Black Arrow

British satellite carrier rocket developed during the 1960s

For other uses, see Black Arrow (disambiguation).

Black Arrow

A mockup of the Black Arrow in the rocket park at Woomera.

Function| Carrier rocket
Manufacturer|

* Royal Aircraft Establishment
* Westland Aircraft

Country of origin| United Kingdom
Size
Height| 13 metres (43 ft)[1]
Diameter| 2 metres (6 ft 7 in)[2]
Mass| 18,130 kilograms (39,970 lb)[1]
Stages| 3
Capacity
Payload to LEO[altitude and inclination needed]
Altitude| 220 km (140 mi)
Mass| 135 kilograms (298 lb)[2]
Payload to LEO[altitude and inclination needed]
Altitude| 500 km (310 mi)
Mass| 102 kilograms (225 lb)[2]
Launch history
Status| Retired
Launch sites| Woomera LA-5B
Total launches| 2 (+2 suborbital)
Success(es)| 1 (+1 suborbital)
Failure(s)| 1 (+1 suborbital)
First flight| 27 June 1969[1]
Last flight| 28 October 1971[1]
First stage
Powered by| Gamma 8
Maximum thrust| 256.4 kilonewtons (57,600 lbf)
Specific impulse| 265 seconds (2.60 km/s)
Burn time| 131 seconds
Propellant| RP-1/HTP
Second stage
Powered by| Gamma 2
Maximum thrust| 68.2 kilonewtons (15,300 lbf)
Specific impulse| 265 seconds (2.60 km/s)
Burn time| 116 seconds
Propellant| RP-1/HTP
Third stage – Waxwing
Powered by| 1 solid
Maximum thrust| 27.3 kilonewtons (6,100 lbf)
Specific impulse| 278 seconds (2.73 km/s)
Burn time| 55 seconds
Propellant| Solid

[edit on Wikidata]

Black Arrow, officially capitalised BLACK ARROW,[3] was a British satellite expendable launch system.

Black Arrow originated from studies by the Royal Aircraft Establishment for carrier rockets based on the earlier Black Knight rocket;[4] the project was authorised by the British government in late 1964. Development of Black Arrow was largely performed by the prime contractor, the British aerospace company Saunders-Roe, and later undertaken by Westland Aircraft as the result of a merger. Both the first and second stage engines were produced by Bristol Siddeley at their factory in Ansty, Warwickshire. Assembly of the first and second stages was carried out at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight. Once manufactured, each Black Arrow vehicle was transported by ship to Australia prior to being launched from the RAAF Woomera Range Complex.

Black Arrow was a three-stage rocket, fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene) and high test peroxide, a concentrated form of hydrogen peroxide (85% hydrogen peroxide + 15% water).[5] While the first two stages featured thrust vectoring to provide attitude control,[4] the third stage did not have an attitude control system, and instead relied upon spin-stabilisation along with a reaction control system. The first stage was intentionally designed to be compatible with Blue Streak, as well as to be interchangeable with Coralie.[2] Furthermore, several derivatives of Black Arrow were proposed to provide for increased payload capacity.

A total of four launches of Black Arrow were performed between 1969 and 1971, the first two being demonstration flights to prove the launcher's capabilities. While the first and third flights were failures, the second and fourth flights were successful. Black Arrow's final flight placed the Prospero satellite into low Earth orbit, making it the first and only successful orbital launch to be conducted by the United Kingdom.[2] British officials decided to discontinue the programme in favour of using American Scout rockets instead, the Ministry of Defence having calculated this option to be cheaper than continuing with Black Arrow.[6] The final Black Arrow to be completed, which never flew, has been preserved intact at the Science Museum, London, along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite.

