Bombing of North Korea

Aspect of the Korean War

Bombing of North Korea

Part of the Korean War

Douglas A-26 Invaders releasing bombs over North Korea, 18 October 1951

Type| Strategic bombing
Location|

North Korea

Commanded by| United Nations Command
Date| 1950–1953
Casualties| 282,000 deaths[1]

* v
* t
* e

Korean War

North Korean offensive
(25 June – 15 September 1950)

* Pokpung
* Chuncheon
* Gorangpo
* Kaesong–Munsan
* Ongjin
* Uijeongbu
* 1st Seoul
* Suwon Airfield
* Air Campaign
* Andong
* Chumonchin Chan
* Osan
* Pyongtaek
* Chonan
* Chochiwon
* Taejon
* Sangju
* Yongdong
* Hwanggan
* Hadong
* Notch
* Pusan Perimeter
* Masan
* P'ohang-dong
* Taegu
* 1st Naktong Bulge
* Bowling Alley
* Battle Mountain
* Kyongju
* Haman
* Nam River
* Ka-san
* Tabu-dong
* Yongsan
* 2nd Naktong Bulge

United Nations Command counteroffensive
(15 September – 30 October 1950)

* Inchon
* Pusan Perimeter offensive
* 2nd Seoul
* UN September 1950 counteroffensive
* Hill 282
* UN offensive into North Korea
* Sariwon
* Pyongyang
* Yongyu
* Kujin
* Chongju
* Sunchon tunnel

Chinese Intervention
(25 October 1950 – January 1951)

* Onjong
* Unsan
* Pakchon
* Second Phase Offensive
* Ch'ongch'on River
* Wawon
* Chosin Reservoir
* Task Force Faith
* UN retreat from North Korea
* Hungnam evacuation
* 3rd Seoul
* Uijeongbu
* 1st and 2nd Wonju
* Pohang

Fighting around the 38th parallel
(January – June 1951)

* Happy Valley
* Thunderbolt
* Twin Tunnels
* Roundup
* Hoengsong
* Chipyong-ni
* 3rd Wonju
* Chuam-ni
* Wonsan
* Killer
* 4th Seoul (Operation Ripper)
* Maehwa-san
* Courageous
* Tomahawk
* Rugged
* Dauntless
* Spring offensive
* Imjin River
* Yultong
* Hwacheon
* Kapyong
* Soyang River
* UN May–June 1951 counteroffensive

Stalemate
(July 1951 – 27 July 1953)

* Bloody Ridge
* Minden
* Punchbowl
* Heartbreak Ridge
* Commando
* 1st Maryang-san
* Haktang-ni
* Polecharge
* 2nd Maryang-san
* Rat Killer
* Hill Eerie
* Old Baldy
* Blaze
* Bunker Hill
* Outpost Kelly
* White Horse Hill
* Arrowhead Hill
* Triangle Hill
* Jackson Heights
* Noris
* 1st Hook
* 2nd Hook
* Chatkol
* Outpost Vegas
* Pork Chop Hill
* Hill 187
* Little Switch
* Nevada Complex
* 3rd Hook
* Outpost Harry
* Kumsong
* Berlin Outposts and Boulder City
* Samichon River
* Korean Armistice Agreement
* Big Switch
* Panmunjom Declaration

Air operations
(1950 – 1953)

* Air Campaign
* MiG Alley
* Sunchon
* Strangle
* Sui-ho Dam
* Bombing of North Korea 1950–1953

Naval operations
(1950 – 1953)

* Battle of Korea Strait
* Battle of Chumonchin Chan
* Battle of Haeju
* Battle of Inchon
* Operation Tailboard
* 2nd Wonsan
* Fireball
* Buzz Saw
* Kickoff
* USS Walke Incident
* Han River

* Naval engagements of the Korean War

For further information, see also:
Korean War (template)

