Black women in the American music industry

This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these messages)

This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (May 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

(Learn how and when to remove this message)

The lack of respect that black women received in the music industry gave rise to hip hop feminism, as singers such as Monie Love brought attention to the differences in acknowledgment that existed even for equal talent. The movement tackles problems arising from deindustrialization, racial wealth disparities, and conservative backlash. It was molded by the social environment of the 1980s and 1990s. Meshell Ndegeocello, an American rapper, singer and bassist Angie Stone, a singer, are two artists that have shaped the conversation. Hip-hop feminism goes beyond gender issues to support the rights of women, African Americans, and LGBTQ+ people. Queen Latifah, a prominent figure in the genre, used "the politics of respectability" to promote women's rights and racial empowerment. Ndegeocello is one of the rising queer feminists of color who brings a nuanced viewpoint to problems like abortion and unjust beauty standards. Changes in perspectives are reflected in the transition from male-dominated hip hop music to women-centered hip hop soul, which allows for a diversity of narratives within black communities. The Grammy-winning song "U.N.I.T.Y." by Queen Latifah was a historic moment that validated the powerful voice of black women in a male-dominated field and sparked discussions about domestic abuse and the commodification of black women's sexuality. In the United States, the introduction of new styles of music came during the Transatlantic Slave Trade era. The genres of music include, but are not limited to, blues, rock, gospel music, jazz, bluegrass, and Hip-hop. African American women in the music industry have made significant contributions over the years.[1]

This legacy starts in the 1870s with the Fisk Jubilee Singers, who performed many different genres of music including traditional spirituals, blues, classic jazz and rhythm and blues, also commonly referred to as R&B. The Fisk Jubilee Singers became popular throughout the world for singing traditional spirituals during their tours in both the United States and England.[2] Stigmas surrounding African American woman during the 20th century may have made it difficult for them to have a strong presence in mainstream music. Despite this, women were still authoritative in the genres of blues, jazz, and R&B.[3]

## Early Music and the Harlem Renaissance

[edit]

### Jazz

[edit]

African-American women have played a significant role in shaping jazz and Hip-Hop/Rap genres, contributing as singers and instrumentalists. Historically, these genres were predominantly male-dominated, but African-American women have emerged as influential figures, challenging traditional norms. Rap music is defined as a genre that includes a recurring beat pattern in the background accompanied by rhythmic speech. The piano helped female artists with their jazz performances and abilities which granted women a degree of acceptance in the music industry. This allowed for women to not only grow as artists but allowed their platforms to open as well. With good exposure, the hope was that they were able to connect with other artists and uplift one another through music.[4] Music can create a sense of identity within themselves and awareness for audiences.

Mary Lou Williams,[5] who is seen as a popular pianist, is also referred to as one of America's best known and revered jazz women.[6] Williams gained her first spotlight and support from within her hometown which is Kansas City, where she developed into one of the most "sought after pianists in Kansas City".[6] Through her compositions, Williams is said to have influenced the evolution of the "big band"[7] sound. Based on her innovative writing techniques, Williams gained the opportunity to compose for many well known jazz innovators such as Louis Armstrong,[5] and Duke Ellington.[5] Williams decided to not move to the New York area until the early 1940s. It was during this time that a new style of music was emerging known as the, "bebop." She seamlessly adapted to composing music in this new style, which is recognized as a sub-genre of jazz. She later went on to lead various women's music groups, and founded one of the first women-owned recording companies. The male dominated music industry created a negative stigma towards women, most could not make it in the industry as individual performers. Although all-women jazz bands and family-based jazz groups were popular during World War II, many male jazz musicians were drafted to fight in the war. All women bands had the opportunity to gain popularity and build their platform because of this. Some of these bands included Darlings of Rhythm and the International Sweethearts of Rhythm.[8]