## Development[edit]

Black Arrow originated from a Royal Aircraft Establishment proposal for a rocket capable of placing a 317-pound (144 kg) payload into low Earth orbit,[altitude and inclination needed] in order to test systems designed for larger spacecraft.[7] In the autumn of 1964, the programme was authorised by Conservative Aviation Minister Julian Amery.[8] Then, following a general election in October, the incoming Labour government put the project on hold to reduce expenditure.[9] Following another election, the British government approved the continuation of the programme with several modifications, including the reduction of the test programme from five to three launches. The maiden launch was set for 1968.[10][11]

Initial development was conducted by the British aerospace manufacturer Saunders-Roe, which merged into Westland Aircraft in 1964.[12] Westland was subsequently the prime contractor for the Black Arrow, and assembled the first and second stages at East Cowes on the Isle of Wight, later testing the rockets from the 1950s up until the rocket launch on 28 October 1971.[13] The British powerplant specialist Bristol Siddeley produced the first and second stage engines at a factory in Ansty, Warwickshire.[14] The engines were test fired at the factory before being shipped to the Isle of Wight, where they were integrated into the rocket and the first stage engines were fired again at High Down.[15] Bristol Aerojet produced the third stage in Somerset, while the Explosives Research and Development Establishment produced its solid propellant in Waltham Abbey, Essex.[4] The Rocket Propulsion Establishment, based in Westcott, Buckinghamshire, was responsible for the design and integration of the stage.[4][16]

The majority of the technology and systems used on Black Arrow had already been developed or flight-proven on the Black Knight rocket, or the Blue Steel missile.[4] Black Arrow was designed to reuse as much technology from the earlier programmes as possible in order to reduce costs, and simplify the development process.[17] Many senior staff of the Black Knight programme transferred directly to Black Arrow, including the Chief Missile Scientist Roy Dommett, the Chief Design Engineer Ray Wheeler, and the Deputy Chief Engineer John Underwood.[18] Despite this effort, the programme encountered more difficulties and greater costs than had originally been anticipated.[19] This outcome was in no small part due to the austere budget that had been provided from the government of £3 million per year.[11][20]

The name Black Arrow came from the Ministry of Supply policy of assigning designations consisting of a colour and a noun, unofficially known as Rainbow Codes, to research programmes conducted by the Armed Forces.[3][21] Despite this naming convention, the programme was officially a civilian venture.[22] It was unofficially nicknamed the "Lipstick Rocket", as the fairing, which was painted bright red for visibility, made the rocket resemble a tube of lipstick.[23]

## Vehicle[edit]

Cutaway diagram, showing the positions of fuel and oxidiser tanks, engines, and the third stage inside the fairing.

Black Arrow was a relatively compact launch vehicle, being particularly slender as well as possibly being the shortest rocket to ever place a satellite into orbit.[24] The first and second stages of the Black Arrow were fuelled by RP-1 paraffin (kerosene), burnt using high test peroxide as an oxidiser.[5][25] Due to the optimum mixture ratio being about 7, a larger oxidiser tank was required compared to many contemporary launch systems.[26] The oxidiser tanks were located below the fuel tanks, following the practice of putting the more dense propellant at the top in order move the centre of gravity higher and make the rocket more stable, when in flight,[27] and thus easier to control.[4] This arrangement had been pioneered by Germany and the United States, whereas the Soviet Union had placed oxidiser tanks above fuel tanks, making it easier for the lower tank to be filled first.[28]

Thrust vectoring was used to provide attitude control on the first two stages.[4] The eight first stage combustion chambers were arranged in pairs which could gimbal either way along one axis.[4] Two of the pairs were arranged perpendicular to the other two, and when all four pairs were used together, they provided roll, pitch and yaw control.[4] The second stage had two combustion chambers, which could gimbal along two axes, providing the same level of control. During a coast phase after second stage cut-off, the rocket was controlled by a reaction control system.[4] The third stage did not have an attitude control system, and was instead spin-stabilised.[2] The guidance system used was derived from that of the cancelled BAC TSR-2 bomber.[24]

The first stage was powered by a single Gamma 8 engine, which burned for 127 seconds.[2] The Gamma 8 was an eight-chamber engine, derived from the Gamma 301 engine used on the Black Knight.[29] It was 6.9 metres (23 ft) long, and had a diameter of 2 metres (6 ft 7 in), the same diameter as the French Coralie.[2] Coralie was used as the second stage of the Europa rocket, and the decision to give Black Arrow the same diameter as Coralie was taken in order to make it compatible with Blue Streak, which was used as the first stage of Europa.[30] This would have allowed Black Arrow's payload capacity to have been increased, and would also have allowed Britain to use the first stage of Black Arrow as a backup to the Coralie.[31] For this reason, all dimensions in the original specification were given in imperial units except the first stage diameter, which was given in metric units.[30]

