179&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:93611792#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/BF00175563&rft_id=info:bibcode/1996WASP...92..171A&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00175563&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Bengal" class="Z3988">
80. ^ Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors. Archived 25 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 13 April 2006.
81. ^ IUCN (1997). "Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh". World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation.
82. ^ "Statistical Facts about India". indianmirror.com. Archived from the original on 26 October 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006.
83. ^ "National Himalayan Sandakphu-Gurdum Trekking Expedition: 2006". Youth Hostels Association of India: West Bengal State Branch. Archived from the original on 24 October 2006. Retrieved 26 October 2006.
84. ^ Chowdhury, U. K.; Biswas, B. K.; Chowdhury, T. R.; et al. (May 2000). "Groundwater arsenic contamination in Bangladesh and West Bengal, India". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108 (4): 393–397\. doi:10.2307/3454378. JSTOR 3454378. PMC 1638054. PMID 10811564. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007.
85. ^ Lethbridge, E. (1874). An Easy Introduction to the History and Geography of Bengal: For the Junior Classes in Schools. Thacker. p. 5. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
86. ^ a b Akhter, Nasrin (2012). "Sarkar". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
87. ^ Das, Tulshi Kumar (2000). Social Structure and Cultural Practices in Slums: A Study of Slums in Dhaka City. Northern Book Centre. ISBN 9788172111106.
88. ^ David Christiana (1 September 2007). "Arsenic Mitigation in West Bengal, India: New Hope for Millions" (PDF). Southwest Hydrology. p. 32\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 20 December 2008.
89. ^ Puri, Sunil (2007). Agroforestry: Systems and Practices. New India. ISBN 9788189422622.
90. ^ Reddy, Angadi Ranga (2009). Gandhi and globalisation. Mittal Publications. ISBN 9788183242967.
91. ^ Andaya, B. W.; Andaya, L. Y. (2015). A History of Early Modern Southeast Asia, 1400–1830. Cambridge University Press. p. 220\. ISBN 978-0-521-88992-6. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
92. ^ Singh, A. K. (2006). Modern World System and Indian Proto-industrialization: Bengal 1650–1800. Vol. 1\. Northern Book Centre. p. 225\. ISBN 9788172112011. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
93. ^ Banu, U. A. B. Razia Akter (1992). Islam in Bangladesh. Brill. p. 6\. ISBN 978-90-04-09497-0. Retrieved 7 January 2017. "in Samatata (South-east Bengal) where the Buddhist Khadaga dynasty ruled throughout the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries AD."
94. ^ Rashid, M Harunar (2012). "Harikela". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
95. ^ "Chittagong to bridge S Asian nations". The Daily Star. 17 March 2012. Archived from the original on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
96. ^ "World's longest natural sea beach under threat". BBC News. 28 December 2012. Archived from the original on 13 January 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
97. ^ "Three medallions above the head contain sacred syllables in proto-Bengali script". Pamela Gutman and Zaw Min Yu, 'Vesali', Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 57
98. ^ Pamela Gutman and Zaw Min Yu, Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 3
99. ^ Pamela Gutman and Zaw Min Yu, Burma's Lost Kingdoms: Splendours of Arakan (Orchid Press 2001). p. 8
100. ^ a b Chowdhury, Mohammed (2008). Bengal-Arakan Relations, 1430–1666 A.D. Firma K.L.M. ISBN 9788171021185. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
101. ^ a b Umran Chowdhury, Dhaka Tribune (29 September 2021). "The history of the Rohingyas that Myanmar refuses to acknowledge". Scroll.in. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
102. ^ "The Indian Prince who fled to Mrauk-U". Lost Footsteps. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
103. ^ Ray, Aniruddha (1974). "A Contemporary Dutch Account of Shah Shuja at Arakan". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 35: 112–118\. JSTOR 44138771.
104. ^ Islam, Nurul (12 October 2017). "Rohingya: The descendants of ancient Arakan". Weekend Tribune.
105. ^ Iqbal, Iftekhar (2015). "The Space between Nation and Empire: The Making and Unmaking of Eastern Bengal and Assam Province, 1905–1911". The Journal of Asian Studies. 74 (1): 69–84\. doi:10.1017/S0021911814001661. JSTOR 43553644. S2CID 161412009.
106. ^ Sarkar, J. N. (1992), "Chapter II The Turko-Afghan Invasions", in Barpujari, H. K. (ed.), The Comprehensive History of Assam, vol. 2, Guwahati: Assam Publication Board, pp. 35–48
107. ^ Mazumdar, Madhumita (5 January 2017). "Review of Crossing the Bay of Bengal". Reviews in History. doi:10.14296/RiH/2014/2042. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
108. ^ a b "Nawab". Banglapedia. 18 June 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