Years later multiple African-American women were able to succeed as individual singers as well as rappers in the industry. Some of the most successful names include Ella Fitzgerald, Dinah Washington, Lena Horne, Billie Holiday [Lil Kim]], [Queen Latifah]], MC Lyte, [Missy Elliot]] , and [Lauryn Hill]].[9] Ella Fitzgerald, known as "The First Lady of Song", sold over 40 million records and won 13 Grammy Awards.[10]

### Blues

[edit]

The 1920s blues, known as the classic blues, was a genre largely popularized by African-American women. Singers such as Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith, Alberta Hunter, and Ethel Waters were the most popular.[11] Ma Rainey, referred to as the "Mother of the Blues", became popular in the early 1900s. Rainey was the first popular black women stage entertainer to incorporate authentic blues into her song selection. She is known for the "Jump Blues"[6] which incorporated a racy and theatrical style. Bessie Smith, who was known as the "empress of the blues"[6] showcased the classic blues. Smith started her professional career as a dancer in the Moses Stokes Company which Rainey was the lead singer of at the time.

Male-dominated country blues grew in popularity and women fell out of the spotlight for a while because of this.[until when?] During the blues revival, about 30 years later, Mamie Smith became the first black women vocalist to record a blues song.[12] While "Crazy Blues" is cited as the first blues recording and also represents the emergence of black women singers into popular music culture. Both black and white consumers purchased the record, and record company executives recognized it as a lucrative marketing segment.[13]

## R&B and its descendants

[edit]

### R&B

[edit]

Soul and R&B have their roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s. While these genres have mainly focused on breaking down the massive barriers between black and white Americans most of the singers within this genre had Southern roots. They sang to voice their opinions, concerns, feelings, and views on life. Artists in this genre include Sister Rosetta Tharpe, Bessie Smith, and Aretha Franklin. Aretha Franklin, gained prominence in the 1960s.[14][15] Franklin signed her record deal at the age of eighteen after singing at her church in Detroit.[16] Some of the most highlighted collaborations were with musicians having a background in gospel music. She chose to follow this path and reinvent herself landing five number one hits and a Grammy.[17] In 1967 and 1968, Franklin reached commercial success, recording more than a dozen million-selling singles.[18] Mahalia Jackson was another woman artist known as the "Queen of Gospel" who had an impact on the civil rights movement with her songs.[19][20] Aretha Franklin covered one of her more popular songs, "How I Got Over". It was a more upbeat version with James Cleveland and The Southern California Community Choir.[21] Both Aretha Franklin and Mahalia Jackson had major songs during the civil rights movement: Franklin's version of Otis Redding's "Respect" and Jackson's "I've Been 'Buked and I've Been Scorned", which she performed at the march on Washington after being asked by Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.[20][22] Despite their role in popularizing black music and culture, few black women are recognized in the emergence of rap and hip-hop culture in the 1970s-1980s.[23][24][25]

### Rap

[edit]

A version of hip hop emerged in the 1990s that transformed the upbeat music of earlier decades into a thought provoking awareness of the world which seemed to romanticize poverty, drug use, drug dealing and gang violence.[26] Popular Female artists in this genre include Queen Latifah, Missy Elliot, Nicki Minaj, Cardi-B, and Salt-N-Pepa. MC Sha-Rock was named the "mother of the mic as she was the first Female emcee in hip hop. She then joined the hip hop group that were the first ever to receive a record deal called "The Funky 4+1." Sha-Rock helped push Rap into a mainstream spotlight for the rest of America and the world. This genre of music has been criticized for sexually objectifying not only women of color but all women.[27] Artists such as Monie Love and Queen Latifah made music that empowered women, and called for unity between female artists. Latifah and Love's hit single "Ladies First" celebrates women across the music industry. Artists such as Missy Elliott, Lauryn Hill, and Eve were applauded for their efforts as they changed the game for female artists with their innovation. Hill was a multi purpose artist, meaning she wrote, produced, and performed her music on her own. Hill was awarded 5 Grammies in 1999 for her efforts. In modern years of Rap, women's images have become as important as their musical skill. Modern Female artists such as Saweetie, Megan Thee Stallion, and the City Girls use their sex appeal as the focal point of their music. The language used in modern rap music has been criticized by critics for the prevalence of slang terms such as "bitch," "hoe," "slut," or "thot".[28] Social media has now become part of the music industry as a way for these women to promote music in many ways as these songs go viral and are backed by trends. Some of these women have become the top selling female artists of all time. Cardi B is the only female solo artist to win a Grammy for Best Rap Album. Women are back on top of the charts with the songs rapped by Megan Thee Stallion, Doja Cat, Lizzo, and many more.[29]