The first and second stages were connected by an interstage structure containing four Siskin IB separation and ullage motors, which separated and ignited seven seconds after the first stage had cut off.[4][32] The interstage separated from the second stage six seconds later. The second stage, which was 2.9 metres (9 ft 6 in) long and measured 1.37 metres (4 ft 6 in) in diameter, was powered by a two-chamber Gamma 2 engine[33] which ignited shortly after the separation motors, and continued to burn for 123 seconds.[2] Three minutes after launch, during the second stage burn, the payload fairing separated.[2]

The first two stages and open payload fairing of R4 on display at the Science Museum in London

About 257 seconds into the flight, the second stage cut off, and the rocket entered a coast phase to apogee.[2] Immediately after cut-off, the second stage attitude control system was pressurised. During the coast the correct orientation for third stage separation was maintained by means of the attitude control system.[2] Towards the end of the coast period, the third stage was spun up to a rate of 3 hertz (180 rpm) by means of six Imp rockets.[2] Five seconds later, the third stage separated,[4] and following ten more seconds of coasting, it ignited. The third stage was a Waxwing solid rocket motor, which burned for 55 seconds.[2]

Just over a minute after the third stage had burned out, the payload was released, and gas generators were used to push the spacecraft and spent upper stage apart.[2] The delay between burnout and separation was intended to reduce the risk of recontact between the upper stage and payload due to residual thrust. Despite this, following spacecraft separation on the R3 launch, the upper stage collided with the Prospero satellite,[2] damaging one of the spacecraft's communications antennae.[34] Despite this, the spacecraft was still able to successfully complete its mission.[34] On the R3 launch, the ascent took 710 seconds (11.8 min) from liftoff to spacecraft separation.[2]

Although none were ever built, several derivatives of Black Arrow were also proposed, typically focused upon increasing its payload capacity.[35] In its standard configuration, Black Arrow was not capable of launching some contemporary satellites up to a sufficient altitude to achieve geostationary orbit.[36] Accordingly, one proposal was to add eight Raven solid rocket motors from the Skylark programme to the first stage as booster rockets.[4] Another suggestion was to mount the entire rocket atop a Blue Streak missile,[37][38] while a third proposal involved replacing the Gamma engines with the more powerful Larch.[4]

## Launches[edit]

The colour scheme used on all flights except R0, with stripes on the first stage for determining roll angle, and a coloured fairing to increase visibility.

Four Black Arrows were launched between 1969 and 1971.[39] The first two launches were demonstration flights, with battleship third stages and a boilerplate payload. On the maiden flight, an electrical fault caused a pair of first stage combustion chambers to pivot back and forth.[40] Before it cleared the launch pad, the rocket was rolling erratically, and about a minute later it began to disintegrate. After the first stage engine failed, and the rocket began to fall back to earth, it was destroyed by range safety.[41][42] This initial failure was a considerable blow to the programme, particularly as there were insufficient financial reserves to accommodate a second unsuccessful launch. The second Black Arrow vehicle was returned to Britain for inspection and fixes ahead of the next launch.[43]

The second launch, performed on 4 March 1970, was entirely successful.[43] On 2 September 1970, the third launch of the Black Arrow took place; it was the first all-up launch as well as Britain's first attempt to launch a satellite. This launch failed due to a leak in the second stage oxidiser pressurisation system, which caused it to cut out early. The third stage fired, but the rocket did not reach orbit, and re-entered over the Gulf of Carpentaria.[44] An extensive programme review was conducted in the aftermath of the third launch, which determined the Black Arrow's design to have no fundamental flaws and that only minor modifications were required.[45]

The fourth launch, performed on 28 October 1971, successfully orbited the Prospero (before the R2 mission, it was named Puck) satellite, making the United Kingdom the sixth nation to place a satellite into orbit by means of an indigenously developed carrier rocket. The satellite, also known as X-3, was named Prospero after the character Prospero in Shakespeare's The Tempest. The name was chosen as a reference to events in the play, in which Prospero, a sorcerer, gives up his powers.[46] Prior to the cancellation of the Black Arrow programme, the satellite was to be named after Puck from A Midsummer Night's Dream.[5]

All four launches were conducted from Launch Area 5B at the RAAF Woomera Range Complex in Australia, which had previously been used as a test site for the Black Knight rocket.[47] During the development programme, launch sites in Barbados, Uist and Norfolk were also considered. The launch sites at Uist and Norfolk were rejected because the former was too remote, while there was a risk that a rocket launched from the latter might drop spent stages on an oil rig in the North Sea.[24][48]

Serial number | Launch date/time (GMT)  | Payload  | Outcome  | Remarks

|
|
|
|

R0  | 28 June 1969, 22:58[1] | None  | Failure  | Suborbital test of first and second stages, thrust vectoring failed[41]
R1  | 4 March 1970, 21:15[1] | None  | Success  | Suborbital test of first and second stages
R2  | 2 September 1970, 00:34[1] | Orba[1] | Failure  | Second stage failed to pressurise
R3  | 28 October 1971, 04:09[49] | Prospero[49] | Success  | Successfully reached Earth orbit
R4  | Not launched  | Preserved at the Science Museum in London[4]

## Cancellation[edit]

Black Arrow R4 on display in the Science Museum, with the stages and fairing separated, and the flight spare of the Prospero satellite

The Minister of State for Trade and Industry, Frederick Corfield, announced the cancellation of the Black Arrow project in the House of Commons on 29 July 1971.[50][45] Britain would instead focus its space activities on building satellites and rely on foreign launch vehicles instead.[51] As the R3 rocket had already been shipped to the launch site, the second stage having arrived three days earlier, permission was given for it to be launched.[2]

The programme was cancelled on economic grounds, as the Ministry of Defence decided that it would be cheaper to use the American Scout rocket, which had a similar payload capacity, for future launches.[6][52][53] Prior to the cancellation of Black Arrow, NASA had offered to launch British payloads for free; however, this offer was withdrawn following the decision to cancel Black Arrow.[2]

The final Black Arrow to be completed was R4, which did not fly, and is preserved in the Science Museum, London, along with the flight spare for the Prospero satellite.[54][55] A replica of the Black Arrow rocket stands in the Rocket Park at Woomera. In addition, the remains of the first stage of Black Arrow R3 were recovered from the Anna Creek cattle station and were displayed in the William Creek Memorial Park.[56] Due to weather and vandalism related damage, the first stage was returned to the United Kingdom in an initiative led by Skyrora to preserve the artefact.[57] It was displayed in Penicuik, Scotland, in early 2019; as of 2021, the rocket is on loan to the Farnborough Air Sciences Trust Museum through 2024.[58]

The first stage of Black Arrow R3, on display at William Creek following its return to Earth

The launch facilities at Woomera were demolished within a year of the final flight,[4] and half of the engineers who had worked on the programme were laid off.[41] The X-4 satellite, which had been manifested for launch by Black Arrow R4, was eventually launched on 9 March 1974, by an American Scout D-1 rocket flying from Space Launch Complex 5 at the Vandenberg Air Force Base in California.[59]

As of 2022, the United Kingdom is the only country to have successfully developed and then abandoned a satellite launch capability.[60] All other countries that have developed such a capability have retained it either through their own space programme or, in the case of France, through its involvement in the Ariane programme.[60]

## See also[edit]

* Rocketry portal
* Spaceflight portal

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Black Arrow.

* Comparison of orbital launchers families
* Comparison of orbital launch systems
* Ariel 1
* British National Space Centre
* Diamant
* Juno I
* Lambda (rocket family)
* Satellite Launch Vehicle
* Sputnik (rocket)
* Black Knight

## References[edit]

### Citations[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f g h Wade, Mark. "Black Arrow". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 6 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hill 2006,[page needed].
3. ^ a b Gibson and Buttler 2007,[page needed].
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Millard 2001,[page needed].
5. ^ a b c "British Space Race". Timeshift. BBC. BBC Four.
6. ^ a b Hill, C. N. "Black Arrow Cancellation". Space UK. Archived from the original on 7 June 2009. Retrieved 29 March 2009.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
7. ^ Hill 2006, p. 188.
8. ^ Hill 2006, p. 227.
9. ^ "Session 4". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 25 October 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
10. ^ "Session 5". Black Arrow: British Rocket Science and the Cold War. Science Museum. Archived from the original on 7 June 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
11. ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 84.
12. ^ Hill 2006, pp. 22, 193.
13. ^ "VIDEO Isle of Wight marks 50 years since historic space race rocket programme". Isle of Wight County Press. Retrieved 21 February 2022.
14. ^ Hill 2006, pp. 29-30.
15. ^ Rees, Bill. "High Down, Isle of Wight". Hengistbury Head: An Introduction. Archived from the original on 24 July 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
16. ^ Harvey 2003, p. 20.
17. ^ Harvey 2003, p. 37.
18. ^ The One Show. 5 August 2009. 17 minutes in. BBC One.
19. ^ Hill 2006, p. 213.
20. ^ Hill 2006, p. 52.
21. ^ Hill 2006, p. 16.
22. ^ Hill 2006, pp. 16, 197.
23. ^ Shillito, Paul (8 October 2017). "Black Arrow : The Lipstick Rocket – A Very British Space Program". Curious Droid. Retrieved 14 June 2023.
24. ^ a b c Harvey 2003, p. 86.
25. ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 84-86.
26. ^ Wade, Mark. "H2O2/Kerosene". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 22 October 2009. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
27. ^ "Rocket Stability". www.grc.nasa.gov.
28. ^ Wade, Mark. "Soyuz". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 29 July 2009.
29. ^ Hill 2006, p. 38.
30. ^ a b Hill 2006, p. 131.
31. ^ Hill, C. N. "BA Sectional". Space UK. Archived from the original on 2 January 2008. Retrieved 8 March 2009.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
32. ^ Hill, C. N. "Solid Fuel Motors". Space UK. Archived from the original on 18 January 2005. Retrieved 29 July 2009.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
33. ^ "Gamma 2 Engine". Royal Aircraft Establishment Black Arrow Cutaway. Airspace. Archived from the original on 31 January 2009. Retrieved 4 March 2009.
34. ^ a b Parkin, L. W. (April 1975). "The performance of Black Arrow in the launch of the Prospero satellite". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 28: 263. Bibcode:1975JBIS...28..263P.
35. ^ Hill 2006, p. 189.
36. ^ Hill 2006, pp. 127, 202.
37. ^ Hill 2006, pp. 131-132, 232.
38. ^ Harvey 2003, p. 38.
39. ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 86-89.
40. ^ Harland and Lorenz 2006, pp. 97-98.
41. ^ a b c Stracy, Mathew; Myerscough, Joe. Once We Had A Rocket (Documentary). Space.co.uk. Archived from the original (flv) on 14 February 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
42. ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 86-87.
43. ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 87.
44. ^ Hill, C. N. "Black Arrow". SpaceUK. Archived from the original on 25 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
45. ^ a b Harvey 2003, p. 88.
46. ^ O'Brien, Stephen. "Black Arrow". Britain in Space. Archived from the original on 29 August 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
47. ^ Hill 2006, p. 13.
48. ^ Hill, C. N. "North Sea". Black Arrow. SpaceUK. Archived from the original on 23 December 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
49. ^ a b Crowe, C. T. (5 November 1971). "Information Furnished in Conformity with General Assembly Resolution 1721 B (XVI) by States Launching Objects into Orbit or Beyond". Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space. United Nations. Archived from the original (pdf) on 28 September 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2009.
50. ^ Hill 2006, p. 14.
51. ^ Harvey 2003, pp. 90-91.
52. ^ Harvey 2003, p. 90.
53. ^ Hill 2006, p. 340.
54. ^ "Black Arrow R4 launch vehicle, 1971". Science Museum. Retrieved 5 May 2020.
55. ^ Harvey 2003, p. 89.
56. ^ O'Brien, Stephen. "Image Archive". Britain in Space. Archived from the original on 12 August 2005. Retrieved 9 March 2009.
57. ^ "Black Arrow: UK space rocket returns home from Australia". BBC News. 21 January 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2019.
58. ^ "The History of the UK's Black Arrow Rocket Programme". Skyrora. 26 May 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2021.
59. ^ Wade, Mark. "Scout". Encyclopedia Astronautica. Archived from the original on 27 April 2009. Retrieved 9 March 2008.
60. ^ a b Wheeler, Brian (12 January 2004). "Britain's first space pioneers". Magazine. BBC News Online. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 9 March 2009.