109. ^ Nag, Sajal (2023). "Mughal Influence on Chittagong and Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT)". The Mughals and the North-East. Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781003406020. ISBN 9781003406020. S2CID 258409383.
110. ^ a b "Chakma resistance to British rule". The Daily Star (Opinion). 8 August 2022.
111. ^ "The Chittagong Hill-tracts Regulation, 1900".
112. ^ Ghosh, Suchandra (2013). "Locating South Eastern Bengal in the Buddhist Network of Bay of Bengal (C. 7th Century CE-13th Century CE)". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 74: 148–153\. JSTOR 44158810.
113. ^ Ghosh, Suchandra (2 September 2019). "Crossings and contacts across the Bay of Bengal: a connected history of ports in early South and Southeast Asia". Journal of the Indian Ocean Region. 15 (3): 281–296\. doi:10.1080/19480881.2019.1640577. S2CID 202332142 - via Taylor and Francis+NEJM.
114. ^ Sunil S. Amrith (7 October 2013). Crossing the Bay of Bengal. Harvard University Press. p. 37\. ISBN 978-0-674-72846-2.
115. ^ Formichi, Chiara (2020). Islam and Asia: A History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 75–79\. ISBN 978-1-107-10612-3.
116. ^ Tapan Raychaudhuri; Irfan Habib, eds. (1982). The Cambridge Economic History of India. Vol. I. Cambridge University Press. p. 130. ISBN 978-0-521-22692-9.
117. ^ Jarman, J. L. (Ed). (1998). Annual reports of the Straits Settlements 1855–1941 (Vol 1: 1855–1867, pp. 3–4). Slough, UK: Archive Editions. Call no.: RSING English 959.51 STR.
118. ^ One or more of the preceding sentences incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Clifford, Hugh Charles (1911). "Straits Settlements". In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 980–981.
119. ^ Kunal Chakrabarti; Shubhra Chakrabarti (22 August 2013). Historical Dictionary of the Bengalis. Scarecrow Press. p. 12. ISBN 978-0-8108-8024-5.
120. ^ Llewellyn-Jones, Rosie (2023). Empire Building: The Construction of British India, 1690–1860. Hurst Publishers. p. 25\. ISBN 978-1-80526-026-4. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
121. ^ "Iliyas Shah". Banglapedia. 18 June 2021. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
122. ^ "Pala dynasty | Indian Empire, Buddhist Monarchs, Bengal Region". Encyclopædia Britannica. 14 June 2023.
123. ^ "Pala Dynasty". Banglapedia. 18 June 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
124. ^ "China and Strategic Infrastructures in Tibet: CCP's Recipe for a Troubled Relationship". 16 May 2023.
125. ^ Sarma, Ramani Mohan (1987). Political History of Tripura. Puthipatra.
126. ^ Deb, Debraj (12 April 2023). "Representatives of Japan, Bangladesh look at Tripura as potential gateway of NE India at conclave". The Indian Express. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
127. ^ "Tripura emerging as international trade gateway of northeast: PM Modi". Hindustan Times. 18 December 2022. Retrieved 17 May 2023.
128. ^ "Natural vegetation". West Bengal. Suni System (P) Ltd. Archived from the original on 23 May 2006. Retrieved 31 October 2006.
129. ^ "Sal Forest". Banglapedia. 18 June 2021. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
130. ^ "Secondary Data Collection for Pilot Protected Areas: Lawachara National Park" (PDF). November 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 October 2011. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
131. ^ "UNPO: Chittagong Hill Tracts: The vanishing forest biodiversity of Bangladesh". 2 November 2009.
132. ^ UNESCO World Heritage Centre. "The Sundarbans – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". UNESCO. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
133. ^ Muhammad Selim Hossain (23 May 2009). "Conserving biodiversity must for survival". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 28 July 2023.
134. ^ "Bengal | region, Asia". Encyclopædia Britannica. 16 June 2023.
135. ^ ""Want to be Kingmaker": Muslim Preacher Announces Party for Bengal Polls". NDTV.
136. ^ "Address by External Affairs Minister Shri Natwar Singh at India-Bangladesh Dialogue Organised by Centre for Policy Dialogue and India International Centre". Speeches. Ministry of External Affairs, New Delhi. 7 August 2005. Archived from the original on 5 May 2016. Retrieved 28 April 2016.
137. ^ Chattopadhyay, S. S. (June 2007). "Constant traffic". Frontline. Vol. 24, no. 11\. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008. Retrieved 26 February 2008.
138. ^ a b Lawrence B. Lesser. "Historical Perspective". A Country Study: Bangladesh (James Heitzman and Robert Worden, editors). Library of Congress Federal Research Division (September 1988). This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.About the Country Studies / Area Handbooks Program: Country Studies – Federal Research Division, Library of Congress
139. ^ Kamrunnesa Islam (1996). Economic History of Bengal (PhD thesis). SOAS, University of London. doi:10.25501/SOAS.00029147.
