Canada–India relations

Bilateral relations

Canada–India relations

India |
Canada
Diplomatic mission
High Commission of India, Ottawa| High Commission of Canada, New Delhi
Envoy
High Commissioner of India to Canada Sanjay Kumar Verma[1]| High Commissioner of Canada to India Cameron MacKay[2]

Canada and India have had longstanding bilateral relations.[3] India has become one of the top source countries for immigration to Canada with Indian diaspora increasing to over one million as of 2022.[3] According to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) data, of the more than 800,000 international students in Canada in 2022, 40 percent were from India, constituting the largest international student group in Canada.[4][5] Bilateral trade between India and Canada has seen significant growth in recent years, reaching $8.16 billion in 2023.[6] Both Canada and India are member nations of the Commonwealth association,[7] and also part of G20, a group of world's largest economies.

While Canada and India have a broad-based relationship, their ties have often been strained by Sikh separatists that are affiliated with the Khalistan movement, calling for an independent Punjabi Sikh nation-state in India.[8][9] In 1985, Babbar Khalsa, a Sikh militant separatist group was implicated[10] in the bombing of Air India Flight 182, that departed from Montreal, Canada.[11][12] More recently, diplomatic tensions were triggered in September 2023,[13] following Canadian PM, Justin Trudeau's allegations that Indian agents were involved in the killing of alleged pro Khalistani-separatist terrorist leader Hardeep Singh Nijjar in Surrey, Canada.[14][13]

In June 2024, Indian PM Modi and Canadian PM Trudeau met briefly at the G7 summit in Italy, signaling a resumption of dialogue and a reduction in diplomatic tensions.[15][16] According to international relations experts, Canada and India will have to find a way forward in their relations due to their engagement in a broad range of geopolitical issues and India's importance for the United States and Canada in their Indo-Pacific strategy.[17]

## History

[edit]

### 19th century

[edit]

In 1858, Queen Victoria proclaimed that, throughout the Empire, the people of India would enjoy equal privileges with white people without discrimination of colour, creed or race. Since both Canada and India were under British Crown rule, ex-army men from the British Indian Army migrated to Canada to start a new life. However, what awaited them was racism and discrimination. Many settled in Western Canada, which was sparsely populated at the time, and worked as law enforcement officers due to their military history. They also worked in forest clearing as lumberjacks and owned lumber mills. However, race relations with white Canadians were strained. The socioeconomic systems that advantages white people ensured that racialization and minimal direct contact (e.g. ethnic gatekeeping) remained the same by setting up various barriers. This dynamic continues implicitly and explicitly into the 21st century internally within the country, and the external intercontinental cordiality is also fraught with similar relationship dynamics.[18][19]

### 20th century

[edit]

Indian prime minister, Jawaharlal Nehru leaves the House of Commons of Canada after making a joint-address to the Canadian parliament, 1949

In the 1940s and 1960s Canada–India relations were enhanced because of the personal ties which developed between Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and two Canadian Prime Ministers who served during those years: Louis St. Laurent and Lester B. Pearson. At the United Nations and in the Commonwealth, on issues as diverse as the Korean War armistice and the Suez Crisis, there was a convergence of interest and commitment between India and Canada. Canada's aid programme to India began in 1951 and grew substantially under the Colombo Plan. Canada provided food aid, project financing and technical assistance to India. In the past five decades India has been one of the largest recipients of Canadian bilateral aid, amounting to over $3.8 billion Canadian dollars. In the 1960s, Canada supported the Kundah hydro-electric power house project through the Colombo Plan.[20]