Following the North Korean invasion of South Korea in June 1950, air forces of the United Nations Command began an extensive bombing campaign against North Korea that lasted until the end of the Korean War in July 1953. It was the first major bombing campaign for the United States Air Force (USAF) since its inception in 1947 from the United States Army Air Forces. During the campaign, conventional weapons such as explosives, incendiary bombs, and napalm destroyed nearly all of the country's cities and towns, including an estimated 85% of its buildings.[2] The U.S. dropped 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, during the war on both North and South Korea.[3]

## Background

[edit]

During the first several months of the Korean War, from June to September 1950, the North Korean Korean People's Army (KPA) succeeded in occupying most of the Korean Peninsula, rapidly routing U.S. and South Korean forces. On 15 September 1950, UN forces reversed the situation by landing behind North Korean lines at Incheon and forcing the KPA to retreat to the north. The situation reversed again when Chinese People's Volunteer Army troops entered the conflict on 19 October, triggering a retreat by UN troops until early 1951.

For the entire duration of the war, areas on the border between Korea and China were excluded from bombing because of U.S. State Department concerns.[4]

## Precision bombing campaign

[edit]

Between June and October 1950, USAF Far East Air Force (FEAF) B-29 bombers carried out massive aerial attacks on transport centers and industrial hubs in North Korea. Having soon established air supremacy by the destruction of the Korean People's Army Air and Anti-Air Force in the air and on the ground, FEAF bombers encountered no resistance and "the sky over North Korea was their safe front yard."[5]

The first bombing attack on North Korea was approved on the fourth day of the war, 29 June 1950, by General Douglas MacArthur immediately upon request by FEAF's commander General George E. Stratemeyer. MacArthur's order preceded the receipt of an order of President Harry S. Truman to expand air operations into North Korean areas, also issued on 29 June but not received in Tokyo until 30 June.[6]

During this period, the official U.S. policy was to pursue precision bombing aimed at communication centers (railroad stations, marshalling yards, main yards, and railways) and industrial facilities deemed vital to war-making capacity. The policy was the result of debates after World War II, in which U.S. policy rejected the mass civilian bombings that had been conducted in the later stages of the war as unproductive and immoral.[7]

Despite the official precision bombing policy, North Korea reported extensive civilian casualties. According to military analyst Taewoo Kim, the apparent contradiction between a policy of precision bombing and reports of high civilian casualties is explained by the very low accuracy of bombing. According to a FEAF analysis, 209 bombs needed to be dropped in order to reach an 80% likelihood of hitting a 20 feet (6.1 m) by 500 feet (150 m) target. For such a target, 99.3% of bombs dropped did not hit the target. Since many targets of the "precision" campaign were located in populated areas, high numbers of civilians were killed despite the policy of limited targeting.[8]

## Firebombing campaign

[edit]

A B-29 dropping 1,000 lb (450 kg) bombs over Korea, August 1951 The North Korean city of Wonsan under attack by B-26 bombers from the Fifth Air Force, 1951

In early July 1950, General Emmett O'Donnell Jr. requested permission to incinerate five North Korean cities. He proposed that MacArthur announce that UN forces would employ the firebombing methods that "brought Japan to its knees" during the Pacific War. The announcement would warn the leaders of North Korea "to get women and children and other noncombatants the hell out."[9] According to O'Donnell, MacArthur responded, "No ... I'm not prepared to go that far yet. My instructions are very explicit; however, I want you to know that I have no compunction whatever to your bombing bona fide military objectives, with high explosives, in those five industrial centers. If you miss your target and kill people or destroy other parts of the city, I accept that as a part of war."[9]

Fraught with a rapidly evolving frontline, conflicting information, and green troops as UN forces retreated, FEAF's rearguard actions in July would also see the bombing of South Korean targets in Seoul and Andong, resulting in significant civilian deaths such as those at Yongsan.[10] In September 1950, MacArthur said in his public report to the United Nations, "The problem of avoiding the killing of innocent civilians and damages to the civilian economy is continually present and given my personal attention."[9]