140. ^ Ian Blanchard (2005). Mining, Metallurgy and Minting in the Middle Ages: Continuing Afo-European supremacy, 1250–1450. Franz Steiner Verlag. p. 1264\. ISBN 978-3-515-08704-9.
141. ^ "Coins". Banglapedia. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
142. ^ "Currency System". Banglapedia. Retrieved 14 February 2017.
143. ^ "Mint Towns". Banglapedia.
144. ^ "Railway". Banglapedia.
145. ^ "Bangladesh ranked 41st largest economy in 2019 all over the world". The Daily Star. 8 January 2019. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
146. ^ Sayeed Iftekhar Ahmed (18 March 2022). "Where do Bangladesh and Pakistan stand after 50 years of separation?". Scroll.in. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
147. ^ "7 Major Rice Producing States in India – Important India". importantindia.com. 21 January 2014. Archived from the original on 29 November 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
148. ^ "Delhi-Dhaka trade becoming one-sided, need to balance it, says Bangladesh FM on India visit". ThePrint. 21 June 2022.
149. ^ "Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal Motor Vehicles Agreement Initiative".
150. ^ "2011 Population & Housing Census: Preliminary Results" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistics Division, Ministry of Planning, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. July 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 January 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2013.
151. ^ "Area, population, decennial growth rate and density for 2001 and 2011 at a glance for West Bengal and the districts: provisional population totals paper 1 of 2011: West Bengal". Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 7 January 2012. Retrieved 26 January 2012.
152. ^ a b "Provisional Population Totals: West Bengal". Census of India, 2001. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 14 May 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2006.
153. ^ World Bank Development Indicators Database, 2006.
154. ^ a b "Bangladesh". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on 26 June 2015. Retrieved 26 June 2015.
155. ^ Nagarajan, Rema (14 November 2018). "Hindi, Bengali speakers India's least multilingual groups". The Times of India. ISSN 0971-8257. Retrieved 19 July 2023.
156. ^ Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics (2011). "Population & Housing Census" (PDF). Bangladesh Government. p. xiii. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 September 2017. Retrieved 17 April 2015. "Population By Religion (%) Muslim 90.39 Hindu 8.54 Buddhist 0.60 Christian 0.37 Others 0.14"
157. ^ Data Archived 4 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Census – Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics
158. ^ "Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India". Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 17 July 2021.
159. ^ "Bangladesh". The World Factbook (2025 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 31 October 2009. (Archived 2009 edition.)
160. ^ "Contents 2010–14" (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 November 2016. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
161. ^ "Abridged Life Tables- 2010–14" (PDF). Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. p. 5\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 January 2017. Retrieved 12 January 2017.
162. ^ CRI (2014). Bangladesh Education for All. CRI Publication. p. 138\. ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1. Archived from the original on 14 August 2017. Retrieved 6 May 2017.
163. ^ "Table 162, Number and Percentage of Population Below Poverty Line". Reserve Bank of India, Government of India. 2013. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 20 April 2014.
164. ^ Misha, Farzana; Sulaiman, Munshi. "Bangladesh Priorities: Poverty, Sulaiman and Misha | Copenhagen Consensus Center". copenhagenconsensus.com. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 7 April 2016.
165. ^ "Statistics". UNICEF. 18 December 2013. Archived from the original on 19 December 2015. Retrieved 2 March 2007.
166. ^ "Why West Bengal is like Canada, and Bihar like Swaziland". Mint. 25 December 2014. Archived from the original on 24 July 2016. Retrieved 7 September 2017.
167. ^ "Dhaka, Bangladesh Metro Area Population 1950-2024". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
168. ^ "Calcutta, India Metro Area Population 1950-2024". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
169. ^ "Chittagong, Bangladesh Metro Area Population 1950-2024". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
170. ^ "Asansol, India Metro Area Population 1950-2024". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
171. ^ "Siliguri, India Metro Area Population 1950-2024". www.macrotrends.net. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
172. ^ "West Bengal (India): State, Major Agglomerations & Cities". CityPopulation.de. Retrieved 10 May 2025.
173. ^ "Bengali language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
174. ^ "Scheduled Languages in Descending Order of Speakers' Strength – 2011" (PDF). censusindia.gov.in. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 10 April 2020.