Indo-Canadian relations deteriorated in the wake of India's Smiling Buddha nuclear test of May 1974 when the Canadian government severed bilateral nuclear cooperation with both India and Pakistan in 1976 after claims that the fissionable material used to construct India's first nuclear weapon had been synthesized with the Canadian-supplied CIRUS nuclear research reactor. Thereafter Canada resolved to engage in nuclear cooperation only with countries which signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT) and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), and which instituted full-scope safeguards on their nuclear energy programmes under the supervision of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). India and Pakistan are two nations that have both consistently refused to sign the NPT, and voted against UN General Assembly Resolutions which they assert violates their nation's sovereign right[21][22] to choose whether or not to sign such treaties. In early February 1997, Foreign Minister I.K.Gujral re-iterated India's opposition to the treaty, saying that "India favours any step aimed at destroying nuclear weapons, but considers that the treaty in its current form is not comprehensive and bans only certain types of tests". At that time, Canada persistently refused to engage in nuclear co-operation with India and Pakistan until and unless they sign the treaty ended its nuclear collaboration with India for the time being, and severely damaged relations between the two nations. However, in 2010, the signing of the Nuclear Cooperation Agreement (NCA) between the two countries started a new era of engagement.[23] A follow-on agreement was signed in 2015 to supply 3000 metric ton Uranium concentrate to India under five-year contract.[24]

Indira Gandhi was the second Indian prime minister to make a joint session of the Canadian Parliament, on 19 June 1973. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru was the first on 24 October 1949.[25]

Canadian and Indian prime ministers Stephen Harper and Narendra Modi visit a memorial for Air India Flight 182 in Toronto, 2015

The bombing by Sikh separatists of Air India Flight 182 in 1985 resulted in Canada and India maintain a bilateral dialogue on anti-terrorism, including an annual meeting of the Canada-India Strategic Dialogue, as well as regular meetings of the aforementioned Canada-India Working Group on Counter-Terrorism.[3]

In the 1990s, a chance to improve Indo-Canadian relations arose when India instituted major reforms of its economy. India went through a large economic liberalisation, which attracted the attention of the Canadian government and the business community. Canadian Prime Minister Jean Chrétien paid a diplomatic mission to India in January 1996 with two cabinet ministers and 300 business figures. India's External Affairs Minister Inder Kumar Gujral paid an official visit to Canada in September 1996. Foreign Affairs Minister Lloyd Axworthy reciprocated with a visit to India in January 1997 during which he inaugurated the Office of the Canadian High Commission in Chandigarh, capital of Punjab and Haryana states. The Canada-India Working Group on Counter- Terrorism was also established in 1997, bringing together on an annual basis several departments and agencies of the Canadian and Indian governments. Former Governor General Roméo LeBlanc undertook a state visit to India in March 1998. Prime Minister Stephen Harper took an official visit to India in November 2009. The Canada India Foundation has been active since 2007 in fostering support for stronger bi-lateral relations between Canada and India. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Canada in June 2010 for the G20 Summit in Toronto.

### 21st century

[edit]

2011 was dubbed the "Year of India in Canada," a joint initiative by both governments. Under this auspice, in June 2011, the Indo-Canada Chamber of Commerce co-hosted with the government of India the regional Pravasi Bhartiya Divas, a conference of the diaspora. This conference hosted over 1,000 delegates from India and Canada's governmental, business, medical, scientific, and philanthropic sectors. This event was followed by the International Indian Film Academy Awards held in Toronto in June 2011.[citation needed]

Prime ministers Modi and Justin Trudeau during Trudeau's official visit to India in 2018

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau spent a week in India on a state visit in February 2018 that was criticized for the invitation of Jaspal Atwal, who was convicted of attempted murder for his role in the 1986 attempt to assassinate Punjab minister Malkiat Singh Sidhu.[26] In 2019, for the first time, Canada's Public Safety Department identified and listed Sikh extremism as one the country's top five terror threats, however, following outrage from Sikh MPs and prominent community members, who deemed the report as an attack on the Sikh religion, the government omitted mentions of "Sikh extremism" from the report. Omer Aziz, a former foreign policy advisor in the Trudeau government, claimed that the Sikh voting bloc influenced the government's policy making decisions, citing it as a reason why Canada routinely ignores India's demands to crack down on financing from Khalistan supporters. The Indian government criticized the move; Punjab's Chief Minister, Amarinder Singh, claimed that Trudeau “succumbed to domestic political pressure” and that the move was a threat to global security.[27][28]

