California genocide

Widespread killing of Native Americans (1846–1873)

For the conflicts during the settling of California by the United States, see California Indian Wars. For the system of forced labor for Indigenous people during the California genocide, see Forced labor in California.

For a topical guide, see Outline of the California genocide.

California genocide

Part of the California Indian Wars and Native American genocide in the United States

"Protecting The Settlers", illustration by J. R. Browne in The Indians Of California, 1864

Location| California
Date| 1846–1873
Target| Indigenous Californians

Attack type

| Genocide, ethnic cleansing, human hunting, slavery, rape, Indian removal
Deaths| No more than 2,000 (per Anderson)[1]
4,300 (per Cook)[2]
4,500 (per California Secretary of State)[3]
9,492–16,094 (per Madley)[4]
100,000+ (per Castillo/California Native American Heritage Commission)[5]
Injured| 10,000–27,000[6][7] taken as forced laborers by white settlers; 4,000–7,000 of them children[7]
Perpetrators| United States Army, California Militia, American pioneers/White Americans

The California genocide was a series of genocidal massacres of the indigenous peoples of California by United States soldiers and settlers during the 19th century. It began following the American conquest of California in the Mexican–American War and the subsequent influx of American settlers to the region as a result of the California gold rush. Between 1846 and 1873, it is estimated that settlers killed between 9,492 and 16,094 Californian Natives; up to several thousand were also starved or worked to death.[4] Forced labor, kidnapping, rape, child separation, and forced displacement were widespread during the genocide, and were encouraged, tolerated, and even carried out by American government officials and military commanders.[8]

The 1925 book Handbook of the Indians of California estimated that California's indigenous population decreased roughly from 150,000 in 1848 to 30,000 in 1870 and 16,000 by 1900 as a result of disease, low birth rates, starvation, and genocide.[9][10][11] Between 10,000[6] and 27,000[7] were also subject to forced labor by U.S. settlers, with California officials repeatedly passing legislation which dispossessed Californian Indians.[12]

Since the 2000s, historians have characterized the period immediately following the conquest of California as one in which U.S. miners, farmers, and ranchers on the American frontier engaged in the systematic genocide of Californian Indians. In 2019, the governor of California Gavin Newsom described the events as "genocide," adding, "...that's the way it needs to be described in the history books." He also apologized for the "violence, discrimination and exploitation sanctioned by state government throughout its history".[13] In a 2019 executive order, Newsom announced the formation of a "Truth and Healing Council" to better understand the genocide and inform future generations of what occurred.[14]

## Background

[edit]

### American Indians

[edit]

Ethnic and (inset) linguistic groups of California prior to European arrival

Prior to Spanish arrival, California was home to an American Indian population thought to have been as high as 300,000.[15] The largest group were the Chumash people, with a population around 10,000.[16] The region was highly diverse, with numerous distinct languages spoken. While there was great diversity in the area, archeological findings show little evidence of intertribal conflicts.[11]

The various tribal groups appear to have adapted to particular areas and territories. According to journalist Nathan Gilles, because of traditions practiced by the Native people of Northern California, they were able to "manage the threat of wildfires and cultivate traditional plants".[17] For example, traditional use of fire by Californian and Pacific Northwest tribes, allowed them to "cultivate plants and fungi" that "adapted to regular burning. The list runs from fiber sources, such as bear-grass and willow, to foodstuffs, such as berries, mushrooms, and acorns from oak trees that once made up sprawling orchards".[17] Many practices were used to manage the land without tremendous destruction in other ways including "tillage, pruning, seed broadcasting, transplanting, weeding, irrigation, and fertilizing".[18] These groups worked to stimulate the growth and diversity of floral resources across landscapes. Traditional practices allowed for the "extraordinarily successful management of natural resources available to Native Californian tribes".[19] Because of traditional practices of Native Californian tribes, they were able to support habitats and climates that would then support an abundance of wildlife, including rabbits, deer, varieties of fish, fruit, roots, and acorns. The natives largely followed a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, moving around their area through the seasons as different types of food were available.[20]

The American Indian people of California, according to sociologist Kari Norgaard, were "hunting and fishing for their food, weaving baskets using traditional techniques" and "carrying out important ceremonies to keep the world intact".[21] It was also recorded that the American Indian people in California and across the continent had used "fire to enhance specific plant species, optimize hunting conditions, maintain open travel routes, and generally support the flourishing of the species upon which they depend, according to scholars[22] like the United States Forest Service ecologist and Karuk descendent Frank Lake".[21]

### European contact

[edit]

California was one of the last regions in the Americas to be colonized by European colonists. Spanish Catholic missionaries, led by Franciscan administrator Junípero Serra and military forces under the command of officerGaspar de Portolá, did not reach this area until 1769. The mission was intended to spread the Catholic faith among the region's American Indian population and establish and expand the reach of the Spanish Empire.[20] The Spanish built San Diego de Alcalá, the first of 21 missions standing in modern-day California, at what developed as present-day San Diego in the southern part of the state along the Pacific. (The Spanish also built 30 missions and 11 visitas in Baja California.) Military outposts were constructed alongside the missions to house the soldiers sent to protect the missionaries.[citation needed]

Before American rule, Spanish and Mexican rule were devastating for the American Indian populations as well, "As the missions grew, California's native population of Indians began a catastrophic decline."[23] Gregory Orfalea estimates that pre-contact population was reduced by 33% during the Spanish and Mexican regimes. Most of the decline stemmed from imported diseases, low birth rates, and the disruption of traditional ways of life, but violence was common, and some historians have charged that life in the missions was close to slavery.[10][24] However, according to George Tinker, an American Indian scholar, "The Native American population of coastal population was reduced by some 90 percent during seventy years under the sole proprietorship of Serra's mission system".[25]

According to journalist Ed Castillo, member of the Native American Caucus of the California Democratic Party, Serra spread the Christian faith among the Native population in a destructive way that caused their population to decline rapidly while he was in power. Castillo writes that "The Franciscans took it upon themselves to brutalize the Indians, and to rejoice in their death...They simply wanted the souls of these Indians, so they baptized them, and when they died, from disease or beatings... they were going to heaven, which was a cause of celebration".[20] According to Castillo, the Native American population were forced to abandon their "sustainable and complex civilization" as well as "their beliefs, their faith, and their way of life".[20] However, artifacts found at an archaeological site on San Clemente Island suggested that a group of Indigenous people were practicing traditional ways after the arrival of Europeans and Americans in other parts of California, and until potentially the 1850s.[26] The artifacts included subsistence remains, middens, and flaked stone tools.[26]

### Timeline

[edit]

The following is a rough timeline of some of the key events and policies that contributed to the genocide. It is by no means comprehensive.

* 1542: California is discovered by Spain. Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, a Portuguese explorer sailing under the Spanish flag, explores the California coast and lands in San Diego Harbor, naming it San Miguel. His crew peacefully interacts with Kumeyaay natives for six days trading goods and discussing cultural differences. The larger California area is named from a fictional paradise described in the early 16th-century novel "Las Sergas de Esplandián" by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.[27]
* 1769: Spanish colonizers extended the Mexican Catholic mission system into the mission system in California, which led to the forced conversion and enslavement of California area Native Americans.[28][29][30]
* 1821–1823: Mexico gained independence from Spain and took control of California, continuing the Spanish government's policies of forced labor and conversion of Indigenous peoples.[31][30]
* 1845–1846: John C. Frémont leads US Attacks against Native Americans in California and Oregon Country. Frémont is employed by US Senator Thomas Hart Benton and US President Andrew Jackson to explore land routes to California and prepare to conquer the territory from Mexico. Frémont travels Northern California, committing several native massacres along the way. He then declares himself governor of the Territory of California.
* 1846–48: The Mexican–American War led to the annexation of California by the United States. The settlers and U.S. military formed an alliance and were joined by some Indigenous people, although the military had "murdered many natives".[32][30]
* 1848: The discovery of gold in California led to the influx of a massive horde of settlers, who formed militias to kill and displace Indigenous peoples.[33][34][30]
* 1850: The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was passed, legalizing the enslavement of Native Americans and allowing settlers to capture and force them into labor.[35][36]
* 1851–52: The Mariposa War broke out between white settlers and the Ahwahnechee, resulting in the displacement and killing of Native Americans by the Mariposa Battalion in the Sierra Nevada region.[37]
* 1851–66: Shasta city and the communities of Marysville and Honey Lake paid bounties for the killing of Native Americans.[38][39][40][41]
* 1860s: The federal government began a policy of forced removal of Native Americans peoples to reservations, which led to violence and displacement.[42]
* Late 1800s–early 1900s: Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families by the California government and placed in boarding schools, where they were subjected to abuse and forced assimilation.[43][44][45]
* 1909: The California state government established the California Eugenics Record Office, which promoted the forced sterilization of people declared by the government to be "unfit", including "Black, Latino and Indigenous women who were incarcerated or in state institutions for disabilities".[46][47][48]