In October 1950, Stratemeyer requested permission to attack Sinuiju, a provincial capital with an estimated population of 60,000, "over the widest area of the city, without warning, by burning and high explosive." MacArthur's headquarters responded the following day: "The general policy enunciated from Washington negates such an attack unless the military situation clearly requires it. Under present circumstances this is not the case."[9]

Following the intervention of the Chinese in November, MacArthur ordered increased bombing on North Korea, which included firebombing against the country's arsenals and communications centers and especially against the "Korean end" of all the bridges across the Yalu River.[11]

On 3 November Stratemeyer forwarded to MacArthur the request of Fifth Air Force commander General Earle E. Partridge for clearance to "burn Sinuiju." As he had done previously in July and October, MacArthur denied the request, explaining that he planned to use the town's facilities after seizing it. However, at the same meeting, MacArthur agreed for the first time to a firebombing campaign, agreeing to Stratemeyer's request to burn Kanggye and several other towns: "Burn it if you so desire. Not only that, Strat, but burn and destroy as a lesson to any other of those towns that you consider of military value to the enemy." The same evening, MacArthur's chief of staff told Stratemeyer that the firebombing of Sinuiju had also been approved. In his diary, Stratemeyer summarized the instructions as follows: "Every installation, facility, and village in North Korea now becomes a military and tactical target." Stratemeyer sent orders to the Fifth Air Force and Bomber Command to "destroy every means of communications and every installation, factory, city, and village".[12] On 5 November Stratemeyer gave the following order to the commanding general of the Fifth Air Force: "Aircraft under Fifth Air Force control will destroy all other targets including all buildings capable of affording shelter." The same day, 22 B-29s attacked Kanggye, destroying 75% of the city.[13][14]

After MacArthur was removed as UN Supreme Commander in Korea in April 1951, his successors continued this policy and ultimately extended it to all of North Korea.

### American assessments

[edit]

In the wake of the Kanggye attack, FEAF began an intensive firebombing campaign that quickly incinerated multiple Korean cities. Three weeks after the attacks began, the air force assessed the damage as follows:[9][15]

* Ch'osan – 85%
* Hoeryong (Hoeryŏng) – 90%
* Huich'on (Hŭich'ŏn) – 75%
* Kanggye – 75%
* Kointong – 90%
* Manp'ochin – 95%
* Namsi – 90%
* Sakchu – 75%
* Sinuichu – 60%
* Uichu – 20%

On 17 November 1950 MacArthur told U.S. Ambassador to Korea John J. Muccio, "Unfortunately, this area will be left a desert." By "this area" MacArthur meant the entire area between "our present positions and the border".[16] On 25 June 1951, General O'Donnell, commander of the Far Eastern Air Force Bomber Command, testified in answer to a question from Senator John C. Stennis ("North Korea has been virtually destroyed, hasn't it?): "Oh, yes; ... I would say that the entire, almost the entire Korean Peninsula is just a terrible mess. Everything is destroyed. There is nothing standing worthy of the name ... Just before the Chinese came in we were grounded. There were no more targets in Korea."[17]

In June 1952, as part of a strategy to maintain "air pressure" during armistice negotiations, FEAF's Fifth Air Force selected 78 villages for destruction by B-26 light bombers.[18] At the conclusion of the war, the Air Force assessed the destruction of 22 major cities as follows:[19]

City  | % estimated destruction

|

Anju | 15%
Chinnampo (Namp'o)  | 80%
Chongju (Chŏngju)  | 60%
Haeju | 75%
Hamhung (Hamhŭng)  | 80%
Hungnam (Hŭngnam)  | 85%
Hwangju (Hwangju County)  | 97%
Kanggye | 60% (reduced from previous estimate of 75%)
Kunu-ri (Kunu-dong)  | 100%
Kyomipo (Songnim)  | 80%
Musan | 5%
Najin (Rashin)  | 5%
Pyongyang | 75%
Sariwon (Sariwŏn)  | 95%
Sinanju | 100%
Sinuiju | 50%
Songjin (Kimchaek)  | 50%
Sunan (Sunan-guyok)  | 90%
Unggi (Sonbong County)  | 5%
Wonsan (Wŏnsan)  | 80%