In December 2020, Trudeau expressed concerns about the handling of farmer protests by the Indian government.[29] Trudeau stated that "Canada will always be there to defend the rights of peaceful protestors" and expressed support for "the process of dialogue."[30] In response, the Indian Ministry of External Affairs stated that Prime Minister Trudeau's comments were "an unacceptable interference in our internal affairs".[31]

## 2023 diplomatic row

[edit]

Further information: Hardeep Singh Nijjar and Khalistan movement

The Canada–India diplomatic row[32][33][34] refers to the diplomatic dispute in the Canada–India relations caused in September 2023. India's alleged role in the assassination of Hardeep Singh Nijjar in June 2023 created a diplomatic crisis between Canada and India.[13][14] While the Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's allegations that the Indian government was involved in the assassination of Nijjar triggered this diplomatic row, the tensions between India and Canada have been largely fuelled by disagreements over the anti india separatist Khalistan movement and its active supporters.[13][8]

### Background

[edit]

Further information: 2023 Sikh protests

Canada has the largest Sikh population outside India.[35] Sikhs who number 770,000, account for nearly 2 percent of Canada’s population.[36]

In March 2023, Canada's High Commissioner was summoned by India to "convey strong concern" over Sikh protesters in Canada and the security breach of India's diplomatic mission and consulates.[37]

In September 2023, on the sidelines of the G20 summit in New Delhi, the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi conveyed concerns about the protests in Canada to Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau.[38]

In 2023, Canada paused talks on a proposed trade treaty with India.[39] In September 2023, Canada announced it has postponed an October trade mission to India.[40]

In September 2023, during the 2023 G20 New Delhi summit, Canada and India did not have a one-on-one meeting but instead met on the sidelines.[41] Prime Minister Narendra Modi raised concerns with Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau about Khalistani protests in Canada, while Trudeau brought up the accusations of Indian government involvement in the killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar.[42] The talks between the two leaders were tense, affecting ongoing trade discussions.

On 18 September 2023, Prime Minister Trudeau addressing the House of Commons said that "Over the past number of weeks, Canadian security agencies have been actively pursuing credible allegations of a potential link between agents of the government of India and the killing of a Canadian citizen, Hardeep Singh Nijjar".[43] Trudeau stated that he had presented the accusations directly to Prime Minister Modi "in no uncertain terms" during the G20 summit in New Delhi.[43] Trudeau further added that "Any involvement of a foreign government in the killing of a Canadian citizen on Canadian soil is an unacceptable violation of our sovereignty" while urging the Indian government to cooperate in the ongoing investigation.[44]

Indian Ministry of External Affairs rejected Trudeau's allegations in a statement saying that claims of India's "involvement in any act of violence in Canada are absurd and motivated". It added that similar accusations made earlier by Trudeau to Prime Minister Modi had been "completely rejected". The statement further said that "Such unsubstantiated allegations seek to shift the focus from Khalistani terrorists and extremists, who have been provided shelter in Canada and continue to threaten India's sovereignty and territorial integrity". India urged Canada "to take prompt and effective legal action against all anti-India elements operating from their soil". It said that Canada's inaction has been "a long-standing and continuing concern".[45][46]

### Diplomatic row

[edit]

On 18 September 2023, Canadian foreign affairs minister Melanie Joly announced that Canada had expelled 'Pavan Kumar Rai' — a "senior Indian diplomat". According to Joly, Pavan Kumar Rai was the head of the Canada station of India's foreign intelligence agency — the Research and Analysis Wing (RAW). The High Commission of India in Ottawa lists Rai as the minister responsible for "eco, coordination, community affairs".[47]