## Response following statehood

[edit]

Map of California from Indian Land Cessions in the United States

Following the American Conquest of California from Mexico, the influx of American settlers due to the California Gold Rush in 1849, and the statehood of California in 1850, state and federal authorities incited, aided, and financed the violence against the American Indians. The California Natives were also sometimes contemptuously referred to as "Diggers", for their practice of digging up roots to eat.[49][50][page needed][51][52][page needed][53][54][55] On January 6, 1851, at his State of the State address to the California Senate, 1st Governor of California, Peter Burnett said: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert."[56][57][58] During the California genocide, reports of the decimation of American Indians in California were made to the rest of the United States and internationally.[note 1]

The California Act for the Government and Protection of Indians was enacted in 1850 (amended 1860, repealed 1863). This law provided for "apprenticing" or indenturing Indian children to white settlers, and also punished "vagrant" Indians by "hiring" them out to the highest bidder at a public auction if the Indian could not provide sufficient bond or bail. This legalized a form of slavery in California.[59] White settlers took 10,000 to 27,000 California Native Americans as forced laborers, including 4,000 to 7,000 children.[6][7]

> I have the honor to report to the general commanding the Department of the Pacific that I have been in this valley fifteen days, carrying out my instructions to chastise these Indians, or the Indians of Owens River; that I have killed several, taken eleven prisoners, and destroyed a great many rancherias and a large quantity of seeds, worms, &c., that the Indians had gathered for food.

— George S. Evans, Lieutenant-Colonel Second Cavalry California Volunteers, Commanding Owens River Expedition (1862), War of the Rebellion: Operations on the Pacific Coast. Chapter LXII.[60]

A notable early eyewitness testimony and account: "The Indians of California" (1864) is from John Ross Browne, Customs official and Inspector of Indian Affairs on the Pacific Coast. He systematically described the fraud, corruption, land theft, slavery, rape, and massacre perpetrated on a substantial portion of the aboriginal population.[61][62] This was confirmed by a contemporary, Superintendent Dorcas J. Spencer.[63]

### Violence statistics

[edit]

In 1943, a study by demographer Sherburne Cook, estimated that there were 4,556 killings of California Indians between 1847 and 1865.[4][3] Contemporary historian Benjamin Madley has documented the numbers of Californian Indians killed between 1846 and 1873; he estimates that during this period at least 9,492 to 16,092 Californian Indians were killed by non-Indians, including between 1,680 and 3,741 killed by the U.S. Army. Most of the deaths took place in what he defined as more than 370 massacres (defined as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise"). Madley also estimates that fewer than 1,400 non-Indians were killed by Indians during this period.[4] The Native American activist and former Sonoma State University Professor Ed Castillo was asked by The State of California's Native American Heritage Commission to write the state's official history of the genocide; he wrote that "well-armed death squads combined with the widespread random killing of Indians by individual miners resulted in the death of 100,000 Indians in [1848 and 1849]."[5] Another contemporary historian, Gary Clayton Anderson, estimated that no more than 2,000 Native Americans were killed in California.[1] Jeffrey Ostler has critiqued Anderson's estimate, calling it "unsubstantiated" and "at least five times too low".[64]

In the early 1850s, the California legislature authorized payment for multiple expeditions against the Native Americans of California. Some scholars believe that state legislators and officials “created a legal environment in which California Indians had almost no rights, thus granting those who attacked them virtual impunity which is defined as freedom from punishment.”[65] In addition, state legislators raised up to $1.51 million to pay for state militia expeditions against California Native Americans.[66]

### Archaeological evidence of violence and refugeeism in California

[edit]

Research made in 2015 on native burial mounds in the San Francisco Bay area found that natives would move to different places in order to avoid genocide. The movement can be traced by the dating of the burial mounds since multiple native tribes found these burial mound spaces as places of religious and cultural freedom.[67]

The Amah Mutsun are a group of Indigenous peoples who were reported to be unable to pass on their traditions during this time, their practices remained untold for a number of years. People of this group, descendants, and archaeologists participate in conducting collaborative, ethnographic research to bring light to previous practices like burial practices and vegetation patterns.[68]

### List of recorded massacres

[edit]

Year | Date | Name | Current location | Description  | Reported casualties | References

|
|
|
|
|
|

1846 | April 6 | Sacramento River massacre | Sacramento River in Shasta County, Northern California | Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a band of Indians (probably Wintun) on the Sacramento River in California, killing between 120 and 200 Indians.  | 120–200 | Madley, 2016 p. 49–50
1846 | June | Sutter Buttes massacre | Sutter Buttes in Sutter County, Northern California | Captain John C. Frémont's men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes, killing several Patwin people.  | 14+ | [69][page needed]
1846 | December | Pauma massacre | Pauma Valley in San Diego County, Southern California | 11 Californios captured at Rancho Pauma were killed as horse thieves by Indians at Warner Springs, California, leading to the Temecula massacre.  | 11 (settlers) | [70]
1846 | December | Temecula massacre | Temecula in Riverside County, Southern California | 33 to 40 Luiseño Indians killed in an ambush in revenge for the Pauma Massacre east of Temecula, California.  | 33–40 | [70]
1847 | March | Rancheria Tulea massacre | Napa Valley in Napa County, Northern California | White slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring five Indians in Rancheria Tulea.  | 5 | [71][page needed]
1847 | March 29 | Kern and Sutter massacres | Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California | In response to a plea from white settlers to put an end to raids, U.S. Army Captain Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages.  | 20 | Madley, 2016 p. 62
1847 | late June/early July | Konkow Maidu slaver massacre | Chico in Butte County, Northern California | Slavers kill 12–20 Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery.  | 12–20 | Madley, 2016 p. 64
1850 | May 15 | Bloody Island massacre | Clear Lake in Lake County, Northern California | Nathaniel Lyon and his U.S. Army detachment of cavalry killed 60–100 Pomo people (possibly more, by other accounts) on Bo-no-po-ti island near Upper Lake; they believed the tribe had killed Andrew Kelsey and Charles Stone, two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo and Wappo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo.) This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. The site is now California Registered Historical Landmark #427.  | 60–100 | [72][73][74]
1851  | January 11  | Mariposa War | Various sites in Mariposa County, Northern California  | The gold rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California, because miners forced Native Americans off their gold-rich lands. Many were pressed into service in the mines; others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer militia. Some Native American tribes fought back, beginning with the Ahwahnechees and the Chowchilla in the Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley leading a raid on the Fresno River post of James D. Savage, in December 1850. In retaliation Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January 11, 1851, on a mountainside near present-day Oakhurst, California.  | 40+ |
1851 |  | Old Shasta Town Massacre | Shasta in Shasta County, Northern California | Miners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned down their tribal council meeting house.  | 300 | [75]
1852 | April 23 | Bridge Gulch massacre | Hayfork Creek in Trinity County, Northern California | 70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson.  | 150 | [76]
1853 |  | Howonquet massacre | Smith River in Del Norte County, Northern California | Californian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people.  | 70 | [77]
1853 |  | Yontoket Massacre | Yontocket in Del Norte County, Northern California | A posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony.  | 450 | [78][50]
1853 |  | Achulet Massacre | Lake Earl in Del Norte County, Northern California | White settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn.  | 65–150 | [79]
1853 | Before December 31 | "Ox" incident | Visalia in Tulare County, Central Valley | U.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers as "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received".  |  | [80]
1855 | January 22 | Klamath River massacres | Klamath River in Del Norte County, Northern California | In retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt County, California.  |  | [81]
1856 | March | Shingletown | Shingleton in Shasta County, Northern California | In reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women, and children near Shingletown, California.  | 20 | [82]
1856–1859 |  | Round Valley Settler Massacres | Round Valley in Mendocino County, Northern California | White settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the course of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres.  | 1,000+ | [83][84]
1859–1860 |  | Mendocino War | Various sites in Mendocino County, Northern California | White settlers calling themselves the "Eel River Rangers", led by Walter Jarboe, killed at least 283 Indian men and countless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months. They were reimbursed by the U.S. government for their campaign.  | 283+ | [83]
1859 | September | Pit River | Pit River in Northern California | White settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their village on the Pit River in California.  | 70  | [85]
1859 |  | Chico Creek | Big Chico Creek in Butte County, Northern California | White settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately 40 Indians.  | 40 | [86]
1860 | Exact date unknown | Massacre at Bloody Rock | Mendocino National Forest in Mendocino County, Northern California | A group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock, in Mendocino County, California.  | 65 |
1860 | February 26 | 1860 Wiyot massacre | Tuluwat Island in Humboldt County, Northern California | In three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California, white settlers killed between 80 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children, and elders, as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages were massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208.  | 80–250 | [87][88][89][90]
1863 | April 19 | Keyesville massacre | Keyesville in Kern County, Central Valley | American militia and members of the California Volunteers cavalry killed 35 Tübatulabal men in Kern County, California.  | 35  | [91]
1863 | August 28 | Konkow Trail of Tears | Chico in Butte County to Covelo in Mendocino County, Northern California | In August 1863 all Konkow Maidu were to be sent to the Bidwell Ranch in Chico and then be taken to the Round Valley Reservation at Covelo in Mendocino County. Any Indians remaining in the area were to be shot. Maidu were rounded up and marched under guard west out of the Sacramento Valley and through to the Coastal Range. 461 Native Americans started the trek, 277 finished.[92] They reached the Round Valley on September 18, 1863.  | 184  | [92]
1864 |  | Oak Run massacre | Oak Run in Shasta County, Northern California | California settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run, California, for a spiritual ceremony.  | 300  | [93]
1865 |  | Owens Lake massacre | Owens Lake in Inyo County, Northern California | To avenge the killing of a woman and child at Haiwai Meadows, white vigilantes attacked a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California, killing about 40 men, women, and children.  | 40  | [94]
1865 |  | Three Knolls massacre | Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California | White settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California.  |  | [95]
1868 |  | Campo Seco | Mill Creek in Tehama County, Northern California | A posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California.  | 33  | [96][97]
1871 |  | Kingsley Cave massacre | Ishi Wilderness in Tehama County, Northern California | 4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive.  | 30  | [98]

### Population decline

[edit]

Further information: Population history of Indigenous peoples of the Americas

Estimated native California population based on Handbook of the Indians of California (1925) (Cook 1978) Part of a series on

Genocide
of indigenous peoples
Issues

* Ecocide
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic relations
* Forced assimilation / conversion
* Denial
* Historiography
* Settler colonialism
* Genocide
* Indigenous response

Sub-Saharan Africa

* Atrocities in the Congo Free State
* Darfur genocide
* Effacer le tableau
* Gukurahundi
* Herero and Nama genocide
* Ikiza
* Maji Maji Rebellion
* Menelik II's conquests in Ethiopia
* Mfecane

Americas (history)

* Conquest of the Desert
* Enslavement
* Forced sterilization in Peru
* Plan Verde
* Brazil
* Yanomami humanitarian crisis
* Canada
* Beothuk extinction
* High Arctic relocation
* Pacific Northwest smallpox epidemic
* Residential schools
* Guatemalan genocide
* Kalinago genocide
* La Matanza
* Massacre of Salsipuedes
* Napalpí massacre
* Occupation of Araucanía
* Paraguay
* Putumayo genocide
* Selk'nam genocide
* Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire
* Fall of Tenochtitlan
* Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire
* Cajamarca massacre
* Spiral case
* Taíno genocide
* United States
* American Indian Wars
* Boarding schools
* California genocide
* Great Plains smallpox epidemic
* Indian removal
* Osage Indian murders
* Pequot War
* Sand Creek massacre
* Sullivan Expedition
* Trail of Tears
* Venezuela
* Pemon conflict

East, South, Southeast Asia

* Bandanese massacre
* Bangladesh genocide
* Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict
* Dzungar genocide
* East Timor genocide
* Japanese annexation of Hokkaido
* Lamey Island Massacre
* Manchukuo
* Ryukyu Disposition
* Sinicization of Tibet
* Sōshi-kaimei
* Vietnamese conquest of Champa

Europe and North Asia

* Circassian genocide
* Cromwellian conquest of Ireland
* Generalplan Ost
* Massacres of Albanians
* Greek genocide
* Norwegianization of the Sámi
* Population transfer in the Soviet Union
* Russian conquest of Siberia
* Swedification of Sámi and Finns
* Vergonha

Oceania

* Blackbirding
* Australia
* Australian frontier wars
* Black War
* Stolen Generations
* Moriori genocide
* Papua conflict

West Asia / North Africa

* Armenian genocide
* Assyrian genocide
* Bar Kokhba revolt
* Conquest of the Canary Islands
* Libyan genocide
* Pacification of Algeria
* Palestinian genocide accusation (Gaza genocide)
* Western Sahara conflict
* Yazidi genocide

Related topics

* Outline of genocide studies
* Bibliography of genocide studies
* Genocides in history

* v
* t
* e

Groups  | Population by year
All minimum sources below cite:[16][unreliable source?]

|

1770  | 1910
Yurok | 2,500
(up to 3,100[99])  | 700
Karok | 1,500
(up to 2,000 to 2,700[100][101] )  | 800
Wiyot | 1,000  | 100
Tolowa | 1,000  | 150
Hupa | 1,000  | 500
Chilula, Whilkut | 1,000  | (*)
Mattole | 500
(up to 2,476[102])  | (*)
Nongatl, Sinkyone, Lassik | 2,000
(up to 7,957[102])  | 100
Wailaki | 1,000
(up to 2,760[102])  | 200
Kato | 500
(up to 1,100[99])  | (*)
Yuki | 2,000
(up to 6,000 to 20,000[103])  | 100
Huchnom | 500  | (*)
Coast Yuki | 500  | (*)
Wappo | 1,000
(up to 1,650[104])  | (*)
Pomo | 8,000
(up to 10,000[105] to 18,000[105])  | 1,200
Lake Miwok | 500  | (*)
Coast Miwok | 1,500  | (*)
Shasta | 2,000
(up to 5,600[106] to 10,000[107])  | 100
Chimariko, New River, Konomihu, Oakwanuchu | 1,000  | (*)
Achomawi, Atsugawi | 3,000  | 1,100
Modoc in California  | 500  | (*)
Yana/Yahi | 1,500  | (*)
Wintun | 12,000  | 1,000
Maidu | 9,000
(up to 9,500[108])  | 1,100
Miwok (Plains and Sierra)  | 9,000  | 700
Yokuts | 18,000
(up to 70,000[109])  | 600
Costanoan | 7,000
(up 10,000[110] to 26,000 combined with Salinan[111])  | (*)
Esselen | 500  | (*)
Salinan | 3,000  | (*)
Chumash | 10,000
(up to 13,650[106] to 20,400[106])  | (*)
Washo in California  | 500  | 300
Northern Paiute in California  | 500  | 300
Eastern and Western Mono | 4,000  | 1,500
Tübatulabal | 1,000  | 150
Koso, Chemehuevi, Kawaiisu | 1,500  | 500
Serrano, Vanyume, Kitanemuk, Alliklik | 3,500  | 150
Gabrielino, Fernandeño, San Nicoleño | 5,000  | (*)
Luiseño | 4,000
(up to 10,000[112])  | 500
Juaneño | 1,000
(up 3,340[113])  | (*)
Cupeño | 500
(up to 750[114])  | 150
Cahuilla | 2,500
(up to 6,000[115] to 15,000[115])  | 800
Diegueño, Kamia  | 3,000
(up to 6,000[116] to 19,000[117])  | 800
Mohave (total)  | 3,000  | 1,050
Halchidhoma (emigrated since 1800)  | 1,000
(up to 2,500[118])  | ........
Yuma (Total)  | 2,500  | 750
Total of groups marked (*)  | ..........  | 450
|  | 15,850
|  |
Less river Yumans in Arizona  | 3,000
(up to 4,000[119])  | 850
|  |
Non-Californian Indians now in California  | ..........  | 350
|  |
Affiliation doubtful or not reported  | ..........  | 1,000
|  |
Total  | 133,000
(up to 230,407 to 301,233) | 16,350

## Select ethnic groups targeted

[edit]

While many groups were targeted in the genocide the circumstances of individual groups can be illustrative of the on the ground happenings of the killings.

### Yuki

[edit]

The Yuki people experienced catastrophe by the events of 1847–1853. The United States took possession of California from Mexico in January 1847, with the Gold Rush arriving swiftly in 1848. Hundreds of thousands came in the search of wealth, placing pressure on Indigenous Californians.[120] More than 1,000 Yuki are estimated to have been killed in the Round Valley Settler Massacres of 1856–1859 and 400 in the Mendocino War; many others were enslaved and only 300 survived. The intent of the massacres was to exterminate the Yuki and gain control of the land they inhabited. U.S. Army soldiers deployed to the valley stopped further killings and in 1862 the California legislature revoked a law which permitted the kidnapping and enslavement of Native Americans in the state.

A few specific attacks of which there is witness testimony are:

* A local paper reported 55 Indians killed in Clinton Valley on October 8, 1856.[121]
* A white farmer, John Lawson, admitted an attack killing eight Indians, three by shooting and five by hanging, after some of his hogs were stolen. He stated that these killings were a common practice.[122]
* A white farmer, Isaac Shanon, testified to killing 14 Indians in a revenge attack after a white man was killed in early 1858.[123]
* White persons from the Sacramento Valley came into Round Valley and killed four Yuki Indians with the help of locals in June 1858, despite having been warned against it by Indian Agents.[124]
* White settlers attacked and killed nine Indians in the mountains edging the valley in November 1858.[125]
* Former Superintendent of Indian Affairs, Thomas Henley (fired two months earlier for embezzling funds), led a massacre of 11 Yuki Indians in August 1859.[126]

Due to the overwhelming number of killings, an exact death toll is unknowable. The following estimates were made by government agents and newspapers at the time:

* 1856: 300 total killed over the course of the year.[121]
* Winter 1856–57: About 75 Yuki Indians killed over the course of the winter.[127]
* March–April 1858: 300–400 male Yukis killed in three weeks.[128]
* November 1858 – January 1859: 150+[129] or 170[130] Yuki Indians killed between November and January
* March–May 1859: 240 Yuki killed in assaults led by H.L. Hall in revenge for the slaughter of Judge Hastings's horse[131][132] and a total of 600 men, women, and children killed within the previous year.[133]

These estimates suggest well over 1,000 Yuki deaths at the hands of white settlers. (See Cook, Sherburne; "The California Indian and White Civilization" Part III, pg 7, for an argument in favor of the approximate reliability of figures of Indians killed at this time.)

### Yahi

[edit]

The Yahi were the first of the Yana people to suffer from the Californian Gold Rush, for their lands were the closest to the gold fields.[134] Prior to the Gold Rush that began with the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in January 1848, the U.S. military had been involved in the destruction of California Natives which included the Yana people. The processes included removals of people from ancestral land, massacres, confinement to small reservations, and the separation of families. In California, miners, ranchers, farmers, and businessmen engaged in acts outlined in the Genocide Convention.[135] They suffered great population losses from the loss of their traditional food supplies and fought with the settlers over territory. They lacked firearms, and armed white settlers intentionally committed genocide against them in multiple raids.[136] These raids took place as part of the California genocide, during which the U.S. Army and vigilante militias carried out killings as well as the relocation of thousands of indigenous peoples in California.[137] The massacre reduced the Yahi, who were already suffering from starvation, to a population of less than 100.[134]

On August 6, 1865, seventeen settlers raided a Yahi village at dawn. In 1866, more Yahis were massacred when they were caught by surprise in a ravine. Circa 1867, 33 Yahis were killed after being tracked to a cave north of Mill Creek. Circa 1871, four cowboys trapped and killed about 30 Yahis in Kingsley cave.[136]

The last known survivor of the Yahi was named Ishi by American anthropologists. Ishi had spent most of his life hiding with his tribe members in the Sierra wilderness, emerging at the age of about 49, after the deaths of his mother and remaining relatives. He was the only Yahi known to Americans.

### Tolowa

[edit]

In 1770 the Tolowa had a population of 1,000;[16] their population soon dropped to 150[16] in 1910; this was almost entirely due to deliberate mass murder in what has been called genocide[69][page needed] which has been recognized by the state of California.[13] In a speech before representatives of Native American peoples in June 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom said, "That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."[13] Among these killings the Yontoket Massacre left 150[69][page needed] to 500[69][page needed] Tolowa people recorded dead. Because their homes had burned down, the place received the name "Burnt Ranch". The Tolowa themselves date the first massacre at 1853, stating that between 450 and 600 people were killed. The second dated massacre at 1854 stating that about 150 people were killed.[138] The Yontoket massacre decimated the cultural center of the Tolowa peoples. The natives from the surrounding areas would gather there for their celebrations and discussions. The survivors of the massacre were forced to move to the village north of Smith's River called Howonquet. The slaughtering of the Tolowa people continued for some years. They were seemingly always caught at their Needash celebrations. These massacres caused some unrest which led in part to the Rogue River Indian war. Many Tolowa people were incarcerated at Battery Point in 1855 to withhold them from joining an uprising led by their chief. In 1860, after the Chetco/Rogue River War, 600 Tolowa were forcibly relocated to Indian reservations in Oregon, including what is now known as the Siletz Reservation in the Central Coastal Range. Later, some were moved to the Hoopa Valley Reservation in California. Adding to the number of dead from the Yontoket Massacre and the Battery Point Attack are many more in the following years. These massacres included the Chetko Massacre with 24[69][page needed] dead, the Smith creek massacre with 7[69][page needed] dead, the Howonquet Massacre with 70[69][page needed] dead, the Achulet massacre with 65 dead[79] (not including those whose bodies were left in the lake) and the Stundossun Massacre with 300[69][page needed] dead. In total, 902 Tolowa Native Americans were killed in 7 years. There are no records that any of the perpetrators were ever held accountable.[69][page needed] This means over 90% of the entire Tolowa population was killed in deliberate massacres.

## Economic aspects in Southern California

[edit]

At the outset, the European-American population of Los Angeles County identified a practical application for the utilization of Indian labor within an economy that was experiencing a shortage of laborers due to the mass migration of individuals to the gold fields. During the 1850s, white Americans in the United States depended on individuals of Amerindian descent to cultivate vast areas of land in return for minimal or non-existent monetary compensation. During the period of the Gold Rush, numerous rancho owners were able to reap significant benefits by driving their livestock into the Central Valley and Sierra foothills, thereby capitalizing on the relatively prosperous years of gold mining.[52][page needed] Due to Economic expansion because of the increased need for mining, even Indigenous groups in remote locations, such as those in the Coso Range, were incorporated into the economy.[26]

## Legacy

[edit]

### Land grab and value

[edit]

Part of a series on

Genocide

Issues

* List of genocides
* Genocides in history
* Genocides in history (before 1490)
* 1490–WWI
* WWI–WWII
* 1946–1999
* 21st century
* Effects on youth
* Denial
* Massacre
* Rape
* Incitement
* In relation to Colonialism / War
* Perpetrators, victims, and bystanders
* Prevention
* Psychology
* Recognition politics
* Risk factors
* Stages
* Types
* Anti-Indigenous
* Cultural
* Paper
* Utilitarian
* Studies
* Outline
* Bibliography
* Education

Related topics

* Compulsory sterilization
* Democide
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnocide
* Forced assimilation

Category

* v
* t
* e

According to M. Kat Anderson, an ecologist and lecturer at University of California, Davis, and Jon Keeley, a fire ecologist and research scientist with the U.S. Geological Survey, after decades of being disconnected from the land and their culture, due to Spanish and U.S. settler violence, Native peoples are slowly starting to be able to practice traditions that enhance the environment around them, by directly taking care of the land. Anderson and Keeley write, "The outcomes that Indigenous people were aiming for when burning chaparral, such as increased water flow, enhanced wildlife habitat, and the maintenance of many kinds of flowering plants and animals, are congruent and dovetail with the values that public land agencies, non-profit organizations, and private landowners wish to preserve and enhance through wildland management".[139] Through these returned practices, they are able to commit and practice their culture, while also helping the other people in the area that will benefit from the ecological differences.

California Landmark 427, built in 2005 represents the Bloody Island Massacre of the Pomo people that took place on May 15, 1850.[140] The monument is used as a center point of an annual festival beginning in 1999 held by Pomo descendants. Candles and tobacco are burned in honor of their ancestors.

### Call for tribunals

[edit]

American Indian scholar Gerald Vizenor has argued in the early 21st century for universities to be authorized to assemble tribunals to investigate these events. He notes that United States federal law contains no statute of limitations on war crimes and crimes against humanity, including genocide. He says:

> Genocide tribunals would provide venues of judicial reason and equity that reveal continental ethnic cleansing, mass murder, torture, and religious persecution, past and present, and would justly expose, in the context of legal competition for evidence, the inciters, falsifiers, and deniers of genocide and state crimes against Native American Indians. Genocide tribunals would surely enhance the moot court programs in law schools and provide more serious consideration of human rights and international criminal cases by substantive testimony, motivated historical depositions, documentary evidence, contentious narratives, and ethical accountability.[141]

Vizenor believes that, in accordance with international law, the universities of South Dakota, Minnesota, and California Berkeley ought to establish tribunals to hear evidence and adjudicate crimes against humanity alleged to have taken place in their individual states.[142] Attorney Lindsay Glauner has also argued for such tribunals.[143]

### Apologies and name changes

[edit]

In a speech before representatives of American Indian peoples in June, 2019, California governor Gavin Newsom apologized for the genocide. Newsom referring to the proposed California Truth and Healing Council said, "California must reckon with our dark history. California Native American peoples suffered violence, discrimination and exploitation sanctioned by state government throughout its history .... It's called genocide. That's what it was, a genocide. No other way to describe it. And that's the way it needs to be described in the history books. We can never undo the wrongs inflicted on the peoples who have lived on this land that we now call California since time immemorial, but we can work together to build bridges, tell the truth about our past and begin to heal deep wounds."[13][144] After hearing testimony, a Truth and Healing Council will clarify the historical record on the relationship between the state of California and American Indians.[145]

In November 2021, the board of directors of the former "University of California Hastings College of Law" voted to change the name of the institution because of its founder and namesake S. C. Hastings's alleged involvement in the killing and dispossessing of Yuki people in the 1850s.[146][147] The name change was approved via an act of the California Legislature (California Assembly Bill 1936, 2021–2022 regular session) and was signed into law by the governor on 23 September 2022. The name change took effect on January 1, 2023.[148] The institution is now known as the University of California College of the Law, San Francisco.

## Academic debate on the term "genocide"

[edit]

There is vigorous debate over the scale of American Indian losses after the discovery of gold in California and whether to characterize them as genocide.[149][150] The application of the term "genocide", in particular, has been controversial.[151] According to historian Jeffrey Ostler, the debate mostly rests on disagreements regarding the definition of the term.[150] He writes that by a strict ("intentionalist"[64]) definition, genocide "requir[es] a federal or state government intention to kill all California Indians and an outcome in which the majority of deaths were from direct killing", while by a less strict ("structuralist"[64]) definition, it "requir[es] only settler intention to destroy a substantial portion of California Indians using a variety of means ranging from dispossession to systematic killing".[150] Under the former definition, Ostler argues that "genocide does not seem applicable," whereas under the latter definition, "genocide seems apt."

In 1948, Article 2 of the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide defined genocide as

> ... any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group, as such:

>     (a) Killing members of the group;
>     (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;
>     (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
>     (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;
>     (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

— Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide, Article 2[152]

### For use of the term

[edit]

Historians who argue the term "genocide" is appropriate point out that the Indian population of California fell quickly and argue that extreme violence was integral to this process.[150] Benjamin Madley, a UCLA historian, is one of the most prominent historians espousing this view, writing that "[i]t was genocide, sanctioned and facilitated by California officials" who, according to him, "established a state-sponsored killing machine".[55] Historian Brendan C. Lindsay, argued that "rather than a government orchestrating a population to bring about the genocide of a group, [in California] the population orchestrated a government to destroy a group",[153] while William T. Hagen wrote that "[genocide] is a term of awful significance, but one which has application to the story of California's Native Americans".[154] James J. Rawls argued that Californian whites "advocated and carried out a program of genocide that was popularly called 'extermination'".[155] Militias were called out by the governors of California for "expeditions against the Indians" on a number of occasions.[156]

Supporters of the use of the term "genocide" stress the involvement and complicity of federal and state authorities in perpetrating atrocities against the indigenous Californians, and point to their statements and policies as evidence of direct genocidal intent. For example, historian Richard White, in a review of Madley's An American Genocide, argues that "no reader of his book can seriously contend that what happened in California doesn't meet the current definition of "genocide"," citing the "relentless attacks by federal troops, state militia, vigilantes, and mercenaries [that] made the enslavement of Indians possible and starvation and disease inevitable".[157] White continues, "in California, what Americans have often called "war" was nothing of the sort. For every American who died, 100 Indians perished. They died horribly—men, women, and children. The men who killed them were brutal. Nor did the killings result from a moment of rage; they were systematic." White stresses the complicity of the US federal government, noting that "the funding that the US government provided for California's militia expeditions made attacking Indians possible and profitable".[157] Writing about the experience of indigenous Californian women during this period, Women's studies scholar Gail Ukockis argues that "government officials were quite explicit about their genocidal intent,"[158] citing the 1851 State of the State address given by the 1st Governor of California, Peter Burnett, in which he said: "That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected."[159]

Jeffrey Ostler, too, endorsed the usage of the term, writing that it "rests on a substantial body of scholarship".[64] Ostler argues that there is a "general consensus" that genocide took place in at least "some times and places in the state's early history".[64] Responding to critics of the "genocide" charge that have argued that epidemics were the primary cause of Native mortality,[160] Ostler writes that "depopulation from disease more often resulted from conditions created by colonialism—in California, loss of land, destruction of resources and food stores, lack of clean water, captive taking, sexual violence, and massacre—that encouraged the spread of pathogens and increased communities' vulnerability through malnutrition, exposure, social stress, and destruction of sources of medicine and capacities for palliative care".[64] He continues, "since the United States' colonization of California was intended to dispossess Indigenous peoples and since that intention had the predictable consequence of making communities vulnerable to multiple diseases which led to massive population loss, disease in this case qualifies as a crucial factor contributing to genocide".[64]

Karl Jacoby, in his review of An American Genocide, argues that the book removes "any doubt that genocide against Native people took place in the most populous and prosperous state in the US" and that it establishes "conclusively the reality of genocide in the Golden State".[161] He also notes that Madley "illuminates the ways that federal and state policies facilitated popular violence against Indians".[161] William Bauer Jr. argues that Benjamin Madley "has settled the issue on whether or not genocide occurred in California".[162] He writes also that "federal and state governments, those bodies that could or should have protected California Indians from the devastating violence, condoned and perpetrated genocides" and that "civilian leaders in California passed legislation that enabled genocide".[162] Margaret Jacobs writes that Madley has made it "nearly impossible to deny that a genocide took place against Native peoples in at least one location and one time period in American history" and that he shows how "the genocide started out as the work of vigilante groups but soon gained state funding and federal support".[163] Jacobs points out, for example, that "in 1854, Congress agreed to pay off California's war debt, and by the end of 1856, the federal government had given California more than $800,000 to distribute to bond holders who had financed the genocidal killing in the state."[163]

In his book The Rediscovery of America, historian Ned Blackhawk argues that "historians have located genocide across Native American history" and cites California as a specific example.[164] Blackhawk writes that in California, "settlers used informal and state-sanctioned violence to shatter Native worlds and legitimate their own" and also notes that "in February 1852, for example, the state legislature appropriated $500,000 to fund anti-Indian state militias".[165] Regarding the role of the federal government, he writes that they had "earlier attempted an alternate scenario to the genocide at hand. In 1851 and 1852, officials negotiated eighteen treaties across the state; however, bowing to California representatives, the Senate rejected these treaties, essentially authorizing the continued use of settler violence to aid colonization."[166]

### Against the use of the term

[edit]

Other scholars and historians dispute the accuracy of the term "genocide" to describe what occurred in California, as well as the blame which has been placed directly on the federal government and the state government of California,[1] pointing to the fact that disease was the primary factor in the depopulation of California Indians and arguing that mass violence was undertaken primarily by settlers and that the state and federal governments did not establish a policy of physically killing all Indians.[150] One of the most prominent historians espousing such a view is Gary Clayton Anderson,[167] a University of Oklahoma professor of history who describes the events in California as "ethnic cleansing",[1][168] arguing that "If we get to the point where the mass murder of 50 Indians in California is considered genocide, then genocide has no more meaning".[1] Historian William Henry Hutchinson, wrote that "the record of history disproves these charges [of genocide]",[169] while historian Tom Henry Watkins stated that "it is a poor use of the term" since the killings were not systematic or planned.[170] In a critical review of Brendan Lindsay's Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873, Michael F. Magliari notes that "[Sherburne] Cook never described the terrible events of 1846–1873 as a genocide, and neither had any of his leading successors in California Indian history". While acknowledging that actions against some tribes native to California were genocidal, he opts for the term ethnocidal for actions against other tribes, considering the former term's application to all cases "highly problematic". (He rejects the UN Genocide Convention's "sweeping definition" of genocide, whereas Lindsay embraces it.)[2] In a subsequent review of Benjamin Madley's An American Genocide, he says that some scholars may find Madley's use of the UN Genocide Convention as an "overly broad and elastic definition", that the evidence of genocide "varies considerably from place to place and is far stronger in some cases", and that Madley's case against the federal government is "not nearly so strong" as that against "frontier miners, farmers, and ranchers".[160] Magliari also argues that "epidemics, not violence, still remained by far the greater factor in Native mortality".[160] He nevertheless concludes : "Beyond the shadow of any reasonable doubt (and by the standards of any reasonable definition), genocide did in fact play a significant role in the US conquest and subjugation of Native California."[160]

## See also

[edit]

* Bibliography of California history
* List of genocides committed by the United States
* American Indian Wars
* California Indian Reservations and Cessions
* California Indian Wars
* California mission clash of cultures
* Comanche campaign
* Cupeño trail of tears
* Genocides in history
* Genocide of Indigenous peoples
* 1837 Great Plains smallpox epidemic
* History of California
* List of genocides
* List of Indian massacres
* Long Walk of the Navajo
* Northern Cheyenne Exodus
* Serranus Clinton Hastings
* Trail of Tears
* Yavapai Wars
* Peter Hardeman Burnett
* George S. Evans

* Genocide definitions
* Genocide Convention
* Outline of genocide studies
* Cambodian genocide
* Rawandan genocide
* Gaza genocide

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ "Aboriginal Americans". The British Medical Journal. 1 (274): 350. March 31, 1866. "Dr. MacGowan, in a lecture delivered at New York, estimated the present number of Indians in the United States to be about 250,000, and said that unless something prevented the oppression and cruelty of the white man, these people would gradually become reduced, and finally extinct. He predicted the total extermination of the Digger Indians of California and the tribes of other states within ten years, if something were not done for their relief. The lecturer concluded by strongly urging the establishment of a Protective Aborigines Society, something similar to the society in England to prevent cruelty to animals. By this means he thought the condition of the Indian might be improved and the race longer perpetuated."

## References

[edit]

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### Works cited

[edit]

* Browne, J. Ross (August 1861). "The Coast Rangers of California". Harper's New Monthly Magazine. 23.
* "untitled article". Butte Record. October 18, 1856.
* California Legislature (1860), California Legislature, Majority and Minority Reports of the Special Joint Committee on the Mendocino War, Sacramento`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Carranco, Lynwood; Beard, Estle (1981). Genocide and Vendetta, the Round Valley Wars of North California. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
* Chapman, Charles E. (1921). A History of California; The Spanish Period. New York: The MacMillan Company.
* Cook, Sherburne F. (June 1976). The Population of the California Indians, 1769–1970. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-02923-2.
* Engelhardt, Zephyrin (1922). San Juan Capistrano Mission. Los Angeles, California: Standard Printing Co.
* Fenelon, James; Trafzer, Clifford (2014). "From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Mis-Representation: Indigenous Struggles in the Americas". American Behavioral Scientist. 58 (1). doi:10.1177/0002764213495045. ISSN 0002-7642. S2CID 145377834.
* Heizer, Robert F. (1993). The Destruction of California Indians. Lincoln and London: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-7262-0.
* Heizer, Robert (1974b). They Were Only Diggers: A Collection of Articles from California Newspapers, 1851-1866.
* Hinton, Alexander Laban; Woolford, Andrew; Benvenuto, Jeff, eds. (2014). Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America. Duke University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv11sn770.
* Kelsey, Harry (1993). Mission San Juan Capistrano: A Pocket History. Altadena, California: Interdisciplinary Research, Inc. ISBN 978-0-9785881-0-6.
* Lindsay, Brendan C. (2012). Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873. University of Nebraska Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctt1d9nqs3. ISBN 978-0-8032-2480-3. JSTOR j.ctt1d9nqs3. Archived from the original on May 15, 2023. Retrieved May 15, 2023.
* Luomala, Katharine (1978). "Tipai-Ipai". In Heizer, Robert F.; Sturtevant, William (eds.). Handbook of North American Indians. Vol. 8: California. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. pp. 592–609. ISBN 978-0-16004-574-5.
* Madley, Benjamin (2012). "The Genocide of California's Yana Indians". In Totten, Samuel; Parsons, Williams S. (eds.). Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts. Routledge. pp. 16–53\. ISBN 978-0-415871-921.
* Madley, Benjamin (May 24, 2016). An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873. Yale: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-921140-1. Archived from the original on April 26, 2023. Retrieved April 26, 2023.
* Michno, Gregory F. (2003). Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850–1890. Mountain Press Publishing Co. ISBN 978-0-87842-468-9.
* Norton, Jack (1979). Genocide in Northwestern California : when our worlds cried. San Francisco: Indian Historian Press. ISBN 0-913436-26-7.
* Ostler, Jeffrey (March 2, 2015). "Genocide and American Indian History". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.3. ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5. Archived from the original on February 4, 2023. Retrieved January 14, 2023.
* Paddison, Joshua, ed. (1999). A World Transformed: Firsthand Accounts of California Before the Gold Rush. Berkeley, California: Heyday Books. ISBN 978-1-890771-13-3.
* Rowley, Gavin (2020). "Defining Genocide in Northwestern California: The Devastation of Humboldt and Del Norte County's Indigenous Peoples". Humboldt Journal of Social Relations (42, Special Issue 42: California Indian Genocide and Healing): 86–105.
* Ruscin, Terry (1999). Mission Memoirs. San Diego, California: Sunbelt Publications. ISBN 978-0-932653-30-7.
* "untitled article". San Francisco Alta California. September 20, 1859.
* Scheper-Hughes, Nancy (2003). Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-0-631-22349-8.
* Secrest, William B. (1988). "Jarboe's War". Californians. 6 (6): 16–22.
* Shipek, Florence C. (1986). "The Impact of Europeans upon Kumeyaay Culture". In Starr, Raymond (ed.). The Impact of European Exploration and Settlement on Local Native Americans. San Diego: Cabrillo Historical Association. pp. 13–25\. OCLC 17346424.
* Thornton, Russell (1990). American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
* "Johnson to Mackall, 21 August 1859", Indian War Papers, F3753:378, Sacramento: Adjutant General's Office, Military Department, Adjutant General, August 21, 1859
* "Simmon Storms to Tho. Henley, 23 November 1858, Letters Received", Records of the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1881, RG 75, M234, reel 36:987, Washington, DC: National Archives, November 23, 1858
* Tassin, A.G. (1887). "Chronicles of Camp Wright, Part I". Overland Monthly. 10: 25.
* "Thos. Henley to Chas Mix, 19 June 1858", Records of the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-1881, RG 75, M234, reel 36:814-15, Washington, DC: National Archives, June 19, 1858

* v
* t
* e

Indigenous peoples of California

* Achomawi
* Acjachemen
* Ahwahnechee
* Atsugewi
* Bay Miwok (Saklan)
* Cahuilla
* Chemehuevi
* Chimariko
* Chumash
* Coast Miwok
* Cupeño
* Eel River Athapaskans (Lassik, Nongatl, Sinkyone, Wailaki)
* Esselen
* Halchidhoma
* Hupa (Chilula, Whilkut)
* Karuk
* Cahto
* Kawaiisu
* Kitanemuk
* Kizh
* Kumeyaay (Diegueño, Ipai, Tipai)
* Lake Miwok
* Luiseño
* Maidu
* Mattole (Bear River)
* Mechoopda
* Modoc (Klamath)
* Mohave
* Mono (Monache, Owens Valley Paiute)
* Nisenan
* Nomlaki
* Northern Paiute (Kucadikadi)
* Ohlone
* Costanoan
* Ramaytush
* Patwin
* Pomo
* Quechan (Yuma)
* Salinan
* Serrano
* Shasta (Konomihu, Okwanuchu)
* Tataviam (Fernandeño)
* Timbisha
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* Tongva (Gabrieliño)
* Tübatulabal
* Plains and Sierra Miwok
* Vanyume
* Wappo
* Washoe
* Wintu
* Wiyot
* Wukchumni
* Yana
* Yokuts
* Yuki
* Yurok

* v
* t
* e

History of California

| Before 1900|

* Native Californian
* Precontact
* First explorations
* Later explorations
* Genocide of indigenous population
* Spanish colonization
* Mexican rule
* California Trail
* Mexican–American War
* Californios
* California Republic
* Conquest of California
* Interim government of California
* United States rule
* Gold Rush
* Civil War

|

Since 1900|

* Labor
* Engineering
* Water wars
* Industrial growth
* Postwar culture
* Development
* Legal revolution
* Tech boom
* Present day

By topic|

* Etymology
* Highways
* Maritime
* Missions
* Railroads
* Ranchos
* Slavery
* Territorial evolution

By region|

* Bay Area
* San Fernando Valley
* Santa Catalina Island
* Yosemite

Regions|

* San Fernando Valley

By county|

* Alameda
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* Amador
* Butte
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* Lake
* Lassen
* Los Angeles
* Madera
* Marin
* Mariposa
* Mendocino
* Merced
* Modoc
* Mono
* Monterey
* Napa
* Nevada
* Orange
* Placer
* Plumas
* Riverside
* Sacramento
* San Benito
* San Bernardino
* San Diego
* San Francisco
* San Joaquin
* San Luis Obispo
* San Mateo
* Santa Barbara
* Santa Clara
* Santa Cruz
* Shasta
* Sierra
* Siskiyou
* Solano
* Sonoma
* Stanislaus
* Sutter
* Tehama
* Trinity
* Tulare
* Tuolumne
* Ventura
* Yolo
* Yuba

By city|

* Los Angeles
* San Diego
* San Jose
* San Francisco
* Fresno
* Sacramento
* Long Beach
* Oakland
* Bakersfield
* Anaheim
* Santa Ana
* Riverside
* Stockton
* Chula Vista
* Fremont
* Irvine
* San Bernardino
* Modesto
* Oxnard
* Fontana
* Moreno Valley
* Glendale
* Huntington Beach
* Santa Clarita
* Garden Grove
* Santa Rosa
* Oceanside
* Rancho Cucamonga
* Ontario
* Lancaster
* Elk Grove
* Palmdale
* Corona
* Salinas
* Pomona
* Torrance
* Hayward
* Escondido
* Sunnyvale
* Pasadena
* Fullerton
* Orange
* Thousand Oaks
* Visalia
* Simi Valley
* Concord
* Roseville
* Santa Clara
* Vallejo
* Victorville
* El Monte
* Berkeley
* Downey
* Costa Mesa
* Inglewood
* Ventura
* Fairfield
* Santa Maria
* Redding
* Santa Monica
* Santa Barbara
* Chico
* Merced
* Napa
* Redwood City
* Yuba City
* Madera
* Santa Cruz
* San Rafael
* Woodland
* Hanford
* San Luis Obispo
* El Centro
* Lompoc
* Martinez
* Hollister
* Eureka
* Susanville
* Ukiah
* Oroville
* Red Bluff
* Auburn
* Marysville
* Piedmont
* Placerville
* Yreka
* Crescent City
* Willows
* Colusa
* Sonora
* Lakeport
* Jackson
* Nevada City
* Alturas

* v
* t
* e

State of California

Sacramento (capital)

Topics|

* Culture
* food
* music
* languages
* California sound
* sports
* California Dream
* Crime
* Demographics
* Earthquakes
* Economy
* agriculture
* Education
* Education, history of
* Environment
* Geography
* climate
* ecology
* flora
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* Government
* Capitol
* districts
* governor
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* NRHP listings
* Politics
* congressional delegations
* elections
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* state parks
* state historic landmarks
* Symbols
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* Index of articles

Regions|

* Antelope Valley
* Big Sur
* California Coast Ranges
* Cascade Range
* Central California
* Central Coast
* Central Valley
* Channel Islands
* Coachella Valley
* Coastal California
* Conejo Valley
* Cucamonga Valley
* Death Valley
* East Bay (SF Bay Area)
* East County (SD)
* Eastern California
* Emerald Triangle
* Gold Country
* Great Basin
* Greater San Bernardino
* Inland Empire
* Klamath Basin
* Lake Tahoe
* Greater Los Angeles
* Los Angeles Basin
* Lost Coast
* Mojave Desert
* Mountain Empire
* North Bay (SF)
* North Coast
* North County (SD)
* Northern California
* Orange Coast
* Owens Valley
* Oxnard Plain
* Peninsular Ranges
* Pomona Valley
* Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta
* Sacramento Valley
* Saddleback Valley
* Salinas Valley
* San Fernando Valley
* San Francisco Bay Area
* San Francisco Peninsula
* San Gabriel Valley
* San Joaquin Valley
* Santa Clara Valley
* Santa Clara River Valley
* Santa Clarita Valley
* Santa Ynez Valley
* Shasta Cascade
* Sierra Nevada
* Silicon Valley
* South Bay (LA)
* South Bay (SD)
* South Bay (SF)
* South Coast
* Southern Border Region
* Southern California
* Transverse Ranges
* Tri-Valley
* Victor Valley
* Wine Country

Metro regions|

* Fresno–Madera
* Los Angeles-Long Beach-Anaheim
* Sacramento–Roseville
* Riverside–San Bernardino–Ontario
* San Diego–Tijuana
* San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland

Counties|

* Alameda
* Alpine
* Amador
* Butte
* Calaveras
* Colusa
* Contra Costa
* Del Norte
* El Dorado
* Fresno
* Glenn
* Humboldt
* Imperial
* Inyo
* Kern
* Kings
* Lake
* Lassen
* Los Angeles
* Madera
* Marin
* Mariposa
* Mendocino
* Merced
* Modoc
* Mono
* Monterey
* Napa
* Nevada
* Orange
* Placer
* Plumas
* Riverside
* Sacramento
* San Benito
* San Bernardino
* San Diego
* San Francisco
* San Joaquin
* San Luis Obispo
* San Mateo
* Santa Barbara
* Santa Clara
* Santa Cruz
* Shasta
* Sierra
* Siskiyou
* Solano
* Sonoma
* Stanislaus
* Sutter
* Tehama
* Trinity
* Tulare
* Tuolumne
* Ventura
* Yolo
* Yuba

Most populous
cities|

* Los Angeles
* San Diego
* San Jose
* San Francisco
* Fresno
* Sacramento
* Long Beach
* Oakland
* Bakersfield
* Anaheim

California portal

* v
* t
* e

Genocide

Genocides
(chronological list)|

Before 1490

* Destruction of Carthage (146 BCE)
* Asiatic Vespers (88 BCE)
* Gauls (50s BCE)
* Eburones
* Bar Kokhba (132–136)
* Ancestral Puebloans (800s)
* Harrying of the North (1069–1070)
* Mongol conquests (1200s–1360s)
* Cathars (1209–1229)
* Mongols in the Delhi Sultanate (1311)
* Timurid conquests (1393–1394)
* Guanches (1402–1496)

1490 to 1912

* Taíno (1493–1550)
* Jaragua massacre (1503)
* Ainu (1500s–)
* Indigenous peoples in Brazil
* 11th Parallel massacre (1963)
* Tanaru (1970s–2009)
* Helmet massacre (1988)
* Akuntsu (1990)
* Haximu (1993)
* Yanomami (2019–2023)
* Aztecs (1521)
* Kashmiri Shias (1548–1872)
* Huguenots (1572)
* Kalinago (1626)
* Indigenous peoples in the United States
* Pequots (1636–1638)
* Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
* Huron
* Sullivan Expedition (1779)
* Indian removal (1830–1847)
* Trail of Tears (1830–1850)
* California (1846–1873)
* Dakota (1862)
* Osage Indian murders (1918–1931)
* Cultural genocide
* Indigenous peoples in Canada
* Beaver Wars (1609–1701)
* Beothuk (1700s–1800s)
* Residential school system (1874–1996)
* Sixties Scoop (1951–1985)
* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women
* Jews in the Cossack Hetmanate (1648–1657)
* 1740 Batavia massacre (1740)
* Great Gypsy Round-up (1749)
* Dzungars (1750s)
* Rebellion of Túpac Amaru II (1780–1783)
* Chechens (1785–2017)
* French Hatians (1804)
* Meiteis (1819–1826)
* Indigenous peoples in Australia
* Black War (1825–1832)
* Stolen Generations (1869–1977)
* Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women
* Pacification of Algeria (1830–1875)
* El Ouffia
* Charrúa (1831)
* Moriori (1835)
* Assyrians in Hakkari (1843–1846)
* Manchus (1850–1864)
* Circassians (1860s)
* Mapuche (1870s–1884)
* Indigenous peoples in Putumayo (1879–1913)
* Congolese (1885–1908)
* Hazaras (1888–1893)
* Selknam (1890s–1900s)
* Hamidian massacres (1894–1896)
* Herero and Nama (1904–1907)
* Ukame (1905–1907)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction
* Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

1913 to 1945

* Late Ottoman genocides
* Greeks (1913–1923)
* Pontic Greeks
* Thracian Bulgarians (1913)
* Assyrians (1915–1919)
* Armenians (1915–1917)
* Christians in Diyarbekir (1915)
* Kurds (1916–1934)
* Indigenous peoples in Venezuela
* Pemon
* Kyrgyz (1916–1917)
* Jews during the Russian Civil War (1917–1920)
* Russian White Terror
* Cossacks (1919–1933)
* Ingrian Finns (1920s–1930s)
* Volga Tatars and Germans (1921–1922)
* Kantō Massacre (1923)
* Napalpí massacre (1924)
* Swiss Yenish, Sinti, and Manouche (1926–1973)
* Japanese war crimes in the Pacific War
* Manchukuo (1931–1945)
* Nanjing Massacre (1937–1938)
* Three Alls policy (1940–1942)
* Sook Ching (1942)
* Nanshitou massacre (1942–1945)
* Libyan Arabs (1929–1934)
* Kazakhs (1930–1933)
* La Matanza (1932)
* Holodomor (1932–1933)
* Simele massacre (1933)
* Romani Holocaust (1935–1945)
* Spanish White Terror (1936–1947)
* Yekatit 12 (1937)
* Polish Operation (1937–1938)
* Alevi Kurds (1937–1938)
* Parsley massacre (1937)
* Generalplan Ost (1939–1945)
* Poland
* Baltic lands
* Croatia
* Czech lands
* Ukraine
* Hunger Plan
* The Holocaust (1941–1945)
* German atrocities committed against Soviet POWs (1941–1945)
* Serbs in Croatia (1941–1945)
* Muslims and Croats in Serbia (1941–1945)
* Chechens and Ingush (1944–1948)
* Crimean Tatars (1944–1948)

1946 to 1999

* Hyderabadi Muslims (1948)
* Indigenous peoples in Paraguay (1956–1989)
* Maya (1962–1996)
* Papua (1962–)
* Arab and Indian Zanzibaris (1964)
* 1966 anti-Igbo pogrom (1966)
* Biafra (1966–1970)
* Equatoguinean (1969–1979)
* Feyli Kurds (1970–2003)
* Bangladesh (1971)
* Acholi and Lango (1972–1979)
* Burundi
* 1972
* 1993
* East Timor (1974–1999)
* Cambodian (1975–1979)
* Jummas (1977–1997)
* Afghans (1979–1989)
* Baganda (1981–1985)
* 1982 Hama massacre (1982)
* Sabra and Shatila massacre (1982)
* Sri Lankan Tamils (1983–2009)
* Gukurahundi (1983–1987)
* Anfal (1986–1989)
* Isaaq (1987–1989)
* National Population Program (1987–2002)
* Amhara (1990–)
* Ahwaris (1991–2003)
* Bosnian (1992–1995)
* Srebrenica massacre
* Rwandan (1994)
* Hutus during the First Congo War (1996–1997)

21st century

* Effacer le tableau (2002–2003)
* Darfur (2003–)
* Masalit massacres
* Iraqi Sunni Arabs (2003–)
* Southern Kaduna (2011–2023)
* Iraqi Turkmen (2014–2017)
* Yazidis (2014–2017)
* Shias under ISIS (2014–)
* Christians under ISIS (2014–)
* Rohingyas, Kachins, and Burmese Muslims (2017–)
* Tigrayans, Kunamas, and Irobs (2020–2022)
* Bucha massacre (2022)
* Gazans (2023–)

Terms|

* Cultural genocide
* Democide
* Autogenocide
* Domicide
* Ecocide
* Ethnocide
* Eugenics
* Gendercide
* Androcide
* Transgender genocide
* Genocide of indigenous peoples
* Memoricide
* Policide
* Politicide
* Classicide
* Eliticide
* Utilitarian genocide
* War of annihilation

Methods|

* Cultural genocide
* Death marches
* Death squades
* Ethnic cleansing
* Extermination camp
* Forced adoption
* Forced assimilation
* Forced conversion
* Incitement
* Massacres
* Killing Fields
* Pogroms
* Mass killing
* Rape
* Settler colonialism
* Urbicide

Denial|

* The Holocaust
* Trivialization
* Armenian
* Japanese history textbook controversies
* Nanjing
* Serbian
* Bosnian
* Rwandan
* Holodomor
* Cambodian
* Indigenous

Issues|

* Definitions
* Names of the Holocaust
* Terminology of the Armenian genocide
* Holocaust terminology
* Genocide law
* Prevention
* Effects on young survivors
* Politics of recognition
* Justification
* Mass killings under communist regimes
* Anti-communist mass killings

Legal proceedings|

Holocaust trials (1943–2022)

* Krasnodar trial (1943)
* Kharkov trial (1943)
* Épuration légale (1944–1951)
* Majdanek trials (1944–1989)
* Chełmno trials (1945–2001)
* Dachau trials (1945–1947)
* Belsen trials (1945–1948)
* Euthanasia trials (1945–1949)
* Nuremberg trial (1945–1946)
* Minsk trial (1945–1946)
* Riga trial (1946)
* Stutthof trials (1946–1947)
* Post–World War II Romanian war crime trials (1946–1953)
* Supreme National Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Hamburg Ravensbrück trials (1946–1948)
* Nuremberg Military Tribunals (1946–1949)
* Erich von Manstein (1949)
* Ulm Einsatzkommando trial (1958)
* War crimes trials in Soviet Estonia (1961–1962)
* Eichmann trial (1961)
* Belzec trial (1963–1965)
* Frankfurt Auschwitz trials (1963–1989)
* Treblinka trials (1964–1970)
* Sobibor trial (1965–1966)
* Fedorenko trial (1986)
* Finta trial (1994)

20th century

* Budak trial (1945)
* International Military Tribunal for the Far East (1946–1948)
* Belgrade Process (1946)
* Nanjing War Crimes Tribunal (1946–1948)
* Bosnian genocide case (1993–2007)
* International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (1993–2017)
* Slobodan Milošević (2002–2006)
* Radovan Karadžić (2008–2016)
* Ratko Mladić (2011–2017)
* Trials of the Derg members (1994–2008)
* International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (1994–2015)
* Khmer Rouge Tribunal (1997–2022)
* Croatia–Serbia genocide case (1999–2015)

21st century

* International Criminal Court investigation in Darfur (2005–)
* Permanent Peoples' Tribunal on Sri Lanka (2010–2023)
* International Crimes Tribunal of Bangladesh (2012–)
* Mohammad Salimullah v. Union of India (2017)
* Rohingya genocide case (2019–)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Bangladesh/Myanmar (2019–)
* Uyghur Tribunal (2020–2021)
* International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine (2022–)
* Ukraine v. Russian Federation (2022–)
* South Africa v. Israel (2023–)
* Defense for Children International – Palestine et al v. Biden et al (2023–2024)
* Nicaragua v. Germany (2024)

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