### Bibliography[edit]

* Gibson, Chris; Buttler, Tony (2007). British Secret Projects: Hypersonics, Ramjets & Missiles (2007 ed.). England: Midland Publishing. ISBN 9 78-1-85780-258-0.
* Harland, David M.; Lorenz, Ralph D. (2005). Mason, John; Whyte, Alex (eds.). Space Systems Failures (2006 ed.). Berlin, Germany: Springer-Praxis. pp. 97–98. ISBN 0-387-21519-0.
* Harvey, Brian (2003). Europe's Space Programme: To Ariane and Beyond. Springer. ISBN 1-85233-722-2.
* Hill, C. N. (2001). "Black Arrow". A Vertical Empire: The History of the UK Rocket and Space Programme, 1950–1971 (2006 ed.). London: Imperial College Press. pp. 155–188. ISBN 1-86094-268-7.
* Millard, Douglas (2001). The Black Arrow Rocket: A History of a Satellite Launch Vehicle and its Engines. London: Science Museum. ISBN 1-900747-41-3.

## External links[edit]

* Listen Ray Wheeler, Chief Design Engineer, discussing Black Arrow \- part of a life story interview recorded for An Oral History of British Science at the British Library
* BBC Radio 4 – "The Archive Hour – Britain's Space Race". 11 August 2007.

* v
* t
* e

Black Arrow rockets

Main articles|

* Black Arrow
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Components|

* Gamma
* Waxwing

Payloads|

* Orba
* R2 Instrument Package
* Prospero

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* Delta
* DSV-2U
* Thorad-Agena
* SLV-2G
* SLV-2H
* Titan
* II GLV
* IIIA
* IIIB
* IIIC
* IIID
* IIIE
* 34D
* 23G
* CT-3
* IV
* Tsyklon
* R-36-O
* original
* 2
* 3
* Universal Rocket
* UR-500 Proton
* Proton-K
* Rokot
* Strela
* Vanguard
* VLS-1†
* Zenit
* 2
* 2M
* 2FG
* Zhuque
* 1†

Classes|

* Sounding rocket
* Small-lift launch vehicle
* Medium-lift launch vehicle
* Heavy-lift launch vehicle
* Super heavy-lift launch vehicle

* This Template lists historical, current, and future space rockets that at least once attempted (but not necessarily succeeded in) an orbital launch or that are planned to attempt such a launch in the future
* Symbol † indicates past or current rockets that attempted orbital launches but never succeeded (never did or has yet to perform a successful orbital launch)

* v
* t
* e

European orbital launch systems

Active|

* Vega

In development|

* Ariane 6
* Ariane Next
* Bloostar
* Haas 2b
* Haas 2CA
* Miura 5
* North Star
* RFA One
* Skylon
* Spectrum

Retired|

* Ariane
* 1
* 2
* 3
* 4
* 5
* Black Arrow
* Diamant
* Europa

Cancelled|

* Aldebaran
* Ariane 5 ME
* Ariane M
* Capricornio
* Haas
* Hopper
* HOTOL
* Hyperion SSTO
* Liberty
* Liquid Fly-back Booster Derivatives
* BAC Mustard
* OTRAG
* SOAR

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
* Space policy
* Space traffic management
* Space debris management
* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
* Planetary protection principle
* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War space race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
* Space competition

Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
* European Space Research and Technology Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
* European Data Relay System
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme
* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* list of scientists
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble Space Telescope
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)
* list of scientists

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* African Space Agency
* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Iran
* North Korea
* Russia
* Spain
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* Italy
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African and Pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* EGSA
* NARSS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* AEM
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

South America|

* ALCE
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian and Pan-Arab|

* APSCO
* Arabsat

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* SSD
* CASIC
* JAXA
* ISAS
* JSS
* NICT
* NATA
* KARI
* SaTReC
* TASA

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO 2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* LAPAN
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

Southwest Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSC
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESRTC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR 2
* BelSPo
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSC
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NSC
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA 2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

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