In her statement, Joly said that Canada "will not tolerate any form of foreign interference". She added that such action "is not only troubling but it is completely unacceptable". She further said that India's involvement if proven true would be "a great violation of our sovereignty and of the most basic rule of how countries deal with each other".[47]

On 19 September 2023, India expelled a top diplomat of Canada with five days' notice to leave the country amid "growing concern at the interference of Canadian diplomats" in India's "internal matters and their involvement in anti-India activities", according to a statement from Indian Ministry of External Affairs.[48][49]

On 20 September 2023, India warned its citizens due to "growing anti-India activities and politically-condoned hate crimes and criminal violence" to "exercise utmost caution" in Canada.[50][51] Dominic LeBlanc, Canadian public safety minister, responded to the travel alert saying "Canada is a safe country".[52]

On 21 September 2023, Indian external affairs ministry spokesperson Arindam Bagchi announced that India has suspended "temporarily the issuance of visas or providing visa services" for all Canadian nationals in all categories, including e-visas and for Canadian citizens applying from third countries, due to "security threats" against its diplomats.[53][54]

On 24 September 2023, Canada updated its travel advisory for India, advising its citizens there to "remain vigilant and exercise caution" due to "calls for protests and some negative sentiment towards Canada on social media".[55] It urges travellers to "exercise a high degree of caution in India due to the threat of terrorist attacks throughout the country".[56]

In early October, India asked Canada to withdraw 41 of its 62 diplomats from the country and threatened to revoke the diplomatic immunity of diplomats who would remain after a certain date.[57][58] On 18 October 2023, 41 Canadian diplomats along with 42 of their family members left India.[59] Mélanie Joly, the Canadian foreign minister, said that Canada will temporarily close three consulates in India and concentrate services at its high commission in Delhi, with 21 diplomats remaining in India.[60] Canada's immigration minister, Marc Miller said that the situation would cause delays in the immigration applications and processing of visas for people in India.[60]

On 20 October 2023, India's Ministry of External Affairs issued a statement stating that "Their continued interference in our internal affairs warrant a parity in mutual diplomatic presence in New Delhi and Ottawa".[61]

In November 2023, at the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva, India availed the Universal Periodic Review of the human rights records of Canada to request Canada to “prevent misuse of freedom of expression for inciting violence and disallow activities of groups which are promoting extremism”.[62]

In April 2024, the Canadian deputy high commissioner was summoned by India after separatist slogans supporting a Sikh homeland were allegedly raised at a Vaisakhi event addressed by Prime Minister Trudeau.[63]

Later that month, Trudeau spoke in the House of Commons on what he stated were "credible allegations of the potential link" of Indian government involvement in the killing of Nijjar.[64] Subsequently, diplomatic relations between the two nations further deteriorated, and each side announced the expulsion of a top diplomat.[42][65] India rejected the charges as "absurd" and motivated.[66][67] On 20 September, India issued warnings to its citizens in Canada that they should exercise utmost caution due to growing anti-India activities.[68] Marc Miller, Canada's Minister of Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship, rejected India's characterization of Canada as unsafe in a statement.[68] On 21 September, India suspended visa applications from Canadians until further notice.[69] Following the visa suspension, India's foreign ministry spokesperson, Arindam Bagchi accused Canada of being a safe haven for terrorists, extremists, and organised crime.[70][71][72] On 25 September, Canada updated its travel advisory and issued a warning to its citizens for potential anti-Canada protests and anti-Canadian sentiments. The advisory also warned the citizens of potential intimidation or harassment of Canadians in the country. Furthermore, Canada put India in the high-risk country category. Citing not just the potential protests that could be caused by this situation but also the high levels of terrorism in India.[73][74] In September 2023, Gurpatwant Singh Pannun, one of the main leaders of the Khalistan movement and spokesperson of Sikhs for Justice, advised Indo-Canadian Hindus to leave Canada.[75][76][77][78][79] The video, which was later deleted, was condemned by Canadian officials.[80] Canadian agencies also took down posters and billboards advocating the killing of three Indian diplomats in a Surrey gurudwara.[81][82]

As of September 2023, Canada has not provided any evidence linking the Indian government to Nijjar's death.[83] However, there is reporting that some of the intelligence provided to Canada linking India to Nijjar's death came from US intelligence agencies.[84] On Friday, 22 September, two days after the Canadian government accused Indian agencies of killing Hardeep Singh Nijjar, the Premier of British Columbia David Eby informed the media that the "intelligence briefing" received by him from the director of the Canadian Security Intelligence Service (CSIS) was based on open-source, Internet material while also claiming that he "strongly" suspects that the federal government is holding back information.[85][86][87][88][89][90] On Sunday, 24 September, the Indian government instructed its investigative agencies to identify all Khalistanis in Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia and cancel their Overseas Citizenship of India card to prevent them from entering India, in addition to confiscating their assets in India.[91][92][93][94][95][96] On September 26, former Indian diplomat Deepak Vohra alleged that Trudeau's plane was full of cocaine when he came to India for the G20.[97][98] He further alleged that Trudeau missed the G20 dinner because he was high on drugs and did not come out of his room for two days.[97] This claim was rejected by Canada's Office of the Prime Minister. The statement read, “This is absolutely false and a troubling example of how disinformation can make its way into media reporting.”[99]

The Washington Post believes that the footage from the gurudwara's security cameras, which it had reviewed, and witness accounts suggest a larger and more organized operation than previously been reported. At least six men and two vehicles were involved in the killing. The report, which also contained accounts of Sikh community members present in the vicinity of the attack, said the attackers, two of them in hooded sweatshirts, fired roughly 50 bullets, of which 34 hit Nijjar.[100][101][102][103][104] Speaking at the discussion at the Council on Foreign Relations, India's Minister of External Affairs S. Jaishankar raised concern over the incidents of threats to Indian diplomats and attacks on Indian consulates, stating that these are very permissive because of political reasons. He further stated that Indian Government has provided Canadian government a lot of information about organised crime leadership, which operates out of Canada in addition to a large number of extradition requests. Regarding Trudeau's allegations, Jaishankar assured during the discussion that the Indian side will take action if the Canadian side provides specific information in connection with Nijjar's killing.[105][106][107][108]

On 28 September 2023, a handful of Canadian websites including those of the Canadian military were defaced. A reportedly pro India group which went by the name "Indian Cyber Force" took responsibility for the hack.[109] Despite the Nijjar killing row, speaking at a press conference in Montreal on Thursday, September 28, Trudeau said that he thinks it is extremely important that Canada and its allies continue to engage constructively and seriously with India, given its growing importance on the world stage.[110][111][112][113] On the same day, Balraj Singh Nijjar, son of Hardeep Singh Nijjar, said his father had been meeting with Canadian Security Intelligence Service officers "once or twice a week", including one or two days before the June 18 murder, with another meeting scheduled for two days after his death. According to a report by The Economic Times, Nijjar is now assumed to have been an asset for Canadian security services given the frequency of the meetings.[114][115][116][117][118]

On 3 October 2023, India asked Canada to withdraw approximately 40 of its diplomats by October 10.[119] On 19 October 2023, Canadian officials confirmed that 41 diplomats and their dependents have left India, and 21 remained. Canadian Foreign Affairs minister Melanie Joly further confirmed that India's revocation of diplomatic privileges was unilateral, and that Canada would not be issuing a similar mandate for Indian diplomats.[120]

On 4 November 2023, a new video of Gurpatwant Singh Pannun, the spokesperson of Sikhs for Justice, surfaced in which he is seen issuing a threat to people planning to travel via Air India on November 19, the day on which the final of the ongoing cricket World Cup will be played in Ahmedabad, saying that their "lives would be in danger".[121][122][123][124] India's high commissioner to Canada Sanjay Kumar Verma said that Canadian authorities have not yet provided India with evidence of Indian involvement in Hardeep Singh Nijjar's death.[125]

### Reactions

[edit]

A spokesperson for Australia's Foreign Minister, Penny Wong, stated that “Australia is deeply concerned by these allegations and notes ongoing investigations into this matter. Australia believes all countries should respect sovereignty and the rule of law”.[126]

A spokesperson for the United Kingdom's Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office said that they "do not agree with the decisions taken by the Indian government that have resulted in a number of Canadian diplomats departing India". The statement added that they "continue to encourage India to engage with Canada on its independent investigation into the death of Hardeep Singh Nijjar".[127]

The United States Department of State spokesperson Matthew Miller said that they "urged the Indian government not to insist upon a reduction in Canada's diplomatic presence and to cooperate in the ongoing Canadian investigation".[128]

The New Zealand's Ministry of Foreign Affairs expressed concern in a statement saying “Now seems the time for more diplomacy, not less,” adding that it expects "all states to uphold their obligations under the 1961 Vienna Convention on Diplomatic Relations, including in relation to the privileges and immunities of accredited staff”.[129][130]

According to Michael Kugelman, director of the South Asia Institute at the Wilson Center think-tank, "this may be the lowest level to which this relationship has sunk. It won't be easy to return to the old normal anytime soon".[131]

## Trade relationship

[edit]

Preneet Kaur, the Indian Minister of State for External Affairs signs a memorandum of understanding on cooperation on information and communication technology with Ed Fast, the Canadian Minister of International Trade and Asia Pacific Gateway. The prime ministers of both countries are seated at the centre, 2012.

Bilateral trade between India and Canada has seen significant growth in recent years, reaching $8.16 billion in 2022–23, where India's top exports include pharmaceuticals, and jewelry, while Canada's exports include pulses, and timber.[6] Earlier in 2009, Canadian exports to India totaled C$2.1 billion, while in the same year Canadian imports from India totalled C$2.0 billion, giving Canada a C$100 million trade surplus.[3] India celebrated the year 2012 as year of India in Canada to promote business, cultural and political relations with India.

Despite the warm relationship, trade between Canada and India is less than their potential. India accounts for less than 1% of Canada's total export and total import in 2014, with bilateral trade of C$5.77 billion in 2014 (compared to more than C$56 billion bilateral trade between China and Canada). Nevertheless, total trade between the two countries grows steadily over the past 5 years.[132]

Canada and India are currently holding negotiations on the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) to improve the trade relations between the two countries. As of March 2015, the two countries held their 9th round of negotiations in New Delhi.[133]

Canada's Merchandise Trade with India 2015[134]

| Canadian imports from India |  | Canadian exports to India |

|
|
|
|

| Merchandise Classification | % of total imports | Merchandise Classification | % of total exports
1 | Boilers, mechanical appliances, etc. | 8.43 | Edible vegetables, roots and tubers | 36.06
2 | Mineral fuels, oils | 6.91 | Pearls, precious stones or metals | 12.33
3 | Pearls, precious stones or metals | 6.75 | Fertilizers | 8.59
4 | Organic chemicals | 6.41 | Ores, slag and ash | 8.33
5 | Woven clothing and apparel articles | 5.66 | Paper and paperboard | 6.22
6 | Pharmaceutical products | 5.47 | Mineral fuels, oils | 4.28
7 | Iron or steel articles | 5.06 | Boilers, mechanical appliances, etc. | 4.28
8 | Other textile articles, etc. | 4.45 | Aircraft and spacecraft | 4.28
9 | Knitted or crocheted apparel | 4.16 | Woodpulp; paper or paperboard scraps | 4.17
10 | Electrical machinery and equipment | 3.64 | Electrical machinery and equipment | 1.68
| % of total from India | 56.94 | % of total to India | 90.23
| Indian imports as % of Canadian total | 0.74 | Indian exports as % of Canadian total | 0.88