### Female Rappers Point Of view

[edit]

Nicki Minaj's concerns and frustrations regarding the Grammy Awards and the broader music industry reflect a long-standing issue of systemic biases and challenges faced by artists, particularly those who are women and people of color. Her argument about being placed in the Pop category instead of the Hip Hop/Rap category highlights the complexities of genre classification and the impact it can have on an artist's recognition and success. The categorization of music genres is subjective and can sometimes reflect broader industry trends and biases. Nicki Minaj's comments on the industry's conservative efforts and the elevation of newer artists over longer standing ones resonate with broader discussions about representation and recognition in the entertainment business. The issue of diversity and inclusivity, both in terms of race and gender, has been a recurring theme in the music industry, with many artists advocating for more equitable treatment and opportunities. Nicki Minaj has called for artists to speak out against unfair practices and biases in the music industry which is a reflection of a growing trend where musicians are utilizing their platforms to address systemic issues. Advocacy for change, transparency, and fairness in the music industry is crucial for creating an environment where all artists, regardless of their background, can thrive and receive recognition. Discussions around these issues are ongoing, and the music industry continues to grapple with the need for systemic change to ensure a more equitable and inclusive space for all artists.[30]

### Hip-Hop Feminism

[edit]

Main article: Hip hop feminism

Hip-Hop Feminism has its roots in attempts to reclaim the positive position of black women in the music industry. Female rapper Monie Love had once said "you could be as good as any man and you still wasn't getting the level of respect that you deserved as a woman on the mic." The conservative backlash of the 1980s and 1990s deindustrialization, as well as the slashing of the welfare state, the attendant gutting of social programs and affirmative action, along with the increasing racial wealth gap, have affected the lived worlds and world views of the hip-hop generation.[31] Hip-hop feminism also aims at reclaiming the sexualization of black women as pleasurable and consensual.[31]

Some notable artists include Me’Shell Ndegeocello and Angie Stone.

Hip-hop feminism has had a political impact with regards to the rights of women, African Americans, and the LGBTQ community. Hip-hop feminism has been largely shaped by a sociopolitical agenda because of this. This has created a second and third wave of black American women who are artists, both of whom share a different opinion through their songs. However, there are theoretical and practical linkages between the generations and their music.[32]

Queen Latifah is one of hip hop's most notable MCs. Her music is known for her pro-black & pro-feminist themes.

One aspect of hip-hop feminism is its use of "the politics of respectability",[33] a term coined by Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, which describes several strategies for progressive black women artists to more effectively promote a message of racial uplift and women's rights to a bigger audience. These methods largely regard notions of self-respect, honor, piety, and propriety. Respectability politics has been a useful way of improving conditions for African-Americans, by providing black women artists with a platform to talk about the de jure and de facto racist and misogynistic practices they experience.[34]

More recently there has been an emergence of queer feminists of color in hip-hop. One example of this is Me’Shell Ndegeocello, who made her debut in 1993. In her lyrics, Ndegeocello brings awareness to the realities that the black community faces, such as abortion, low-income housing, and unfair US beauty standards. Ndegeocello's lyrics further explore her queer identity in songs like "Mary Magdalene" and "Pocketbook".[35]

Through hip-hop soul women created an aesthetic that represented and engaged in politics of sexuality and gender in working-class black communities. By allowing women in hip-hop soul to offer narratives that highlighted their multidimensional nature, they offered experiences other black women could relate to.[36] The shift from male-dominated hip-hop to women-centered as well as women-told hip-hop soul highlights the shift in previous perceptions of women within hip-hop culture.