The bombing campaign destroyed almost every substantial building in North Korea.[20][21] The war's highest-ranking U.S. POW, U.S. Major General William F. Dean,[22] reported that the majority of North Korean cities and villages he saw were either rubble or snow-covered wasteland.[23][24] Dean Rusk, the U.S. State Department official who headed East Asian affairs, concluded that America had bombed "everything that moved in North Korea, every brick standing on top of another."[25] North Korean factories, schools, hospitals, and government offices were forced to move underground.[26] In November 1950, the North Korean leadership instructed the population to build dugouts and mud huts and to dig tunnels, in order to solve the acute housing problem.[27]

In an interview with U.S. Air Force historians in 1988, USAF General Curtis LeMay, who was also head of the U.S. Strategic Air Command, commented on efforts to win the war as a whole, including the strategic bombing campaign, saying “Right at the start of the war, unofficially, I slipped a message in "under the carpet" in the Pentagon that we ought to turn SAC lose with some incendiaries on some North Korean towns. The answer came back, under the carpet again, that there would be too many civilian casualties; we couldn't do anything like that. We went over there and fought the war and eventually burned down every town in North Korea anyway, some way or another, and some in South Korea, too......Over a period of three years or so we killed off, what, 20 percent of the population of Korea, as direct casualties of war or from starvation and exposure? Over a period of three years, this seemed to be acceptable to everybody, but to kill a few people at the start right away, no, we can't seem to stomach that”.[28][29][25]

Pyongyang, which saw 75% of its area destroyed, was so devastated that bombing was halted as there were no longer any worthy targets.[30][31] By the end of the campaign, US bombers had difficulty in finding targets and were reduced to bombing footbridges or jettisoning their bombs into the sea.[32]

### International assessments

[edit]

In May 1951, an international fact finding team from East Germany, West Germany, China, and the Netherlands stated, "The members, in the whole course of their journey, did not see one town that had not been destroyed, and there were very few undamaged villages."[18]

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill privately criticized the American use of napalm, writing that it was "very cruel", as U.S. forces were "splashing it all over the civilian population", "tortur[ing] great masses of people". He conveyed these sentiments to U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, who "never published the statement." Publicly, Churchill allowed Bradley "to issue a statement that confirmed UK support for U.S. napalm attacks."[33]

In August 1951, war correspondent Tibor Meray stated that he had witnessed "a complete devastation between the Yalu River and the capital". He said that there were "no more cities in North Korea". He added, "My impression was that I am traveling on the moon because there was only devastation—every city was a collection of chimneys."[16]

Public statements by the UN Command obfuscated the extent of the destruction of North Korean communities with euphemisms, for example by listing the destruction of thousands of individual "buildings" rather than towns or villages as such, or reporting attacks on North Korean supply centers located in a city with language suggesting that the entire city constituted a "supply center".[9]

## Attacks on major dams

[edit]

After running low on urban targets, U.S. bombers destroyed hydroelectric and irrigation dams in the later stages of the war, flooding farmland and destroying crops.[34] The generating facilities of hydroelectric dams had been targeted previously in a series of mass air attacks starting in June 1952.

