Cahokia

Archaeological site near East St. Louis, Illinois, USA

This article is about the Native American UNESCO World Heritage site in Illinois, U.S. For other uses, see Cahokia (disambiguation).

Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site

Monks Mound, the largest earthen structure at Cahokia (for scale, an adult is standing on top)

Location| St. Clair County, Illinois, U.S.
Nearest city| Collinsville, Illinois
Coordinates| 38°39′14″N 90°3′52″W﻿ / ﻿38.65389°N 90.06444°W﻿ / 38.65389; -90.06444
Area| 2,200 acres (8.9 km2)
Governing body| Illinois Historic Preservation Division

UNESCO World Heritage Site

Official name| Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site
Type| Cultural
Criteria| iii, iv
Designated| 1982 (6th session)
Reference no.| 198
Region| Europe and North America

U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Official name| Cahokia Mounds
Designated| October 15, 1966[1]
Reference no.| 66000899

U.S. National Historic Landmark

Official name| Cahokia Mounds
Designated| July 19, 1964[1]

Cahokia winter solstice sunrise over Fox Mound and the Cahokia Woodhenge ca. 1000 AD. Artist's concept.

The Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site /kəˈhoʊkiə/ (11 MS 2)[2] is the site of a pre-Columbian Native American city (which existed c. 1050–1350 CE[3]) directly across the Mississippi River from modern St. Louis, Missouri. This historic park lies in south-western Illinois between East St. Louis and Collinsville.[4] The park covers 2,200 acres (890 ha), or about 3.5 square miles (9 km2), and contains about 80 manmade mounds, but the ancient city was much larger. At its apex around 1100 CE, the city covered about 6 square miles (16 km2) and included about 120 earthworks in a wide range of sizes, shapes, and functions.[5]

Cahokia was the largest and most influential urban settlement of the Mississippian culture, which developed advanced societies across much of what is now the Central and the Southeastern United States, beginning more than 1,000 years before European contact.[6] Today, the Cahokia Mounds are considered to be the largest and most complex archaeological site north of the great pre-Columbian cities in Mexico.

Cahokia Mounds is a National Historic Landmark and a designated site for state protection. It is also one of the 24 UNESCO World Heritage Sites within the United States. The largest prehistoric earthen construction in the Americas north of Mexico,[5] the site is open to the public and administered by the Illinois Historic Preservation Division and supported by the Cahokia Mounds Museum Society. In celebration of the 2018 Illinois state bicentennial, the Cahokia Mounds were selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places[7] by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois). It was recognized by USA Today Travel magazine, as one of the selections for 'Illinois 25 Must See Places'.[8]

## History[edit]

See also: Ramey state

### Development (9th and 10th centuries)[edit]

A map showing approximate areas of various Mississippian and related cultures. Cahokia is located near the center of this map in the upper part of the Middle Mississippi area.

Although some evidence exists of occupation during the Late Archaic period (around 1200 BCE) in and around the site,[9] Cahokia as it is now defined was settled around 600 CE during the Late Woodland period. Mound building at this location began with the emergent Mississippian cultural period, around the 9th century CE.[10] The inhabitants left no written records beyond symbols on pottery, shell, copper, wood, and stone, but the elaborately planned community, woodhenge, mounds, and burials reveal a complex and sophisticated society.[11]

The city's complex construction of earthen mounds required digging, excavation and transportation by hand using woven baskets. Construction made use of 55 million cubic feet (1.6 million cubic meters) of earth, and much of the work was accomplished over a matter of decades. Its highly planned large, smoothed-flat, ceremonial plazas, sited around the mounds, with homes for thousands connected by laid out pathways and courtyards, suggest the location served as a central religious pilgrimage city.[12]

The city's original name is unknown. The mounds were later named after the Cahokia tribe, a historic Illiniwek people living in the area when the first French explorers arrived in the 17th century.[13] As this was centuries after Cahokia was abandoned by its original inhabitants, the Cahokia tribe was not necessarily descended from the earlier Mississippian-era people. Most likely, multiple indigenous ethnic groups settled in the Cahokia Mounds area during the time of the city's apex.[14][15]

Historian Daniel Richter notes that the apex of the city occurred during the Medieval Warming Period. This period appears to have fostered an agricultural revolution in upper North America, as the three-fold crops of maize, beans (legumes), and gourds (squash) were developed and adapted or bred to the temperate climates of the north from their origins in Mesoamerica. Richter also notes that Cahokia's advanced development coincided with the development in the Southwest of the Chaco Canyon society, which also produced large-scale works in an apparent socially stratified society. The decline of the city coincides with the Little Ice Age, although by then, the three-fold agriculture remained well-established throughout temperate North America.[16]

### Rise and peak (11th and 12th centuries)[edit]

Artist's recreation of central Cahokia. Cahokia's east-west baseline transects the Woodhenge, Monk's Mound, and several other large mounds.

Cahokia became the most important center for the Mississippian culture. This culture was expressed in settlements that ranged along major waterways across what is now the Midwest, Eastern, and Southeastern United States. Cahokia was located in a strategic position near the confluence of the Mississippi, Missouri, and Illinois rivers. It maintained trade links with communities as far away as the Great Lakes to the north and the Gulf Coast to the south, trading in such exotic items as copper, Mill Creek chert,[17] and whelk shells.

Mill Creek chert, most notably, was used in the production of hoes, a high demand tool for farmers around Cahokia and other Mississippian centers. Cahokia's control of the manufacture and distribution of these hand tools was an important economic activity that allowed the city to thrive.[18] Mississippian culture pottery and stone tools in the Cahokian style were found at the Silvernale site[19] near Red Wing, Minnesota, and materials and trade goods from Pennsylvania, the Gulf Coast, and Lake Superior have been excavated at Cahokia. Bartering, not money, was used in trade.[20]

At the high point of its development, Cahokia was the largest urban center north of the great Mesoamerican cities in Mexico and Central America. Home to about 1,000 people before circa 1050, its population grew rapidly after that date. According to a 2007 study in Quaternary Science Reviews, "Between AD 1050 and 1100, Cahokia's population increased from between 1,400 and 2,800 people to between 10,200 and 15,300 people".[21] an estimate that applies only to a 1.8-square-kilometre (0.69 sq mi) high-density central occupation area.[22] Archaeologists estimate the city's population at between 6,000 and 40,000 at its peak,[23] with more people living in outlying farming villages that supplied the main urban center.

As a result of archeological excavations in the early 21st century, new residential areas were found to the west of Cahokia; this discovery increased estimates of historic area population.[23] If the highest population estimates are correct, Cahokia was larger than any subsequent city in the United States until the 1780s, when Philadelphia's population grew beyond 40,000.[24] Its population may have been larger than contemporaneous London[25] and Paris.[26]

One of the major problems that large centers like Cahokia faced was keeping a steady supply of food. A related problem was waste disposal for the dense population, and Cahokia is believed to have become unhealthy from polluted waterways. Because it was such an unhealthy place to live, Snow believes that the town had to rely on social and political attractions to bring in a steady supply of new immigrants; otherwise, the town's death rate would have caused it to be abandoned earlier.[18]

### Decline (13th and 14th centuries)[edit]

Mississippian period showing the multiple layers of mound construction, mound structures such as temples or mortuaries, ramps with log stairs, and prior structures under later layers, multiple terraces, and intrusive burials

The population of Cahokia began to decline during the 13th century, and the site was abandoned by around 1350.[27][28] Scholars have proposed environmental factors, such as environmental degradation through overhunting, deforestation[29] and pollution,[30] and climatic changes, such as increased flooding[31] and droughts,[32][33] as explanations for abandonment of the site. However, more recent research suggests that there is no evidence of human-caused erosion or flooding at Cahokia.[34][35][27]

Political and economic problems may also have contributed to the community's decline.[36] It is likely that social and environmental factors combined to produce the conditions that led people to leave Cahokia.[37][33]

Another possible cause is invasion by outside peoples, though the only evidence of warfare found is defensive wooden stockade and watchtowers that enclosed Cahokia's main ceremonial precinct. There is no other evidence for warfare, so the palisade may have been more for ritual or formal separation than for military purposes. Diseases transmitted among the large, dense urban population are another possible cause of decline. Many theories since the late 20th century propose conquest-induced political collapse as the primary reason for Cahokia's abandonment.[38]

Together with these factors, researchers found evidence in 2015 of major floods at Cahokia, so severe as to flood dwelling places. Analysis of sediment from beneath Horseshoe Lake has revealed that two major floods occurred in the period of settlement at Cahokia, in roughly 1100–1260 and 1340–1460.[39][40]

## Notable features[edit]

The original site contained 120 earthen mounds over an area of 6 square miles (16 km2), of which 80 remain today. To achieve that, thousands of workers over decades moved more than an estimated 55 million cubic feet (1,600,000 m3) of earth in woven baskets to create this network of mounds and community plazas. Monks Mound, for example, covers 14 acres (5.7 ha), rises 100 ft (30 m), and was topped by a massive 5,000 sq ft (460 m2) building another 50 ft (15 m) high.[5]

### Monks Mound[edit]

Main article: Monks Mound

An 1882 illustration of Monks Mound showing it with fanciful proportions

Incised sandstone tablet of a Birdman found in 1971 during excavations into the east side of Monks Mound

Monks Mound is the largest structure and central focus of the city: a massive platform mound with four terraces, 10 stories tall, it is the largest man-made earthen mound north of Mexico. Facing south, it is 100 ft (30 m) high, 951 ft (290 m) long, 836 ft (255 m) wide and covers 13.8 acres (5.6 ha).[41] It contains about 814,000 cu yd (622,000 m3) of earth.[18] The mound was built higher and wider over the course of several centuries, through as many as 10 separate construction episodes, as the mound was built taller and the terraces and apron were added.[41]

Monks Mounds was named for the community of Trappist monks who resided there for a short time, after Euroamericans settled in the area. Excavation on the top of Monks Mound has revealed evidence of a large building, likely a temple or the residence of the paramount chief, which would have been seen throughout the city. This building was about 105 ft (32 m) long and 48 feet (15 m) wide, and could have been as much as 50 ft (15 m) high. It was about 5,000 sq ft (460 m2).

The east and northwest sides of Monks Mound were twice excavated in August 2007 during an attempt to avoid erosion due to slumping. These areas were repaired to preserve the mound.[42]

### Urban landscape[edit]

Early in its history, Cahokia underwent a massive construction boom. Along with the early phase of Monks Mound, an overarching urban layout was established at the site. It was built with a symbolic quadripartite worldview and oriented toward the four cardinal directions with the main east-west and north-south axes defined with Monks Mound near its center point. Four large plazas were established to the east, west, north, and south of Monks Mound.[43][44]

To the south of Monks Mound is the Grand Plaza, a large area that covered roughly 50 acres (20 ha) and measured over 1,600 ft (490 m) in length by over 900 ft (270 m) in width. Researchers originally thought the flat, open terrain in this area reflected Cahokia's location on the Mississippi's alluvial flood plain, but instead soil studies have shown that the landscape was originally undulating ridge and swale topography. In one of the earliest large-scale construction projects, the site had been expertly and deliberately leveled and filled by the city's inhabitants. It is part of the sophisticated engineering displayed throughout the site.[45] It was used for large ceremonies and gatherings, as well as for ritual games, such as chunkey. The game was played by rolling a disc-shaped chunky stone across the field. The men would throw spears where they thought the chunky stone would land. The game required a great deal of judgment and aim.[18]

The major ceremonial north-south 'axis' connects the main precinct with the large ridgetop mortuary mound to its south now known as the Rattlesnake Mound (Mound 66[46]). The feature, named the Rattlesnake Causeway by archaeologists, was an elevated embankment about 18 metres (59 ft) wide, roughly 800 metres (2,600 ft) in length and varies in height from 0.5 metres (1.6 ft) to almost 1.3 metres (4.3 ft) as it traverses a low swampy area to the south of the Grand Plaza.[47] It is aligned 5° east of north, a direction thought to mimic the maximum southern moon rise of 5° west of north, albeit in reverse. This is thought to have had symbolic associations to the builders in connection with their lunar maize goddess of the underworld.[48] This is further strengthened by its close proximity to the ridgetop mortuary Mound 72, the underworld connotations of the low water-filled area the causeway traversed, and its terminus at the mortuary complex at the Rattlesnake Mound. The causeway itself may have been seen as a symbolic "Path of Souls".[47]

The high-status central district of Cahokia was surrounded by a 2-mi-long palisade that was equipped with protective bastions. A later addition to the site, when the palisade was constructed, it cut through and separated some pre-existing neighborhoods.[18] Archaeologists found evidence of the stockade during excavation of the area and indications that it was rebuilt several times. Its bastions showed that it was mainly built for defensive purposes.[18]

Beyond Monks Mound, as many as 120 more mounds stood at varying distances from the city center. To date, 109 mounds have been located, 68 of which are in the park area. The mounds are divided into three different types: platform, conical, and ridge-top. Each appeared to have had its own meaning and function. In general terms, the city center seems to have been laid out in a diamond-shaped pattern about 1 mi (1.6 km) from end to end, while the entire city is 5 mi (8.0 km) across from east to west.

### Mound 72[edit]

Main article: Mound 72

Mound 72

During excavation of Mound 72, a ridge-top burial mound south of main urban precinct, archaeologists found the remains of a man in his 40s who was probably an important Cahokian ruler. The man was buried on a bed of more than 20,000 marine-shell disc beads arranged in the shape of a falcon,[49] with the bird's head appearing beneath and beside the man's head, and its wings and tail beneath his arms and legs.

The falcon warrior or "birdman" is a common motif in Mississippian culture. This burial clearly had powerful iconographic significance. In addition, a cache of sophisticated, finely worked arrowheads in a variety of different styles and materials was found near the grave of this important man. Separated into four types, each from a different geographical region, the arrowheads demonstrated Cahokia's extensive trade links in North America.

Archeologists recovered more than 250 other skeletons from Mound 72. Scholars believe almost 62% of these were sacrificial victims, based on signs of ritual execution, method of burial, and other factors.[50] The skeletons include:

* Four young males, missing their hands and skulls
* A mass grave of more than 50 women around 21 years old, with the bodies arranged in two layers separated by matting
* A mass burial containing 40 men and women who appear to have been violently killed, some of these may have been buried alive: "From the vertical position of some of the fingers, which appear to have been digging in the sand, it is apparent that not all of the victims were dead when they were interred – that some had been trying to pull themselves out of the mass of bodies."[51]

The relationship of these burials to the central burial is unclear. They were unlikely to have all deposited at the same time. Wood in several parts of the mound has been radiocarbon-dated to between 950 and 1000 CE.

Excavations have indicated that Mound 72 was not constructed as a single mound, but rather as a series of smaller mounds. These mounds were reshaped and covered over to give Mound 72 its final ridge-top shape.[52]

### Copper workshop[edit]

Main article: Mound 34

Mississippian culture repoussé copper plates

Excavations near Mound 34 from 2002 to 2010 revealed a copper workshop. This unique find was originally discovered in the 1950s by archaeologist Gregory Perino, but its exact location was lost for 60 years. It is the only known copper workshop to be found at a Mississippian culture site.[53] The area contains the remains of three tree stumps thought to have been used to hold anvil stones. Analysis of copper found during excavations showed that it had been annealed, a technique involving repeatedly heating and cooling the metal as it is worked, as blacksmiths do with iron.[53]

Artisans produced religious items, such as long-nosed god maskettes, ceremonial earrings with a symbolic shape, thought to have been used in fictive kinship rituals.[54][55] Many of the stylistically related Mississippian copper plates, such as the Wulfing cache from southeastern Missouri, some of the Etowah plates from Georgia, and many of the Spiro plates from Oklahoma, are associated with the Greater Braden style and are thought to have been made in Cahokia in the 13th century.[56][57][58][59][better source needed]

### Cahokia Woodhenge[edit]

Main article: Cahokia Woodhenge

View of the reconstructed Woodhenge III and its alignment with the equinox pole and Monks Mound 0.5 miles (0.8 km) away

The Cahokia Woodhenge was a series of large timber circles located roughly 850 m (2,790 ft) to the west of Monks Mound. They are thought to have been constructed between 900 and 1100 CE, with each one being larger and having 12 more posts than its predecessor.[60] The site was discovered during salvage archaeology undertaken by Dr. Warren Wittry in the early 1960s interstate highway construction boom. Although the majority of the site contained village house features, a number of unusually shaped, large post holes were also discovered. When the holes were plotted out, they formed several arcs of equally spaced holes.[61] Detailed analytical work supported the hypothesis that the placement of these posts was by design,[62] and Wittry hypothesized that the arcs could be whole circles. He began referring to the circles as "woodhenges", comparing the structures to England's well-known circles at Woodhenge and Stonehenge.[63][64]

Additional excavations in the 1960s–1980s used predictions based on verified posthole locations and spacing to locate other postholes and confirm the existence of five separate timber circles in the general vicinity. The circles are now designated Woodhenges I through V in Roman numerals.[61] In 1985, a reconstruction of Woodhenge III was built with the posts being placed into the original excavated post positions.[61] The circle, which has 48 posts in the circle and a 49th central post, has been used to investigate archaeoastronomy at Cahokia.[65][better source needed] The Illinois Historic Preservation Division that oversees the Cahokia site hosts public sunrise observations at the vernal and autumnal equinoxes and the winter and summer solstices. Out of respect for Native American beliefs, these events do not feature ceremonies or rituals of any kind.[66][67][68]

## Related mounds[edit]

Until the 19th century, a series of similar mounds was documented as existing in what is now the city of St. Louis, some 8 mi (13 km) to the west of Cahokia. Most of these mounds were leveled during the development of St. Louis, and much of their material was reused in construction projects.

The lone survivor of these mounds is Sugarloaf Mound. Located on the west bank of the Mississippi, it marked the initial border between St. Louis and the once autonomous city of Carondelet.

One of the largest Mississippian sites is Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site, located in Massac and Polk counties in southern Illinois. It is 140 mi (230 km) southeast of Cahokia, located in the floodplain of the Ohio River. With a total of 19 mounds at the complex, it is considered the fifth-largest Mississippian site in terms of the number of monuments. It is believed to have been a chiefdom, as an elite burial mound was among those found. The site is designated as a National Historic Landmark.

## Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center[edit]

Museum and Interpretive Center

The Cahokia Museum and Interpretive Center, which receives up to a million visitors a year, was designed by AAIC Inc. The building, which opened in 1989, received the Thomas H. Madigan Award, the St. Louis Construction News & Reviews Readers Choice Award, the Merit Award from the Metal Construction Association, and the Outstanding Achievement Award from the Brick Manufacturer Association.[69]

## Designations[edit]

Cahokia Mounds was first protected by the state of Illinois in 1923 when its legislature authorized purchase of a state park. Later designation as a state historic site offered additional protection, but the site came under significant threat from the federal highway building program in the 1950s. The highway program reduced the site's integrity; however, it increased funding for emergency archeological investigations. These investigations became intensive, and today continue. They have resulted in the present understanding of the national and international significance of the site. The site was designated a National Historic Landmark on July 19, 1964, and listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15, 1966.[1]

In 1982, UNESCO (the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) designated the site a World Heritage Site. This is the only such self-contained site in Illinois and among 24 World Heritage Sites in the United States in 2009.[70]

State Senator Evelyn M. Bowles wrote about the Cahokia Mounds site:

> Through the years my friends and I made occasional Sunday afternoon trips to the Mounds. When I became the State Senator, it afforded me the opportunity to secure funds for the acquisition of additional acreage in which there are smaller Mounds. Many of these have contained additional artifacts.[71]

The designation has helped protect the property and attract funds to conduct research on this significant civilization.

* A Mississippian-era priest, in the 13th century, Cahokia metropolis, holding a ceremonial flint mace and severed sacrificial head

* Tamarois et Caouquias on a French map of Illinois in 1718, south of the confluence of the Illinois and Mississippi rivers (approximate modern state area highlighted) from Carte de la Louisiane et du Cours du Mississipi by Guillaume de L'Isle

* The Rattlesnake Causeway leading from Monks Mound to Mound 66 is the city's ceremonial north-south axis.

* The "Chunkey Player" statuette, made of Missouri flint clay, depicts the ancient Native American game of chunkey. The statuette is believed to have been originally crafted at or near Cahokia Mounds; it was excavated at a Mississippian site in Muskogee County, Oklahoma, revealing the reach of the trade network of this culture.

* Clay statuette excavated at Cahokia site

## See also[edit]

* American Bottom
* List of Mississippian sites
* Mississippian Ideological Interaction Sphere
* Mississippian stone statuary
* List of archaeoastronomical sites by country

## Notes[edit]

* ^ a: See Engraved beaker from Cahokia site, donated by Moorehead, ISM collection. for image of the object in question.

## References[edit]

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43. ^ Steadman, Sharon R. (2009). Archaeology of Religion: Cultures and their Beliefs in Worldwide Context. Routledge. ISBN 978-1598741544.
44. ^ Chappell, Sally A. Kitt (2002). Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226101361.
45. ^ Timothy R., Pauketat (2009). Cahokia : Ancient Americas Great City on the Mississippi. Viking Press. pp. 23–34. ISBN 978-0-670-02090-4. "Pg 23 "Cahokia was so large-covering three to five square miles-that archaeologists have yet to probe many portions of it. Its centerpiece was an open 50-acre Grand Plaza, surrounded by packed-clay pyramids. The size of 35 football fields, the Grand Plaza was at the time the biggest public space ever conceived and executed north of Mexico."...Pg 34 "a flat public square 1,600-plus feet in length and 900-plus feet in width"
46. ^ "Mound 66". Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Retrieved January 18, 2018.
47. ^ a b Baires, Sarah E. (2014). "Cahokia's Rattlesnake Causeway". Midcontinental Journal of Archaeology. 39 (2): 145–162. doi:10.1179/2327427113Y.0000000005. S2CID 128744049.
48. ^ Romain, William F. (2015). "Moonwatchers of Cahokia". In Pauketat, Timothy R.; Alt, Susan M. (eds.). Medieval Mississippians : The Cahokian World. School for Advanced Research Press. pp. 33–41. ISBN 978-1938645327.
49. ^ "Cahokia and the excavation of Mound 72". Retrieved August 21, 2010.
50. ^ Young & Fowler, p. 148.
51. ^ Young & Fowler, pp. 146–149.
52. ^ "Mound 72". Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Archived from the original on June 23, 2012. Retrieved March 31, 2012.
53. ^ a b Pawlaczyk, George (February 16, 2010). "Copper men: Archaeologists uncover Stone Age copper workshop near Monks Mound". Science. Archived from the original on March 9, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2010.
54. ^ "Gahagan Long-nosed god maskette". University of Texas at Austin. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
55. ^ "Aztalan – Wisconsin's Middle Mississippian Outpost". Milwaukee Public Museum. Archived from the original on May 27, 2010. Retrieved July 30, 2010.
56. ^ Kelly et al. in King, 57–87
57. ^ Robb, Matthew H. (March 2010). "Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum-Spotlight Series March 2010" (PDF). Saint Louis Art Museum. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
58. ^ Townsend, Sharp, and Bailey 151
59. ^ Bolfing 67–68
60. ^ "Visitors Guide to the Woodhenge". Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
61. ^ a b c Iseminger, William R. "The Skywatchers of Cahokia". Mexicolore. Retrieved December 19, 2017.
62. ^ Friedlander, Michael W. (2007). "The Cahokia Sun Circles". The Wisconsin Archeologist. 88 (1): 78–90.
63. ^ Wittry, Warren L. (1964). "An American Woodhenge". Cranbrook Institute of Science Newsletter. 33 (9): 102–107 - via Explorations into Cahokia Archaeology, Bulletin 7, Illinois Archaeological Survey, 1969.
64. ^ Wittry, Warren L. "Discovering and Interpreting the Cahokia Woodhenges". The Wisconsin Archaeologist. 77 (3/4): 26–35.
65. ^ Thomas, Mary (2005). American Woodhenge: Archaeoastronomy at Cahokia (BA thesis). Northern Illinois University. Retrieved April 15, 2023.
66. ^ Iseminger, William. "Welcome the Fall Equinox at Cahokia Mounds". Illinois Department of Natural Resources. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
67. ^ "Winter Solstice Sunrise Observance at Cahokia Mounds". Collinsville Chamber of Commerce. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
68. ^ "Cahokia Mounds Mark Spring Equinox : The keepers of Cahokia Mounds will host a spring gathering to celebrate the vernal equinox". Indian Country Today. Indian Country Media Network. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
69. ^ Hahn, Valerie Schremp (February 19, 2022). "Monumental makeover: Cahokia Mounds center to close for nearly $7 million in renovations". STLtoday.com. St. Louis Post Dispatch. Retrieved February 19, 2022.
70. ^ "United States of America – UNESCO World Heritage Centre". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. March 11, 2009. Retrieved March 11, 2009.
71. ^ "Congressional representative letter". Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site. Archived from the original on October 19, 2011. Retrieved October 30, 2011.

## Bibliography[edit]

* Bolfing, Christopher (May 2010). The Paradigm of the Periphery in Native North America (Undergraduate honors thesis). Texas State University–San Marcos. pp. 67–68. hdl:10877/3288. Retrieved May 2, 2012.
* Chappell, Sally A. Kitt (2002). Cahokia: Mirror of the Cosmos. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-10136-1.
* Emerson, Thomas E. (1997). Cahokia and the Archaeology of Power. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama. ISBN 0-8173-0888-1. Archived from the original on February 24, 2007. Retrieved September 21, 2006.
* Emerson, Thomas E.; Lewis, R. Barry (1991). Cahokia and the Hinterlands: Middle Mississippian Cultures of the Midwest. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois. ISBN 0-252-06878-5. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved September 21, 2006.
* Kelly, John E.; Brown, James A.; Hamlin, Jenn M.; Kelly, Lucretia S.; Kozuch, Laura; Parker, Kathryn; Van Nest, Julieann (August 26, 2007). "Mound 34 : The Context for the Early Evidence of the Southeastern Ceremonial Complex at Cahokia". In King, Adam (ed.). Southeastern Ceremonial Complex: Chronology, Content, Context. University of Alabama Press. pp. 57–87. ISBN 978-0-8173-5409-1.
* Knight, Vernon James; Steponaitis, Vincas P. (January 15, 2011). "A Redefinition of the Hemphill Style in Mississippian Art". In Lankford, George E.; Reilly, F. Kent; Garber, James (eds.). Visualizing the Sacred: Cosmic Visions, Regionalism, and the Art of the Mississippian World (PDF). University of Texas Press. p. 227\. ISBN 978-0292723085. Archived from the original (PDF) on February 23, 2013. Retrieved December 15, 2013.
* Pauketat, Timothy R. (2009). Cahokia: Ancient America's Great City on the Mississippi. New York: Viking Adult. ISBN 978-0-670-02090-4.
* Pursell, Corin (2004). Geographic distribution and symbolism of colored mound architecture in the Mississippian Southeast (MA thesis). Southern Illinois University Carbondale. p. 205.
* Townsend, Richard F; Sharp, Robert V; Bailey, Garrick Alan (2000). Hero, Hawk, and Open Hand: American Indian Art of the Ancient Midwest and South. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10601-7.
* Young, Biloine; Fowler, Melvin L. (2000). Cahokia: The Great Native American Metropolis. Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois. ISBN 0-252-06821-1. Archived from the original on September 5, 2006. Retrieved September 21, 2006. full text available at [1]

## Further reading[edit]

* Introductory Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archeology
* Scholarly Bibliography of Published Sources on Cahokia Archaeology
* Emerson, Iseminger; Nance, L. Michael; Winslow, Madeline; Gass, Marilyn (2001). Cahokia Mounds State Historical Site Nature / Culture Hike Guidebook, 4th revised edition. Collinsville, Illinois: Cahokia Mounds Museum Society. pp. 79 pp.
* Fowler, Melvin L.; Rose, Jerome; Leest, Barbara Vander; Ahler, Steven R. (1999). The Mound 72 Area: Dedicated and Sacred Space in Early Cahokia. Illinois State Museum Society. ISBN 978-0-89792-157-2.
* Milner, George R. (2004). The Moundbuilders: Ancient Peoples of Eastern North America. London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd.
* Mink, Claudia Gellman (1992). Cahokia, City of the Sun: Prehistoric Urban Center in the American Bottom. Collinsville, IL: Cahokia Mounds Museum Society. ISBN 1-881563-00-6.
* Pauketat, Timothy (1994). The Ascent of Chiefs: Cahokia and Mississippian Politics in Native North America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama. ISBN 0-8173-0728-1. Archived from the original on September 4, 2006. Retrieved September 21, 2006.
* Price, Douglas T.; Feinman, Gary M. (2008). Images of the Past (5 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 280–285. ISBN 978-0-07-340520-9.

## External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Cahokia.

* Cahokia Mounds Homepage
* Cahokia Mounds State Historic Site UNESCO collection on Google Arts and Culture
* Cahokia Mounds Photo Gallery
* Cahokia Mounds Information & Videos – Chickasaw.TV
* "Cahokia Mounds", Illinois Historic Preservation Agency
* "Metropolitan Life on the Mississippi", Washington Post, March 12, 1997
* Woodhenge and the Cahokia Mounds Archived October 11, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
* IHPA video with narration on Cahokia
* Illinois Great Places – Mounds
* Society of Architectural Historians SAH ARCHIPEDIA entry on the Cahokia Mounds
* Cahokia travel guide from Wikivoyage

* v
* t
* e

Mississippian and related cultures

* List of Mississippian sites
* Timeline of Mississippi valley

Middle
Mississippian|

| American Bottom
and Upper Mississippi|

* Aztalan
* Big Eddy
* Cahokia
* Monks Mound
* Mound 34
* Mound 72
* Ramey state
* Woodhenge
* Cloverdale
* Dickson Mounds
* Emerald Acropolis
* Emmons Cemetery
* Horseshoe Lake
* John Chapman
* Kuhn Station
* Larson
* Lunsford-Pulcher
* McCune
* Mitchell
* Orendorf
* Sleeth
* Starr
* Steed-Kisker culture
* Sugarloaf Mound

|

Lower Ohio River and
Confluence area|

* Adams site
* Dogtooth Bend Mounds
* Kincaid Mounds
* Marshall Site
* Millstone Bluff
* Orr-Herl
* Rowlandton Mound
* Towosahgy
* Turk Site
* Twin Mounds
* Ware Mounds
* Wickliffe Mounds

Middle Ohio River|

* Angel Mounds
* Angel phase
* Annis Mound
* Bone Bank
* Caborn-Welborn culture
* Ellerbusch
* Hovey Lake-Klein
* Hovey Lake District
* Murphy
* Prather
* Slack Farm
* Tolu
* Welborn Village
* Yankeetown

Tennessee and
Cumberland|

* Backusburg
* Beasley Mounds
* Brentwood Library
* Brick Church
* Castalian Springs
* Dunbar Cave
* Fewkes Group
* Hiwassee Island
* Link Farm
* Mound Bottom
* Riverview
* Sellars
* Obion
* Old Town
* Swallow Bluff

Central and Lower
Mississippi|

* Belle Meade
* Boone's
* Boyd
* Campbell
* Carson
* Chucalissa
* Denmark
* Eaker
* Janet's
* Menard-Hodges
* Murphy
* Nodena
* Nodena phase
* Owl Creek
* Parkin
* Quigualtam
* Tipton phase
* Tunica
* Koroa
* Yazoo
* Walls phase

South Appalachian
Mississippian|

* Adamson
* Avery
* Beaverdam Creek
* Bell Field Mound
* Bessemer
* Blair
* Bussell Island
* Chauga
* Chiaha
* Chota
* Citico
* Coosa
* Dallas phase
* Dyar
* Etowah
* Garden Creek
* Hoojah Branch
* Irene
* Jere Shine
* Joara
* Joe Bell
* King
* Lamar
* Lamar phase
* Liddell
* Little Egypt
* Long Swamp
* Mabila
* Mandeville
* McMahan
* Moccasin Bend
* Moundville
* Mouse Creek phase
* Mulberry
* Muscogee (Creek)
* Nacoochee
* Nikwasi
* Ocmulgee
* Park Mound
* Pisgah phase
* Punk Rock Shelter
* Rembert
* Roods Landing
* Rucker's Bottom
* Savannah
* Shiloh
* Sixtoe
* Summerour
* Taskigi
* Tomotley
* Toqua
* Town Creek
* Waddells Mill Pond
* Wilbanks

Fort Walton culture|

* Anhaica
* Apalachee
* Apalachee Province
* Cayson
* Corbin–Tucker
* Fort Walton Mound
* Lake Jackson
* Leon-Jefferson culture
* Letchworth
* Velda
* Yon

Pensacola culture|

* Bottle Creek
* Dauphin Island
* Fort Walton
* Hickory Ridge Cemetery
* Naval Live Oaks Cemetery
* Pensacola people

Plaquemine
Mississippian|

* Anna
* Atchafalaya Basin
* Emerald
* Fitzhugh
* Flowery
* Fosters
* Ghost
* Glass
* Grand Village of the Natchez
* Holly Bluff
* Jaketown
* Jordan
* Julice
* Mangum
* Mazique
* Medora
* Mott
* Natchez
* Taensa
* Pocahontas
* Routh
* Scott Place
* Sims
* Transylvania
* Venable
* Winterville

Caddoan
Mississippian|

* Battle
* Belcher
* Blue Spring Shelter
* Bluffton
* Caddo
* Caddoan Mounds
* Gahagan
* Hughes
* Ka-Do-Ha Indian Village
* Keller
* Spiro

Upper Mississippian
cultures|

| Oneota|

* Anker
* Beattie Park
* Blood Run
* Carcajou Point
* Fifield
* Fisher Mound Group
* Gentleman Farm
* Grand Village of the Illinois
* Griesmer
* Hartley Fort
* Hotel Plaza
* Hoxie Farm
* Huber
* Juntunen
* Knoll Spring
* Mero site
* Moccasin Bluff
* Oak Forest
* Palos
* Plum Island
* Roche-a-Cri Petroglyphs
* Schwerdt
* Summer Island

|

Fort Ancient culture|

* Alligator Effigy Mound
* Clover
* Dodge
* Leo Petroglyph
* Serpent Mound
* SunWatch Indian Village

Culture|

| Agriculture|

* Beans
* Chenopodium
* Little barley
* Maize
* Marshelder
* Pumpkin
* Squash
* Sunflower
* Three Sisters
* Tobacco

|

Artwork|

* Emmons mask
* Copper plates
* Rogan plates
* Spiro plates
* Wulfing cache
* Duck River cache
* Long-nosed god maskette
* Mill Creek chert
* Pottery
* Shell gorget
* Stone statuary

Languages|

* Caddoan
* Central Algonquian
* Cherokee
* Mobilian Jargon
* Muskogean
* Natchez
* Taensa
* Siouan
* Timucuan
* Tunican
* Yuchi

Religion|

* Ballgame (Southeastern)
* Northern
* Black drink
* Burial mound
* Ceremonial pipe
* Chanunpa
* Chunkey
* Earth/fertility cult
* Green Corn Ceremony
* Horned Serpent
* Platform mound
* Red Horn
* Sacred bundle
* Village bundle
* Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
* Stone box grave
* Thunderbird
* Underwater panther

Related topics
Chevron bead
Clarksdale bell
Mound Builders
de Soto Expedition

* v
* t
* e

Pre-Columbian North America

Periods
Lithic
Archaic
Formative
Classic
Post-Classic

Archaeological
cultures|

* Adena
* Alachua
* Ancient Beringian
* Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)
* Baytown
* Belle Glade
* Buttermilk Creek complex
* Caborn-Welborn
* Calf Creek
* Caloosahatchee
* Clovis
* Coles Creek
* Comondú
* Deptford
* Folsom
* Fort Ancient
* Fort Walton
* Fremont
* Glacial Kame
* Glades
* Hohokam
* Hopewell
* List of Hopewell sites
* La Jolla
* Las Palmas
* Leon-Jefferson
* Maritime Archaic
* Mississippian
* List of Mississippian sites
* Mogollon
* Monongahela
* Old Cordilleran
* Oneota
* Paleo-Arctic
* Paleo-Indians
* Patayan
* Plano
* Plaquemine
* Poverty Point
* Red Ocher
* Safety Harbor culture
* Santa Rosa-Swift Creek
* St. Johns
* Steed-Kisker
* Tchefuncte
* Troyville
* Weeden Island

Archaeological
sites|

* Angel Mounds
* Anzick site
* Bandelier National Monument
* Bastian
* Benson
* Blue Spring Shelter
* The Bluff Point Stoneworks
* Brewster
* Cahokia
* Candelaria Cave
* Casa Grande
* Chaco Canyon
* Coso Rock Art District
* Crystal River Archaeological State Park
* Cuarenta Casas
* Cueva de la Olla
* Eaker
* El Fin del Mundo
* El Vallecito
* Effigy Mounds National Monument
* Etowah Indian Mounds
* Eva
* Folsom site
* Fort Ancient
* Fort Center
* Fort Juelson
* Four Mounds
* Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument
* Glenwood
* Grimes Point
* Holly Bluff site
* Hopewell Culture National Historical Park
* Horr's Island
* Huápoca
* Key Marco
* Kimball Village
* Kincaid Mounds
* Kolomoki Mounds
* Lake Jackson Mounds
* L'Anse aux Meadows
* Lynch Quarry Site
* Marksville
* Marmes Rockshelter
* Meadowcroft Rockshelter
* Mesa Verde
* Moaning Cavern
* Moorehead Circle
* Morrison Mounds
* Moundville
* Mummy Cave
* Nodena site
* Ocmulgee National Monument
* Old Stone Fort
* Orwell site
* Paquime
* Parkin Park
* Pinson Mounds
* Plum Bayou Mounds
* Portsmouth Earthworks
* Poverty Point
* Pueblo Bonito
* Recapture Canyon
* Roberts Island complex
* Rock Eagle
* Rock Hawk
* Rosenstock Village Site
* Russell Cave National Monument
* Salmon Ruins
* Serpent Mound
* Sierra de San Francisco
* Spiro Mounds
* SunWatch
* Taos Pueblo
* Town Creek Indian Mound
* Turkey River Mounds
* Upward Sun River site
* Velda Mound
* West Oak Forest Earthlodge
* Wickiup Hill
* Windover
* Winterville
* Wupatki National Monument

Human
remains|

* Anzick-1
* Arlington Springs Man
* Buhl Woman
* Kennewick Man
* La Brea Woman
* Leanderthal Lady
* Melbourne Man
* Minnesota Woman
* Peñon woman
* Spirit Cave mummy
* Vero man

Miscellaneous|

* Aridoamerica
* Black drink
* Ceremonial pipe
* Chanunpa
* Chunkey
* Clovis point
* Container Revolution
* Eastern Agricultural Complex
* Eden point
* Effigy mound
* Falcon dancer
* Folsom point
* Green Corn Ceremony
* Horned Serpent
* Kiva
* Medicine wheel
* Metallurgy
* Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing
* Mound Builders
* N.A.G.P.R.A.
* Norse colonization of North America
* Oasisamerica
* Piasa
* Projectile point
* Southeastern Ceremonial Complex
* Stickball
* Three Sisters agriculture
* Thunderbird
* Underwater panther
* Water glyphs

Related
Genetic history
Pre-Columbian era

* v
* t
* e

U.S. National Register of Historic Places

Topics|

* Architectural style categories
* Contributing property
* Historic district
* History of the National Register of Historic Places
* Keeper of the Register
* National Park Service
* Property types

Lists by state|

* List of U.S. National Historic Landmarks by state:
* Alabama
* Alaska
* Arizona
* Arkansas
* California
* Colorado
* Connecticut
* Delaware
* Florida
* Georgia
* Hawaii
* Idaho
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Louisiana
* Maine
* Maryland
* Massachusetts
* Michigan
* Minnesota
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Montana
* Nebraska
* Nevada
* New Hampshire
* New Jersey
* New Mexico
* New York
* North Carolina
* North Dakota
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Rhode Island
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Vermont
* Virginia
* Washington
* West Virginia
* Wisconsin
* Wyoming

Lists by insular areas|

* American Samoa
* Guam
* Minor Outlying Islands
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Puerto Rico
* Virgin Islands

Lists by associated state|

* Federated States of Micronesia
* Marshall Islands
* Palau

Other areas|

* District of Columbia
* American Legation, Morocco

Related|

* National Historic Preservation Act
* Historic Preservation Fund
* List of jails and prisons on the National Register of Historic Places
* University and college buildings listed on the National Register of Historic Places

* National Register of Historic Places portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Protected areas of Illinois

Federal|

| National Historic Sites and Parks|

* Chicago Portage
* Lincoln Home
* New Philadelphia
* Pullman

|

National Forest|

* Shawnee

National Wildlife Refuges|

* Chautauqua
* Crab Orchard
* Cypress Creek
* Driftless Area
* Emiquon
* Hackmatack
* Mark Twain
* Meredosia
* Middle Mississippi River
* Port Louisa
* Two Rivers
* Upper Mississippi River

National Grassland|

* Midewin National Tallgrass Prairie

National Trails/National Heritage Area|

* Abraham Lincoln National Heritage Area
* Illinois & Michigan Canal
* Lewis and Clark
* Mormon Pioneer
* Trail of Tears

National Natural Landmarks|

* List of National Natural Landmarks in Illinois

National Wild and Scenic Rivers|

* Middle Fork Vermilion River

Wetlands of international importance|

* Cache River-Cypress Creek
* The Emiquon Complex
* Dixon Waterfowl Refuge
* Chiwaukee Illinois Beach Lake Plain (shared with Wisconsin)
* Upper Mississippi (shared)

State|

| State Parks|

* Apple River
* Argyle Lake
* Beall Woods
* Beaver Dam
* Buffalo Rock
* Castle Rock
* Cave-in-Rock
* Chain O'Lakes
* Channahon
* Delabar
* Dixon Springs
* Donnelley/Depue
* Ferne Clyffe
* Fort Massac
* Fox Ridge
* Gebhard Woods
* Giant City
* Hennepin Canal Parkway
* Horseshoe Lake
* Illini
* Illinois Beach
* James "Pate" Philip
* Jubilee College
* Kankakee River
* Lake Murphysboro
* Lincoln Trail
* Lowden
* Matthiessen
* Mississippi Palisades
* Moraine Hills
* Morrison-Rockwood
* Nauvoo
* Pere Marquette
* Red Hills
* Rock Cut
* Rock Island Trail
* Shabbona Lake
* Siloam Springs
* South Shore
* Starved Rock
* Walnut Point
* Weinberg-King
* White Pines Forest
* Wildlife Prairie
* William G. Stratton
* Wolf Creek

|

State Historic Sites|

* List of Illinois State Historic Sites (including, Cahokia World Heritage Site)

State Forests|

* Big River
* Hidden Springs
* Lowden-Miller
* Sand Ridge
* Trail of Tears

State
Recreation Areas|

* Clinton Lake
* Eagle Creek
* Eldon Hazlet
* Frank Holten
* Golconda Marina
* Johnson-Sauk Trail
* Kickapoo
* Lake Le-Aqua-Na
* Moraine View
* North Point Marina
* Prophetstown
* Pyramid
* Ramsey Lake
* Randolph County
* Sangchris Lake
* Stephen A. Forbes
* Washington County
* Wayne Fitzgerrell
* Weldon Springs
* William W. Powers

State Fish &
Wildlife Areas|

* Anderson Lake
* Baldwin Lake
* Banner Marsh
* Carlyle Lake
* Coffeen Lake
* Crawford County
* Des Plaines
* Double T
* Edward R. Madigan
* Green River
* Hamilton County
* Heidecke Lake
* Horseshoe Lake (Alexander County)
* Iroquois County
* Kaskaskia River
* Kinkaid Lake
* Kishwaukee River
* LaSalle Lake
* Mackinaw River
* Marshall
* Mautino
* Mazonia/Braidwood
* Mermet Lake
* Middle Fork
* Mississippi River
* Newton Lake
* Jim Edgar Panther Creek
* Peabody River
* Pekin Lake
* Powerton Lake
* Ray Norbut
* Rend Lake
* Rice Lake
* Sahara Woods
* Saline County
* Sam Dale Lake
* Sam Parr
* Sanganois
* Shelbyville
* Silver Springs
* Snakeden Hollow
* Spring Lake
* Ten Mile Creek
* Turkey Bluffs
* Union County
* Woodford

State Natural Areas|

* Bartlett Woods
* Cache River
* Franklin Creek
* Fults Hill Prairie
* Goose Lake Prairie
* Harry "Babe" Woodyard
* Illinois Caverns
* Kidd Lake
* Mitchell's Grove Nature Preserve
* Piney Creek Ravine
* Prairie Ridge
* Revis Hill Prairie
* Sand Prairie-Scrub Oak
* Sielbeck Forest
* Spitler Woods
* Volo Bog

State Trails|

* Mormon Trail
* Trail of Tears
* Tunnel Hill

Local|

| County Districts|

* Local forest and conservation districts

|

* Category
* Chicago
* East St. Louis
* Illinois Department of Natural Resources
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

World Heritage Sites in the United States

Northeast|

* Independence Hall
* Statue of Liberty

Midwest|

* Cahokia

South|

* Everglades
* Great Smoky Mountains
* Mammoth Cave
* Monticello and the University of Virginia
* Poverty Point
* San Antonio Missions

West|

* Carlsbad Caverns
* Chaco Culture
* Grand Canyon National Park
* Hawaiʻi Volcanoes National Park
* Kluane-Wrangell–St. Elias-Glacier Bay-Tatshenshini-Alsek1
* Mesa Verde
* Olympic National Park
* Pueblo de Taos
* Papahānaumokuākea
* Redwood
* Waterton-Glacier International Peace Park1
* Yellowstone National Park
* Yosemite National Park

Multiple locations|

* The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright

Territories|

* La Fortaleza and San Juan National Historic Site in Puerto Rico

1 Shared with Canada

* v
* t
* e

Museums and cultural institutions in Greater St. Louis

Art|

* Contemporary Art Museum St. Louis
* Laumeier Sculpture Park
* Lemp Neighborhood Arts Center
* Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum
* Pulitzer Arts Foundation
* Saint Louis Art Museum
* St. Louis Mercantile Library Art Museum
* Saint Louis University Museum of Art
* The Sheldon
* William and Florence Schmidt Art Center

Architecture|

* Gateway Arch
* Frank Lloyd Wright Kraus House

Botanical|

* Jewel Box
* Missouri Botanical Garden

Children's|

* City Museum
* The Magic House

History|

* Alton Museum of History and Art
* Anheuser-Busch Brewery
* Basilica of St. Louis, King of France
* Campbell House Museum
* Cathedral Basilica of Saint Louis
* Chatillon-DeMenil House
* Cupples House
* Daniel Boone Home
* Eugene Field House
* First Missouri State Capitol State Historic Site
* The Griot Museum of Black History
* Jefferson Barracks Museums
* Scott Joplin House State Historic Site
* Lemp Mansion
* Lewis and Clark State Historic Site
* Missouri History Museum
* Museum of Westward Expansion
* Old Cahokia Courthouse
* Old Courthouse
* Benjamin Stephenson House
* Soldiers' Memorial
* Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site
* Union Station

Science and
natural history|

* Cahokia Mounds
* Crow Observatory
* Mastodon State Historic Site
* McDonnell Planetarium
* Saint Louis Science Center

Sports|

* St. Louis Cardinals Hall of Fame Museum
* St. Louis Soccer Hall of Fame
* World Chess Hall of Fame

Theatres and
music venues|

* Fox Theatre
* The Muny
* National Blues Museum
* Stifel Theatre
* Powell Hall
* The Sheldon

Transportation|

* Greater Saint Louis Air & Space Museum
* Historic Aircraft Restoration Museum
* National Museum of Transportation

Zoological|

* Butterfly House
* World Aquarium
* Saint Louis Zoo

Authority control: National |

* Czech Republic

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*[c.]: circa
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