Rapper and actress Queen Latifah made history when she won a Grammy for her groundbreaking hit, "U.N.I.T.Y.," in 1995. The song spoke out against domestic violence and the objectification of black women's sexuality. "U.N.I.T.Y." began a conversation in the African American community over violence and assault against women. It also established that black women rappers had a powerful voice in a field unjustly dominated by men.

## Contemporary Music Industry

[edit]

Beyoncé

Source:[37]

Today, women rappers are using rap lyrics to define an independent Black female identity. Examples include Queen Latifah, Salt 'N' Pepa, MC Lyte and Eve, who criticize men who abuse and manipulate women. Other women (Beyoncé, Lauryn Hill, Rihanna, Nicki Minaj, Alicia Keys, Kehlani, Mariah Carey, Missy Elliott, Janet Jackson and Zap Mama) use hip-hop as a platform to empower black women and other minorities around the world.[38]

Queen Latifah is classified as one of the biggest influences in the music industry.[39] She released her album, All Hail the Queen at the age of nineteen. The album had feminist themes that attracted a wide audience. Queen Latifah promoted women's importance, demanding equal treatment of women and the importance of women supporting each other.[40] She was the first woman[41] MC to ever go gold which paved the way for other women rappers. Black Reign was her most popular album and included her biggest single, U.N.I.T.Y, which won a Grammy for Best Solo Rap Performance.[42]

Beyoncé Knowles has won the most Grammys of all time with 32 Grammys(as of 2024), and is the only artist in history to have all of her eight studio albums reach the top of Billboard's album charts. Knowles most recent work(as of 2016), Lemonade, contends with the issues black women face while living in America. For example, the song "Freedom" which talks about blackness in America, includes amazing visuals of various fierce black women who proudly rock picked-out afros and other dynamic hairstyles in scenes that reflect and reaffirm black beauty".[43] The visual for "Freedom" contains powerful, moving images of black women who have lost black men in their lives, including Gwen Carr, Sybrina Fulton, and Lezley McSpadden, who are the mothers of Eric Garner, Trayvon Martin, and Michael Brown, respectively.[43]

Sylvia Rhone, who is now CEO of Epic Records, has been a pioneer in the music business for decades.[44][45][46] She began her career in the music industry with Buddah Records in 1974, and went on to spend time at ABC Records, Ariola Records, Elektra, Atlantic Records, and finally Epic Records.[44][45][46] Rhone has gone on to discover and mentor several renowned current artists including DJ Khaled, 21 Savage, Camila Cabello, Travis Scott, Future, Meghan Trainor, French Montana, and many more.[44][45][46]

Born in Portsmouth, Virginia, Missy Elliott emerged from humble beginnings to become a groundbreaking figure in music. Her journey began in a female R&B group, Swing Mob, but her talent soon transcended conventional roles. She forged her path, collaborating with artists like Aaliyah and Janet Jackson and was crafting hits like Get Ur Freak On and Work It that reshaped the sound of the late '90s and early 2000s. Her boundary-pushing visuals, alongside her confident and diverse artistry, not only challenged stereotypes but also became a catalyst for inclusivity and creativity for women in Black American music.[47]

## Influence of Music Videos

[edit]

Studies have shown that Black women are diminished in hip-hop and rap music videos.[48] When black women are represented, it often is portrayed in a way that reinforces stereotypes regarding gender roles; specifically, women are more likely to be shown in submissive positions to men.[49][50]

Black women are often sexualized in hip hop and rap music videos. They are often referred to as video "thots", "hoes", or "vixens".[51][52] They can often be seen wearing revealing clothing, like lingerie, short-cut shorts or swimsuit. However, in recent years Black women have become more dominant and the gender role can often be switched. Many scholars have argued that women are sexualized in these videos to enhance the hyper-masculinity of the featured male rappers.[53][54][55]

When Black women perform in music videos, they are sometimes seen in the Eurocentric form of beauty: lighter skinned and thin but not always.[56] This specific image is what rap and R&B music videos are looking for, including those that portray black women as main characters.[57] In 2004, women at Spelman College protested a bone-marrow drive sponsored by Nelly over the visuals in his latest music video Tip Drill.[58] The video featured dozens of women dancing in thong bikinis dancing around a swimming pool and on men. The scene that has caused the most uproar is a visual of Nelly swiping a credit card through a woman's buttocks.[59] Even 15 years later, the producer of the video, Kareem Johnson, defends the video and the credit card scene specifically stating "If the girls weren’t in the video, this wouldn’t be a conversation. They were willing participants. That’s the part that was missed. The model never requested the scene to be edited. If Nelly has to be held accountable, so does the model. Responsibility needs to be shared."[60][61]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Becker, Rachel. "Women in Jazz". Study.com. Retrieved November 21, 2023.
2. ^ "History of African-American Music". Gale Resource Library. Gale. Retrieved 1 November 2017.[permanent dead link]
3. ^ "Black Women in the Music Industry – 24 Hour Gospel". Retrieved 2019-04-24.
4. ^ "Fashioning Power and Gender in Hip-Hop". National Museum of African American History and Culture. Retrieved 2023-12-01.
5. ^ a b c "Louis Armstrong Biography". The Biography.com website. May 17, 2018.
6. ^ a b c d Appell, Glenn (2006). American Popular Music. Belmont, CA 94002: Thomson Wadsworth. p. 273\. ISBN 0155062298.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
7. ^ "Big Band Definition". Merriam-Webster.com. May 17, 2018.
8. ^ Howze, Margaret. "Jazz Profiles from NPR Women in Jazz Part 1". NPR. Retrieved 16 June 2021.
9. ^ "10 Great Ladies Of Jazz". Sabotagetimes.com. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
10. ^ "Ella Fitzgerald". Biography.com. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
11. ^ "The History of African-American Music". Gale Resource Library. Gale. Retrieved 1 November 2017. [verification needed]
12. ^ Garner, Carla (16 January 2011). "Smith,Mamie". Blackpast.com. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
13. ^ Taft, Michael. "Mamie Smith and the Birth of the Blues Market". NPR. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
14. ^ Suggs, Ernie; Poole, Shelia M. "Aretha Franklin used her voice to 'deliver music for social justice'". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
15. ^ "Aretha Franklin, legendary singer and symbol of black pride and women's liberation, dies at 76". Washington Post. 16 August 2018. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
16. ^ Blatty, David. "Aretha Franklin Dies at Age 76". Biography. Retrieved 2019-05-02.
17. ^ Hoke, Kay. "Women in American Popular Music". EBSCO Host. Retrieved 1 November 2017.[permanent dead link]
18. ^ "Queen of Soul Biography". Arethafranklin.net. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
19. ^ "Mahalia Jackson - Queen of Gospel". mahaliajackson.us. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
20. ^ a b "Mahalia Jackson". Biography. Retrieved 7 May 2019.
21. ^ "Aretha Franklin - How I Got Over (Official Audio)". 10 February 2019. Retrieved 7 May 2019 - via YouTube.
22. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. "How Aretha Franklin's 'Respect' became an anthem for civil rights and feminism". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2021-01-20.
23. ^ "hip-hop | Definition, History, Culture, & Facts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
24. ^ "The Emergence of Hip-Hop". The Paley Center for Media. Archived from the original on 2018-05-15. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
25. ^ "Hip-hop pioneers: The women who shaped a cultural legacy". AXS. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
26. ^ Tate, Greg. "Gangsta Rap". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
27. ^ Frisby M., S. Aubrey, Cynthia and Jennifer (February 27, 2012). "Race and Genre in the Use of Sexual Objectification in Female Artists' Music Videos" (PDF). Howard Journal of Communications. 23: 66–87. doi:10.1080/10646175.2012.641880. S2CID 7881661.
28. ^ Conyers, Chakra. "What Hip Hop Says to Young Black Woman". Rap Rehab. Retrieved 16 March 2017.
29. ^ Zaru, Deena (October 18, 2021). "'All hail the queens': A look back at the legacy of women in hip-hop". 'All hail the queens': A look back at the legacy of women in hip-hop. Retrieved November 20, 2023.
30. ^ Wagstaff, Keniera (2023-02-07). "Let's Talk About Black Women In The Music Industry". Medium. Retrieved 2023-12-02.
31. ^ a b Durham, Aisha (2013). "The stage Hip Hop Feminism Built a New Directions Essay". Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society. 38 (3): 721–737. doi:10.1086/668843. JSTOR 10.1086/668843. S2CID 146469213.
32. ^ Peoples, Whitney A. (11 January 2018). ""Under Construction": Identifying Foundations of Hip-Hop Feminism and Exploring Bridges between Black Second-Wave and Hip-Hop Feminisms". Meridians. 8 (1): 19–52. doi:10.2979/MER.2007.8.1.19. JSTOR 40338910.
33. ^ Durham, Aisha; Cooper, Brittney C.; Morris, Susana M. (2013). "The Stage Hip-Hop Feminism Built: A New Directions Essay". Signs. 38 (3): 721–737. doi:10.1086/668843. ISSN 0097-9740. JSTOR 10.1086/668843. S2CID 146469213.
34. ^ Durham, Aisha; Cooper, Brittney C.; Morris, Susana M. (11 January 2018). "The Stage Hip-Hop Feminism Built: A New Directions Essay". Signs. 38 (3): 721–737. doi:10.1086/668843. JSTOR 10.1086/668843. S2CID 146469213.
35. ^ Clay, Andreana (11 January 2018). ""Like an Old Soul Record": Black Feminism, Queer Sexuality, and the Hip-Hop Generation". Meridians. 8 (1): 53–73. doi:10.2979/MER.2007.8.1.53. JSTOR 40338911.
36. ^ Lindsey, Treva B. (2013). "If You Look in My Life: Love, Hip-Hop Soul, and Contemporary African American Womanhood". African American Review. 46 (1): 87–99. doi:10.1353/afa.2013.0004. ISSN 1062-4783. JSTOR 23783603. S2CID 161453628.
37. ^ de Klerk, Sacha (November 20, 2020). "Why should you stop referring to women as 'females'?".
38. ^ Brooks, Lori. "The History of African American Music". Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 1 June 2017.
39. ^ Hunt, Dennis (1991-09-08). "10 Questions: Queen Latifah". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2021-01-20.
40. ^ Roberts, Robin (1994). ""Ladies First": Queen Latifah's Afrocentric Feminist Music Video". African American Review. 28 (2): 245–257. doi:10.2307/3041997. ISSN 1062-4783. JSTOR 3041997.
41. ^ Hanna, Devan (2021-03-31). "Stop Using "Female" When You Mean "Woman"". Golin. Retrieved 2023-11-13.
42. ^ "Queen Latifah - Biography & History". AllMusic. Retrieved 11 January 2018.
43. ^ a b Workneh, Lilly (April 24, 2016). "Beyonce's' Lemonade' Is a Powerful Ode to Black Women Everywhere". HuffPost.
44. ^ a b c "How Sylvia Rhone Became Sony Music's Most Powerful African-American Woman: 'Many Questioned My Ability'". Billboard. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
45. ^ a b c Daniels, Karu F. (23 April 2019). "Sylvia Rhone named chairman and CEO of Epic Records". Daily News. New York. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
46. ^ a b c "Sylvia Rhone | Berklee College of Music". berklee.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-30.
47. ^ Houghton, Cillea (2023-02-15). "Top 10 Songs by Missy Elliott". American Songwriter. Retrieved 2023-12-12.
48. ^ Conrad, Kate; Dixon, Travis L.; Zhang, Yuanyuan (2009-02-27). "Controversial Rap Themes, Gender Portrayals and Skin Tone Distortion: A Content Analysis of Rap Music Videos". Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media. 53 (1): 134–156. doi:10.1080/08838150802643795. ISSN 0883-8151. S2CID 51858666.
49. ^ Ward, L. Monique; Hansbrough, Edwina; Walker, Eboni (2005). "Contributions of Music Video Exposure to Black Adolescents' Gender and Sexual Schemas". Journal of Adolescent Research. 20 (2): 143–166. doi:10.1177/0743558404271135. ISSN 0743-5584. S2CID 145216855.
50. ^ Sommers-Flanagan, Rita; Sommers-Flanagan, John; Davis, Britta (1993). "What's happening on Music Television? A gender role content analysis". Sex Roles. 28 (11–12): 745–753. doi:10.1007/bf00289991. ISSN 0360-0025. S2CID 73655182.
51. ^ T Denean Sharpley-Whiting (2007). Pimps Up, Ho's Down : Hip Hop's Hold on Young Black Women. NYU Press. ISBN 9780814786505. OCLC 779828349.
52. ^ Shelton, Maria L. (September 1997). "Can't touch this! representations of the African American women body in urban rap videos". Popular Music and Society. 21 (3): 107–116. doi:10.1080/03007769708591681. ISSN 0300-7766.
53. ^ McFarland, Pancho (2003). "Challenging the Contradictions of Chicanismo in Chicano Rap Music and Male Culture". Race, Gender & Class. 10 (4): 92–107. ISSN 1082-8354. JSTOR 41675103.
54. ^ Hurt, Byron; Gordon, Sabrina (2006). "Hip-Hop (Beyond Beats & Rhymes)". doi:10.4135/9781473929005. `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
55. ^ Dines, Gail; Humez, Jean M. (1995). Gender, Race and Class in Media: A Text-Reader. SAGE Publications. ISBN 978-0-8039-5164-8.
56. ^ Dixon, Travis L.; Maddox, Keith B. (August 2005). "Skin Tone, Crime News, and Social Reality Judgments: Priming the Stereotype of the Dark and Dangerous Black Criminal1". Journal of Applied Social Psychology. 35 (8): 1555–1570. doi:10.1111/j.1559-1816.2005.tb02184.x. ISSN 0021-9029. S2CID 8721642.
57. ^ Turner, Jacob S. (2011-02-01). "Sex and the Spectacle of Music Videos: An Examination of the Portrayal of Race and Sexuality in Music Videos". Sex Roles. 64 (3): 173–191. doi:10.1007/s11199-010-9766-6. ISSN 1573-2762. S2CID 144902122.
58. ^ "Female students spurn Nelly over explicit rap video". Houston Chronicle. 2004-04-25. Retrieved 2019-04-25.
59. ^ "Nelly feels the heat". Chicago Tribune. 2 April 2004. Archived from the original on 2019-04-25. Retrieved 2019-04-25.
60. ^ TheGrio (2018-08-02). "Producer of Nelly's 'Tip Drill' video defends the infamous card swipe scene by blaming the model". theGrio. Retrieved 2019-04-25.
61. ^ Nettl, Bruno (September 1960). "Reference Tools for Ethnomusicology". Ethnomusicology. 4 (3): 133–136. doi:10.2307/924501. ISSN 0014-1836. JSTOR 924501.