On 13 May 1953, 20 F-84s of the 58th Fighter Bomber Wing attacked the Toksan Dam, producing a flood that destroyed 700 buildings in Pyongyang and thousands of acres of rice. On 15–16 May, two groups of F-84s attacked the Chasan Dam.[35] The flood from the destruction of the Toksan dam "scooped clean" 27 miles (43 km) of river valley. The attacks were followed by the bombing of the Kuwonga Dam, the Namsi Dam and the Taechon Dam.[36][37] The bombing of these five dams and ensuing floods threatened several million North Koreans with starvation; according to Charles K. Armstrong, "only emergency assistance from China, the USSR, and other socialist countries prevented widespread famine."[26]

## Death toll

[edit]

According to a Chosun Ilbo report in 2001, a report by Soviet ambassador and chief military adviser to North Korea, Lieutenant General V. N. Razuvaev, estimated 282,000 North Korean deaths in bombing raids during the war.[1]

The Republic of Korea Ministry of Defense estimated total South Korean civilian casualties for the entire Korean War at 990,968, of which 373,599 (37.7%) were deaths. For North Korea, the ministry estimated 1,500,000 total civilian casualties, including deaths, injuries, and missing, but did not separately report the number of deaths.[38] The ministry made no specific estimates for deaths from the UN air campaign.

Historian Charles K. Armstrong estimated that 12–15% of the North Korean population (c. 10 million) was killed in the war, or approximately 1.2 million to 1.5 million people.[26] Armstrong did not separately determine how many of these deaths were among civilians or caused by the UN air campaign. Estimates of North Korean military deaths range from a U.S. Department of Defense estimate of 214,899 to a Correlates of War estimate of 316,579, according to the Peace Research Institute Oslo Battle Deaths Dataset.[39]

In a 1988 interview Curtis LeMay stated that about 20% of the North Korea's population had died during the war, including the UN air campaign, stating that “Over a period of three years or so we killed off, what, 20 percent of the population of Korea, as direct casualties of war or from starvation and exposure?”[28][25][29]

## Legacy

[edit]

A total of 635,000 tons of bombs, including 32,557 tons of napalm, were dropped on both Koreas during the war by the U.S. By comparison, the U.S. dropped 1.6 million tons in the European theater and 500,000 tons in the Pacific theater of World War II (including 160,000 on Japan). North Korea ranks alongside Cambodia (500,000 tons), North Vietnam (1 million tons), Laos (2 million tons), and South Vietnam (4 million tons) as the countries most heavily-bombed by the U.S.[3]

Armstrong states that the bombing had a profound, long-lasting impact on North Korea's subsequent development and the attitudes of the North Korean people, which "cannot be overestimated":

> Russian accusations of indiscriminate attacks on civilian targets did not register with the Americans at all. But for the North Koreans, living in fear of B-29 attacks for nearly three years, including the possibility of atomic bombs, the American air war left a deep and lasting impression. The DPRK government never forgot the lesson of North Korea's vulnerability to American air attack, and for half a century after the Armistice continued to strengthen anti-aircraft defenses, build underground installations, and eventually develop nuclear weapons to ensure that North Korea would not find itself in such a position again. ... The war against the United States, more than any other single factor, gave North Koreans a collective sense of anxiety and fear of outside threats that would continue long after the war's end.[26]

In the eyes of North Koreans as well as some observers, the U.S.' deliberate targeting of civilian infrastructure which resulted in the destruction of cities and high civilian death count was a war crime.[26][34][40] Historian Bruce Cumings has likened the American bombing to genocide.[41]

Sahr-Conway Lanz, who holds a Ph.D. in the history of American foreign relations, has written extensively about the legacy and impact on American discourse on the international norm of noncombatant immunity. He states:

> "During the war, American military and civilian officials stretched the term "military target" to include virtually all human-made structures, capitalizing on the vague distinction between the military and civilian segments of an enemy society. They came to apply the logic of total war to the destruction of the civil infrastructure in North Korea. Because almost any building could serve a military purpose, even if a minor one, nearly the entire physical infrastructure behind enemy lines was deemed a military target and open to attack. This expansive definition, along with the optimism about sparing civilians that is reinforced, worked to obscure in American awareness the suffering of Korean civilians in which U.S. firebombing was contributing."[42]

Historian A. Dirk Moses cites the bombing campaign as an example of a military operation causing enormous loss of civilian life as "collateral damage", when the ultimate objective is military. He argues that such deaths escape scrutiny and are excused when genocide is upheld as the ultimate evil.[43]

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b Wilson Center, 1 August 2001 "New Evidence of North Korean War Losses".
2. ^ Harden (2017), p. 9.
3. ^ a b Kiernan, Ben; Owen, Taylor (April 2015). "Making More Enemies than We Kill? Calculating U.S. Bomb Tonnages Dropped on Laos and Cambodia, and Weighing Their Implications". The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 13 (16): 1–9.
4. ^ Kim (2012), p. 472.
5. ^ Kim (2012), p. 470.
6. ^ Kim (2012), p. 471.
7. ^ Kim (2012), pp. 473–477.
8. ^ Kim (2012), p. 478.
9. ^ a b c d e f Conway-Lanz (2014).
10. ^ Steadfast and Courageous: FEAF Bomber Command and the Air War in Korea, 1950-1953 (PDF). Air Force Historical Studies Office. 2000. ISBN 0160503744. p. 14.
11. ^ Walter J. Boyne (15 June 1998). Beyond the Wild Blue: A History of the U.S. Air Force, 1947–1997. St. Martin's Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN 978-0312187057.
12. ^ Conway-Lanz, Sahr (15 September 2014). "The Ethics of Bombing Civilians After World War II: The Persistence of Norms Against Targeting Civilians in the Korean War". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 12 (37). Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 21 September 2023.
13. ^ Kim, Taewoo (2012). "Limited War, Unlimited Targets: U.S. Air Force Bombing of North Korea during the Korean War, 1950-1953". Critical Asian Studies. 44 (3): 467–492\. doi:10.1080/14672715.2012.711980. S2CID 142704845.
14. ^ Mark Peterson (1 December 2009). Brief History: Brief History of Korea. Facts on File. p. 149\. ISBN 978-0816050857.
15. ^ Kim (2012), p. 483.
16. ^ a b Kim (2012), p. 484.
17. ^ Stone (1969), p. 312.
18. ^ a b Kim (2012), p. 485.
19. ^ Crane (2000), p. 168.
20. ^ Cumings (2005), pp. 297–298.
21. ^ Jager (2013), pp. 237–242.
22. ^ Witt (2005).
23. ^ Cumings 2004.
24. ^ Dean (1954), pp. 272–273.
25. ^ a b c Vick, Karl (19 September 2017). "President Trump Threatened to 'Totally Destroy' North Korea. The U.S. Has Done That Before". Time. Archived from the original on 21 September 2017.
26. ^ a b c d e Armstrong, Charles K. (20 December 2010). "The Destruction and Reconstruction of North Korea, 1950-1960" (PDF). The Asia-Pacific Journal. 8 (51): 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2022. Retrieved 13 September 2019. "The number of Korean dead, injured or missing by war's end approached three million, ten percent of the overall population. The majority of those killed were in the North, which had half of the population of the South; although the DPRK does not have official figures, possibly twelve to fifteen percent of the population was killed in the war, a figure close to or surpassing the proportion of Soviet citizens killed in World War II."
27. ^ Kim (2014), pp. 244–245.
28. ^ a b Kohn and Harahan, p. 88.
29. ^ a b Rhodes, Richard (11 June 1995). "The General and World War III". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved 30 November 2023.
30. ^ Oberdorfer (2014), p. 181.
31. ^ Kim (2014).
32. ^ Robinson (2007), p. 119.
33. ^ Neer, Robert M. (2013). Napalm: An American Biography. Harvard University Press. pp. 102–103.
34. ^ a b Harden, Blaine (24 March 2015). "The U.S. war crime North Korea won't forget". The Washington Post.
35. ^ Kim (2012), p. 487.
36. ^ Crane (2000), pp. 160–163.
37. ^ Cumings (2011).
38. ^ "Casualties of Korean War" (in Korean). Ministry of National Defense of Republic of Korea. Archived from the original on 20 January 2013. Retrieved 14 February 2007.
39. ^ Bethany Lacina and Nils Petter Gleditsch, 2005. "Monitoring Trends in Global Combat: A New Dataset of Battle Deaths." European Journal of Population: 21(2-3): 145–166. Korean data available at "The PRIO Battle Deaths Dataset, 1946-2008, Version 3.0", pp. 359–362.
40. ^ Fisher, Max (3 August 2015). "Americans have forgotten what we did to North Korea". Vox.com.
41. ^ Garner, Dwight (21 July 2010). "Carpet-Bombing Falsehoods About a War That's Little Understood". The New York Times.
42. ^ Conway-Lanz, Sahr (2006). Collateral Damage: Americans, Noncombatant Immunity, and Atrocity after World War II. New York: Routledge. p. 84.
43. ^ Moses 2023, pp. 22–23.

## References

[edit]

* Berger, Carl, ed. (1977). The United States Air Force in Southeast Asia, 1961–1973. Washington, DC: Office of Air Force History.
* Conway-Lanz, Sahr (4 August 2014). "The Ethics of Bombing Civilians After World War II: The Persistence of Norms Against Targeting Civilians in the Korean War 第二次世界大戦後、定着し続けた倫理的規範 朝鮮戦争において、民間人を標的にするはよしとされず". The Asia-Pacific Journal. 12 (37).
* Crane, Conrad (2000). American Airpower Strategy in Korea, 1950-1953. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 9780700609918.
* Cumings, Bruce (10 December 2004). "Napalm über Nordkorea" (in German). Le Monde diplomatique. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.
* Cumings, Bruce (2005). Korea's Place in the Sun : A Modern History. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32702-1.
* Cumings, Bruce (2011). The Korean War: A history. New York: Modern Library.
* William F Dean (1954). General Dean's Story, (as told to William L Worden), Viking Press.
* Harden, Blaine (2017). King of Spies: The Dark Reign of America's Spymaster in Korea. New York: Viking. ISBN 9780525429937.
* Jager, Sheila Miyoshi (2013). Brothers at War – The Unending Conflict in Korea. London: Profile Books. ISBN 978-1-84668-067-0.
* Kim, Taewoo (2012). "Limited War, Unlimited Targets: U.S. Air Force Bombing of North Korea during the Korean War, 1950–1953". Critical Asian Studies. 44 (3): 467–92\. doi:10.1080/14672715.2012.711980. S2CID 142704845.
* Kim, Taewoo (2014). "Overturned Time and Space: Drastic Changes in the Daily Lives of North Koreans during the Korean War" (PDF). Asian Journal of Peacebuilding. 2 (2): 244–45\. doi:10.18588/201411.000030. S2CID 130795765. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2015.
* Kohn, Richard H.; Harahan, Joseph P., eds. (1988). Strategic Air Warfare: An Interview with Generals Curtis E. LeMay, Leon W. Johnson, David A. Burchinal, and Jack J. Catton. Office of Air Force History. ISBN 978-0-9127-9956-8.
* Moses, A. Dirk (2023). "Genocide as a Category Mistake: Permanent Security and Mass Violence Against Civilians". Genocidal Violence: Concepts, Forms, Impact. De Gruyter. pp. 15–38\. doi:10.1515/9783110781328-002. ISBN 978-3-11-078132-8.
* Oberdorfer, Don; Carlin, Robert (2014). The Two Koreas: A Contemporary History. Basic Books. ISBN 9780465031238.
* Robinson, Michael E (2007). Korea's Twentieth-Century Odyssey. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-3174-5.
* Steadfast and Courageous: FEAF Bomber Command and the Air War in Korea, 1950-1953 (PDF). Air Force Historical Studies Office. 2000. ISBN 0160503744.
* Stone, I. F. (1969). The Hidden History of the Korean War. Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-0853451112.
* Walkom, Thomas (25 November 2010). "Walkom: North Korea's unending war rages on". Toronto Star. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 22 December 2011.

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