## Resident diplomatic missions

[edit]

Diplomatic mission

Embassy of Canada in New Delhi

High Commission of Canada in New Delhi

Location| New Delhi
Address| 7/8, Shantipath, Chanakyapuri, Delhi 110021
Ambassador| Cameron MacKay

Diplomatic mission

Embassy of India in Ottawa

High Commission of India in Ottawa

Location| Ottawa
Address| 10 Springfield Rd K1M 1C9
Ambassador| Shri Sanjay Kumar Verma

As both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada and India exchange high commissioners rather than ambassadors.

* Canada has a high commission in New Delhi and consulates-general in Bangalore, Chandigarh and Mumbai.[135]
* India has a high commission in Ottawa and consulates-general in Toronto and Vancouver.[136]

## Air connectivity

[edit]

Air Canada operates non-stop flights from Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver to Delhi, and from Toronto to Mumbai.[137] In September 2019, Air India resumed its nonstop flights from Delhi to Toronto, and in October 2020 began scheduled flights from Delhi to Vancouver.[138] Indian carrier Vistara has expressed interest in flying nonstop from Delhi to Toronto as its first North American destination, while Canadian carrier WestJet has noted India as part of its expansion plans with the Boeing 787 Dreamliner.[139][140] In May 2022, Union Aviation Minister Jyotiraditya Scindia met with Canadian Transport Minister Omar Alghabra to discuss an open skies policy between the two countries.[141] This would allow unlimited flights between Canada and India.[142][143][144]

## See also

[edit]

* Indo-Canadians

## References

[edit]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* Budhwar, Prem K. et al. "India-Canada Relations: a Roller-Coaster Ride." Indian Foreign Affairs Journal 13.1 (2018): 1-50. online essays by seven experts
* Chandrasekhar, Sripati (1986). From India to Canada: a brief history of immigration, problems of discrimination, admission and assimilation. Population Review Books. ISBN 9780960908011.
* Coward, Howard, ed. Peace. Development and Culture: Comparative Studies of lndia and Canada (Calgary: Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute. 1988).
* Dobell, W. M. "Canada and India: The Mulroney Years." Journal of Asian and African Studies 25.3-4 (1990): 131–145.
* Edwards, Lucie. "The lady is a tiger: Canada's erratic courtship of India." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 18#3 (2012): 264–266.
* Grewal, J.S. and Hugh Johnston, eds. The India-Canada Relationship -- Exploring Political, Economic and Cultural Dimensions (London: Sage/Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute, 1994).
* Gupta, Ashis, ed. Canada-lndia Opportunities - Selected 1988 Conference Proceedings, (University of Calgary, 1988)
* Mishra, Anil Dutta and Govind Prasad (2003). India and Canada: Past, Present & Future. Mittal Publications. ISBN 9788170998785.
* Raj, Christopher S. and Abdul Nafey (2007). Canada's global engagements and relations with India. Manak Publications. ISBN 978-81-7827-168-2.
* Reid, Escott. Envoy to Nehru (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1981).
* Rubinoff, Arthur, ed. Canada and South Asia: Political and Strategic Relations (University of Toronto Press, 1992).
* Rubinoff, Arthur G. "Canada's re-engagement with India." Asian Survey 42.6 (2002): 838–855. online
* Rudner, Martin. "The Canada-India nexus: Trade and development assistance in Canada's new foreign policy framework." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 3.2 (1995): 33–50.
* Singh, Milan, and Anita Singh. "Diaspora, political action, and identity: A case study of Canada's Indian diaspora." Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 17.2 (2014): 149–171. online
* Touhey, Ryan. Conflicting Visions: Canada and India in the Cold War World, 1946-76 (U British Columbia Press, 2015)

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