175. ^ Symbols of Water and Woman on Selected Examples of Modern Bengali Literature in the Context of Mythological Tradition Archived 12 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
176. ^ Roche, Elizabeth (17 March 2016). "The origins of Bharat Mata". LiveMint. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
177. ^ Bagchi, J. (1993). The History and Culture of the Pālas of Bengal and Bihar, Cir. 750 A.D.-cir. 1200 A.D. Abhinav Publications. p. 127\. ISBN 9788170173014. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
178. ^ Huntington, S. L. (1984). The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture. E.J. Brill. p. 4\. ISBN 9789004068568. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
179. ^ "Pala art". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 October 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
180. ^ "In Search of Bangladeshi Islamic Art | The Metropolitan Museum of Art". metmuseum.org. 12 November 2015. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
181. ^ Mitter, P. (1994). Art and Nationalism in Colonial India, 1850–1922: Occidental Orientations. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44354-8. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
182. ^ Yee, Amy (13 March 2014). "In Bangladesh, a Vibrant Contemporary Scene". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 21 August 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
183. ^ "Bait Ur Rouf Mosque | Aga Khan Development Network". akdn.org. Archived from the original on 19 November 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
184. ^ Oxford English Dictionary, "bungalow"; Online Etymology Dictionary Archived 6 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine
185. ^ "Worldview". worldviewcities.org. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
186. ^ "Worldview". worldviewcities.org. Archived from the original on 2 January 2017. Retrieved 7 January 2017.
187. ^ Koshy, Thomas (2002). Elementary Number Theory with Applications. Harcourt / Academic press. p. 567\. ISBN 0-12-421171-2.
188. ^ Chatterjee, Santimay; Chatterjee, Enakshi (1976). Satyendra Nath Bose. New Delhi: National Book Trust. pp. 5–6\. OCLC 3017431.
189. ^ Sen, A. K. (1997). "Sir J. C. Bose and radio science". Microwave Symposium Digest. IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium. Denver, CO: IEEE. pp. 557–560\. doi:10.1109/MWSYM.1997.602854. ISBN 0-7803-3814-6.
190. ^ Mahanti, Subodh. "Satyendra Nath Bose, The Creator of Quantum Statistics". Vigyan Prasar. Archived from the original on 12 July 2016.
191. ^ Wali, Kameshwar C (2009). Satyendra Nath Bose: his life and times. Singapore: World Scientific. pp. xvii, xviii, xx (Foreword). ISBN 978-981-279-070-5.
192. ^ O'Connor, J J; Robertson, E F (October 2003). "Satyendranath Bose". The MacTutor History of Mathematics archive. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017.
193. ^ Kean, Sam (2017). "A forgotten star". Distillations. 3 (1): 4–5. Retrieved 22 March 2018.
194. ^ Desikan, Shubashree (5 March 2015). "No Big Bang, the universe was there all along: studies". The Hindu. Archived from the original on 21 June 2017. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
195. ^ Pulakkat, Hari (19 December 2013). "How many of us know about Breakthrough Prize winner, Ashoke Sen?". The Economic Times. Archived from the original on 22 December 2013.
196. ^ "The Bauls of Bengal". BengalOnline. Archived from the original on 19 January 2003. Retrieved 26 October 2006.
197. ^ Banik, Nandadulal. "Anirvan". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 3 February 2016. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
198. ^ Gertjan de Graaf, Abdul Latif. "Development of freshwater fish farming and poverty alleviation: A case study from Bangladesh" (PDF). Aqua KE Government. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 November 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2006.
199. ^ Hossain, Khandakar Akhter (2012). "Shipbuilding Industry". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
200. ^ "Prospects of shipbuilding industry in Bangladesh". New Age. Archived from the original on 17 December 2013. Retrieved 30 July 2015.
201. ^ Sarkar, Puja (5 May 2020). "Panjabi with a twist". The Daily Star. Retrieved 24 October 2024.
202. ^ "Bangladesh profile – Media". BBC News. Archived from the original on 31 July 2018. Retrieved 21 June 2018.
203. ^ a b "General Review". Registrar of Newspapers for India. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 1 September 2006.
204. ^ "Bangladesh dominate Indo-Bangla Games, clinch 45 gold medals". Thaindian News. Indian-Asian News Service. 26 February 2008. Archived from the original on 10 February 2009. Retrieved 27 February 2008.

## External links

[edit]

Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Bengal.

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* Czech Republic

People|

* Trove

Other|

* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa