Carnism

Ideology that supports the use and consumption of animal products

Carnism

Joshua Norton eating meat, watched by street dogs Bummer and Lazarus in San Francisco in the 1860s

Description| Psychological theory about the ideology of animal use
Term coined by| Melanie Joy, 2001
Related ideas| Anthrozoology, ethics of eating meat, psychology of eating meat, speciesism, veganism, vegetarianism
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Carnism is a concept used in discussions of humanity's relation to other animals, defined as a prevailing ideology in which people support the use and consumption of animal products, especially meat.[n 1] Carnism is presented as a dominant belief system supported by a variety of defense mechanisms and mostly unchallenged assumptions.[1][2][3][4] The term carnism was coined by social psychologist and author Melanie Joy in 2001 and popularized by her book Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows (2009).[5][6][7]

Central to the ideology is the acceptance of meat-eating as "natural", "normal", "necessary", and (sometimes) "nice", known as the "Four Ns".[n 2] An important feature of carnism is the classification of only particular species of animal as food, and the acceptance of practices toward those animals that would be rejected as unacceptable cruelty if applied to other species. This classification is culturally relative, so that, for example, dogs are eaten by some people in Korea but may be pets in the West, while cows are eaten in the West but protected in much of India.[1]

## History

[edit]

See also: Animal industrial complex, Ethics of eating meat, and History of vegetarianism

Analyzing the history of vegetarianism and opposition to it from ancient Greece to the present day, literary scholar Renan Larue found certain commonalities in what he described as carnist arguments. According to him, carnists typically held that vegetarianism is a ludicrous idea unworthy of attention, that mankind is invested with dominion over animals by divine authority, and that abstaining from violence against animals would pose a threat to humans. He found that the views that farmed animals do not suffer, and that slaughter is preferable to death by disease or predation, gained currency in the nineteenth century, but that the former had precedent in the writings of Porphyry, a vegetarian who advocated the humane production of animal products which do not require animals to be slaughtered, such as wool.[11]

Melanie Joy coined the term carnism in 2001

In the 1970s, traditional views on the moral standing of animals were challenged by animal rights advocates, including psychologist Richard Ryder, who in 1971 introduced the notion of speciesism. This is defined as the assignment of value and rights to individuals solely on the basis of their species membership.[12][13][14] In 2001, psychologist and animal rights advocate Melanie Joy coined the term carnism for a form of speciesism that she argues underpins using animals for food, and particularly killing them for meat.[15] Joy compares carnism to patriarchy, arguing that both are dominant normative ideologies that go unrecognized because of their ubiquity:[1]

> We don't see meat eating as we do vegetarianism – as a choice, based on a set of assumptions about animals, our world, and ourselves. Rather, we see it as a given, the "natural" thing to do, the way things have always been and the way things will always be. We eat animals without thinking about what we are doing and why, because the belief system that underlies this behavior is invisible. This invisible belief system is what I call carnism.[5]

Sandra Mahlke argues that carnism is the "central crux of speciesism" because the eating of meat motivates ideological justification for other forms of animal exploitation.[16] Abolitionist Gary Francione argues against this that carnism is not a hidden ideology, but a conscious choice; in his view some animals are viewed as food and others family because humans regard non-humans as property, and they may value that property as they please.[17]

## Features

[edit]

### Edible or inedible

[edit]

Examples of cultural differences

A cow rests in the street in Vrindavan. In some Eastern cultures, cows are revered, whereas in other cultures they are eaten as beef.

Cooked dog and poultry in China. In some Western cultures, dogs are not eaten as meat but poultry is, whereas in some Eastern cultures dogs are eaten as dog-meat.

A central aspect of carnism is that animals are categorized as edible, inedible, pets, vermin, predators, or entertainment animals, according to people's schemata – mental classifications that determine, and are determined by, our beliefs and desires.[1][18] There is cultural variability regarding which animals count as food. Dogs are eaten in China, and South Korea, but elsewhere are not viewed as food, either because they are loved or, as in the Middle East and parts of India, regarded as unclean.[1][19] Cows are eaten in the West, but revered in much of India. Pigs are rejected by Muslims and Jews but widely regarded by other groups as edible.[20] Joy and other psychologists[who?] argue that these taxonomies determine how the animals within them are treated, influence subjective perceptions of their sentience and intelligence, and reduce or increase empathy and moral concern for them.[18]

### Meat paradox

[edit]

Main article: Psychology of eating meat § Meat paradox

Jeff Mannes writes that carnism is rooted in a paradox between most people's values and actions: they oppose harming animals, and yet eat them. He argues that this conflict leads to cognitive dissonance, which people attempt to attenuate through psychic numbing.[21] The apparent conflict between caring about animals and embracing diets which require them to be harmed has been termed the "meat paradox".[22][23][24]

There is experimental evidence supporting the idea that the meat paradox induces cognitive dissonance in Westerners.[9][25][26] Westerners are more willing to eat animals which they regard as having lesser mental capacities and moral standing, and conversely, to attribute lesser mental faculties and moral standing to animals which are eaten.[22][27] Furthermore, the relationship is causative: the categorization of animals as food or not affects people's perception of their mental characteristics, and the act of eating meat itself causes people to attribute diminished mental capacity to animals.[22] For example, in one study people rated an unfamiliar exotic animal as less intelligent if they were told native people hunted it, and in another they regarded cows as less intelligent after eating beef jerky.[22]

Avoiding consideration of the provenance of animal products is another strategy.[28] Joy argues that this is why meat is rarely served with the animal's head or other intact body parts.[29]

### Justification

[edit]

Joy introduced the idea of the "Three Ns of Justification", writing that meat-eaters regard meat consumption as "normal, natural, and necessary".[8][10] She argues that the "Three Ns" have been invoked to justify other ideologies, including slavery and denying women the right to vote, and are widely recognized as problematic only after the ideology they support has been dismantled.[30]

The argument holds that people are conditioned to believe that humans evolved to eat meat, that it is expected of them, and that they need it to survive or be strong. These beliefs are said to be reinforced by various institutions, including religion, family and the media. Although scientists have shown that humans can get enough protein in their diets without eating meat,[31] the belief that meat is required persists.[9][10] Moreover, a 2022 study published in PNAS calls into question the impact of meat consumption on shaping the evolution of the human species.[32][33]

Building on Joy's work, psychologists conducted a series of studies in the United States and Australia, published in 2015, that found the great majority of meat-eaters' stated justifications for consuming meat were based on the "Four Ns" – "natural, normal, necessary, and nice". The arguments were that humans are omnivores (natural), that most people eat meat (normal), that vegetarian diets are lacking in nutrients (necessary), and that meat tastes good (nice).[9][10][34]

Meat-eaters who endorsed these arguments more strongly reported less guilt about their dietary habits. They tended to objectify animals, have less moral concern for them and attribute less consciousness to them. They were also more supportive of social inequality and hierarchical ideologies, and less proud of their consumer choices.[9]

Helena Pedersen, in her review of Joy's original book, suggested Joy's theory was too broad and did not account for variation in people's beliefs and attitudes; for example, Pedersen argues that Joy's argument that people dissociate animal products from their animal origins cannot account for some hunters who make explicit connection between the two as a justification for consumption or for former vegetarians who have changed their attitudes towards the consumption of animal products. Pedersen also says that Joy seems to present the consumption of animal-products as arising from ignorance of how they are produced, however Pedersen disagrees that people would simply change their consumption if they were more informed.[35]

### "Saved from slaughter" narratives

[edit]

The National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation, in which the American president pardons a turkey, has been cited as an illustration of carnism.[36]

An illustration of dissonance reduction is the prominence given to "saved from slaughter" stories, in which the media focus on one animal that evaded slaughter, while ignoring the millions that did not.[37] Joy wrote that this dichotomy is characteristic of carnism.[38]

Animals at the center of these narratives include Wilbur in Charlotte's Web (1952); the eponymous and fictional star of Babe (1995); Christopher Hogwood in Sy Montgomery's The Good, Good Pig (2006);[37] the Tamworth Two; Emily the Cow and Cincinnati Freedom. The American National Thanksgiving Turkey Presentation is cited as another example. A 2012 study found that most media reporting on it celebrated the poultry industry while marginalizing the link between living animals and meat.[36]

## Non-academic reception

[edit]

Opinion pieces in The Huffington Post, The Statesman, and The Drum praised the idea, saying the term made it easier to discuss, and challenge, the practices of animal exploitation.[39][40][41] An article in the beef industry outlet Drovers Cattle Network criticized the use of the term, saying it implied that eating animal foods was a "psychological sickness".[42]

## See also

[edit]

* Food studies
* Moral psychology
* Non-vegetarianism
* Psychology of eating meat
* Speciesism
* Taboo food and drink
* Veganism
* List of vegan media

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Gibert, Martin; Desaulniers, Élise (2014): "Carnism refers to the ideology conditioning people to consume certain animal products. It is essentially the opposite of veganism."[1]
2. ^ Joy introduced the "Three Ns of Justification", namely that meat-eating is regarded as "normal, natural, and necessary".[8] A 2015 paper developed this into the "Four Ns": "natural, normal, necessary, and nice".[9][10]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e f Gibert, Martin; Desaulniers, Élise (2014). "Carnism" (PDF). Encyclopedia of Food and Agricultural Ethics. Springer Netherlands. pp. 292–298. doi:10.1007/978-94-007-0929-4_83. ISBN 978-94-007-0929-4.
2. ^ DeMello, Margo (2012). Animals and Society: An Introduction to Human-Animal Studies. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 138.
3. ^ Dhont, Kristof; Hodson, Gordon (2014). "Why do right-wing adherents engage in more animal exploitation and meat consumption?", Personality and Individual Differences, 64, July (pp. 12–17), p. 4\. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2014.02.002
4. ^ Kool, V. K.; Agrawal, Rita (2009). "The Psychology of Nonkilling", in Joám Evans Pim (ed.),Toward a Nonkilling Paradigm, Center for Global Nonkilling, pp. 353–356.
5. ^ a b Joy, Melanie (2011) [2009]. Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows: An Introduction to Carnism. Conari Press, p. 9\. ISBN 1573245054.
6. ^ Rose, Marla (8 November 2010). "An Interview with Dr. Melanie Joy", Encyclopædia Britannica Advocacy for Animals.
7. ^ Schott, Ben (11 January 2010). "Carnism", Schott's Vocab, The New York Times.
8. ^ a b Joy 2011, p. 96.
9. ^ a b c d e Piazza, Jared; et al. (August 2015). "Rationalizing meat consumption. The 4Ns" (PDF). Appetite. 91: 114–128. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.04.011. hdl:20.500.11820/9cf94fc6-b4a9-4066-af4a-9c53d2fd3122. PMID 25865663. S2CID 11686309.

"How people defend eating meat", Lancaster University, 15 May 2015.

10. ^ a b c d Singal, Jesse (4 June 2015). "The 4 Ways People Rationalize Eating Meat", New York Magazine.
11. ^ Desaulniers, Élise (30 January 2015). "Le végétarisme et ses ennemis: entrevue avec Renan Larue". Retrieved 6 August 2015.
12. ^ Ryder, Richard D. (1971). "Experiments on Animals", in Stanley Godlovitch, Roslind Godlovitch, John Harris (eds.), Animals, Men and Morals, Grove Press.
13. ^ Ryder, Richard D. (2009). "Speciesism", in Marc Bekoff (ed.), Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare, Greenwood
14. ^ Diamond, Cora (2004). "Eating Meat and Eating People", in Cass Sunstein, Martha Nussbaum (eds.), Animal Rights: Current Debates and New Directions, Oxford University Press, p. 93.
15. ^ Joy, Melanie (2001). "From Carnivore to Carnist: Liberating the Language of Meat", Satya, 18(2), September, pp. 126–127; Joy, Melanie (2003). Psychic Numbing and Meat Consumption: The Psychology of Carnism, doctoral dissertation, Saybrook Graduate School, San Francisco.
16. ^ Mahlke, Sandra (2014). Das Machtverhältnis zwischen Mensch und Tier im Kontext sprachlicher Distanzierungsmechanismen: Anthropozentrismus, Speziesismus und Karnismus in der kritischen Diskursanalyse. Diplomica Verlag. ISBN 978-3-8428-9140-1.
17. ^ Francione, Gary L. (1 October 2012). "'Carnism'? There is nothing 'invisible' about the ideology of animal exploitation". abolitionistapproach.com.
18. ^ a b Joy 2011, pp. 14, 17.
19. ^ Herzog, Hal (2011). "Having Your Dog and Eating It Too?", Psychology Today.
20. ^ Robert L. Winzeler (2012). Anthropology and Religion: What We Know, Think, and Question. AltaMira Press. p. 63\. ISBN 978-0-7591-2191-1.
21. ^ Mannes, Jeff (2015). "Karnismus". Lexikon der Mensch-Tier-Beziehungen. Transcript Verlag. pp. 191–193. ISBN 978-3-8376-2232-4.
22. ^ a b c d Loughnan, Steve; Bastian, Brock; Haslam, Nick (2014). "The Psychology of Eating Animals", Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(2), April, pp. 104–108. doi:10.1177/0963721414525781
23. ^ Loughnan, Steve; et al. (2010). "The role of meat consumption in the denial of moral status and mind to meat animals". Appetite. 55 (1): 156–159. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2010.05.043. PMID 20488214. S2CID 29487745.
24. ^ Fawcett, Anne (2013). "Euthanasia and morally justifiable killing in a veterinary clinical context", in Jay Johnston, Fiona Probyn-Rapsey (eds.), Animal Death, Sydney: Sydney University Press, p. 215.
25. ^ Rothgerber, Hank (August 2014). "Efforts to overcome vegetarian-induced dissonance among meat eaters". Appetite. 79: 32–41. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.04.003. PMID 24727102. S2CID 12089867.
26. ^ Hodson, Gordon (3 March 2014). "The Meat Paradox: Loving but Exploiting Animals", Psychology Today.
27. ^ Bastian, Brock; et al. (2011). "Don't mind meat? The denial of mind to animals used for human consumption" (PDF). Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 38 (2): 247–256. doi:10.1177/0146167211424291. PMID 21980158. S2CID 22757046.
28. ^ Plous, Scott (2002). "Is there such a thing as discrimination towards animals?" (PDF). In Plous, Scott (ed.). Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination. McGraw Hill Higher Education. pp. 509–528. ISBN 978-0-07-255443-4. Retrieved 9 August 2015.
29. ^ Joy 2011, p. 16.
30. ^ Joy 2011, p. 97.
31. ^ Greger, Michael (6 June 2014). "Do vegetarians get enough protein?".
32. ^ Sloat, Sarah (24 January 2022). "Did eating meat make us human? New research casts some doubt". NBC News. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
33. ^ Barr, W. Andrew; Pobiner, Briana; et al. (2022). "No sustained increase in zooarchaeological evidence for carnivory after the appearance of Homo erectus". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (5): e2115540119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11915540B. doi:10.1073/pnas.2115540119. PMC 8812535. PMID 35074877.
34. ^ Goodyer, Paula (1 June 2015). "Meat eaters justify diet using 'Four Ns': natural, necessary, normal, nice". Sydney Morning Herald.
35. ^ Pedersen, Helena. "Critical Carnist Studies." Society & Animals 20, no. 1 (2012): 111–112.
36. ^ a b Packwood-Freeman, Carrie; Perez, Oana Leventi (2012). "Pardon Your Turkey and Eat Him Too", in Joshua Frye, Michael S. Bruner (eds.), The Rhetoric of Food: Discourse, Materiality, and Power, Routledge, pp. 103ff.
37. ^ a b Mizelle, Brett (2015). "Unthinkable Visibility: Pigs, Pork and the Spectacle of Killing and Meat", in Marguerite S. Shaffer, Phoebe S. K. Young (eds.), Rendering Nature: Animals, Bodies, Places, Politics, University of Pennsylvania Press, p. 264; Mizelle, Brett (2012). Pig, Reaktion Books, pp. 105–106.
38. ^ Joy 2011, pp. 135, 150
39. ^ Spencer, Stephan (13 September 2013). "Friend or Food? The Ideology of How We Decide". The Huffington Post: The Blog. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
40. ^ Gandhi, Maneka (5 July 2015). "From cuisine to corpses to 'carnism'". The Statesman. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
41. ^ Fox, Katrina (28 September 2010). "Eating meat isn't natural: it's carnism". The Drum. ABC. Retrieved 19 August 2015.
42. ^ Murphy, Dan (19 August 2011). "Commentary: The carnist conundrum". Drovers Cattle Network. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2015.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Castricano, Jodey, and Rasmus R. Simonsen, eds. (2016). Critical Perspectives on Veganism. Basingstoke, United Kingdom: Palgrave Macmillan.
* Kanerva, Minna (2021). The New Meatways and Sustainability. Bielefeld, Germany: transcript Verlag.
* Herzog, Hal (2010). Some We Love, Some We Hate, Some We Eat. New York: Harper Collins.
* Joy, Melanie (2015). "Beyond carnism and toward rational, authentic food choices", TEDx talk.
* Monteiro, Christopher A., Tamara D. Pfeiler, Marcus D. Patterson and Michael A. Milburn (2017). "The Carnism Inventory: Measuring the ideology of eating animals". Appetite 113: 51–62. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2017.02.011.
* Potts, Annie, ed. (2016). Meat Culture. Leiden, Netherlands: Brill.
* Vialles, Noëlie (1994). Animal to Edible. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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* Animals, Property, and the Law (1995)
* The Lives of Animals (1999)
* Eternal Treblinka (2001)
* Do Animals Have Rights? (2005)
* Striking at the Roots (2008)
* An American Trilogy (2009)
* An Introduction to Animals and Political Theory (2010)
* Animal Rights Without Liberation (2012)
* Political Animals and Animal Politics (2014)
* Animal (De)liberation (2016)
* Sentientist Politics (2018)
* Wild Animal Ethics (2020)
* Animal Ethics in the Wild (2022)
* Making a Stand for Animals (2022)

|

Films|

* The Animals Film (1981)
* A Cow at My Table (1998)
* Shores of Silence (2000)
* The Witness (2000)
* Meet Your Meat (2002)
* Legally Blonde 2 (2003)
* The Meatrix (2003)
* Peaceable Kingdom (2004)
* Earthlings (2005)
* Behind the Mask (2006)
* Your Mommy Kills Animals (2007)
* The Cove (2009)
* Peaceable Kingdom: The Journey Home (2009)
* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* Vegucated (2011)
* An Apology to Elephants (2013)
* Speciesism: The Movie (2013)
* The Ghosts in Our Machine (2013)
* Unlocking the Cage (2016)
* Dominion (2018)
* Seaspiracy (2021)

Periodicals|

| Journals|

* Animal Sentience
* Between the Species
* Cahiers antispécistes
* Etica & Animali
* Journal of Animal Ethics
* Relations. Beyond Anthropocentrism
* The Animals' Defender

|

Magazines|

* Arkangel
* Bite Back
* Muutoksen kevät
* No Compromise
* Satya

Albums|

* Animal Liberation (1987)
* Tame Yourself (1991)
* Manifesto (2008)
* Salvation of Innocents (2014)
* Onward to Freedom (2014)

Fairs and exhibitions|

* Holocaust on your Plate (2003)

* Category ( 139 )

* v
* t
* e

Meat

Poultry|

* Cassowary
* Chicken
* Duck
* Emu
* Goose
* Ostrich
* Pigeon
* Quail
* Rhea
* Turkey

Livestock|

* Alpaca
* Beef
* Beefalo
* Bison
* Buffalo
* Camel
* Cat
* Goat
* Dog
* Donkey
* Snails
* Frog
* Guinea pig
* Horse
* Lamb and mutton
* Llama
* Pork
* Veal
* Yak
* Żubroń

Game|

* Alligator
* Bat
* Bear
* Bushmeat
* Boar
* Crocodile
* Elephant
* Fox
* Iguana
* Kangaroo
* Monkey
* Mouse
* Pangolin
* Rat
* Hare
* Rabbit
* Snake
* Turtle
* Venison
* Dog
* Wolf

Fish|

* Anchovy
* Basa
* Bass
* Carp
* Catfish
* Cod
* Crappie
* Eel
* Flounder
* Grouper
* Haddock
* Halibut
* Herring
* Kingfish
* Mackerel
* Mahi Mahi
* Marlin
* Milkfish
* Orange roughy
* Pacific saury
* Perch
* Pike
* Pollock
* Salmon
* Sardine
* Shark
* Sole
* Swai
* Swordfish
* Tilapia
* Trout
* Tuna
* Walleye

Shellfish and
other seafood|

* Abalone
* Calamari
* Chiton
* Clam
* Crab
* Crayfish
* Dolphin
* Lobster
* Mussel
* Octopus
* Oyster
* Scallop
* Seal
* Shrimp/prawn
* Sea cucumber
* Sea urchin
* Whale

Insects|

* Ants
* Black soldier fly maggots
* Cicada
* Crickets
* Flour
* Grasshoppers (locust)
* Mealworm
* Mezcal worm
* Silkworm
* Mopane worm
* Palm grub

Cuts and
preparation|

* Aged
* Bacon
* Barbecued
* Biltong
* Braised
* Burger
* Charcuterie
* Chop
* Confit
* Corned
* Cured
* Cutlet
* Dried
* Dum
* Fermented
* Fillet/supreme
* Forcemeat
* Cretons
* Pâté
* Fried
* Frozen
* Ground
* Ham
* Jerky
* Kebab
* Kidney
* Liver
* Luncheon meat
* Marinated
* Meatball
* Meatloaf
* Offal
* Pickled
* Pemmican
* Poached
* Potted
* Rillettes
* Roasted
* Salt-cured
* Salumi
* Sausage
* Smoked
* Steak
* Stewed
* Tandoor
* Tartare

List articles|

| Meat dishes|

* Beef
* Chicken
* Fish
* Goat
* Lamb
* Pork
* Ham
* Seafood
* Veal
* Steaks
* Meatball
* Smoked foods
* Sausage

|

Other|

* Countries by meat consumption
* Countries by meat production
* Food and drink prohibitions
* Meat substitutes

Ethics and
psychology|

* Ethics of eating meat
* Carnism
* Animal rights
* Psychology of eating meat
* Meat paradox

Alternatives|

* Vegetarianism
* Semi-vegetarianism
* Pescetarianism
* Pollotarianism
* Plant-based diet
* Meat alternative
* Veganism

Meat science|

* Beef hormone controversy
* Drip loss
* Feed conversion ratio
* Preservation
* Tenderness
* Water holding capacity

Meat industry|

* Broker
* Branch house
* Butcher
* Cutter
* Environmental impact
* Factory farming
* Jobber
* Packing
* Slaughter
* Slaughterhouse

Related
subjects|

* Arachnophagy
* Cannibalism
* Case-ready meat
* Meat diaper
* Cultured meat
* Entomophagy
* Marbled
* Artificial
* Mystery meat
* Offal
* Non-vegetarian food in India
* Pink slime
* Raw meat
* Red meat
* Roadkill cuisine
* Warmed-over flavor
* White meat

* Food portal
* Category: Meat

* v
* t
* e

Veganism and vegetarianism

Perspectives|

| Veganism|

* Animal-free agriculture
* Black veganism
* Fruitarianism
* History
* Raw veganism
* Straight edge
* Hardline
* Nutrition
* Vegan organic agriculture
* Vegan school meal
* Vegan studies

|

Vegetarianism|

* Economic vegetarianism
* Environmental vegetarianism
* History
* Orthopathy
* Lacto vegetarianism
* Lacto-ovo vegetarianism
* Ovo vegetarianism
* Cuisine
* Vegetarian Diet Pyramid
* Ecofeminism
* Nutrition
* By country

Lists|

* Vegetarians
* Vegans
* Fictional characters
* Festivals
* Organizations
* Restaurants
* Vegan media

Ethics|

| Secular|

* Animal rights
* Animal welfare
* Carnism
* Deep ecology
* Environmental vegetarianism
* Ethics of eating meat
* Meat paradox
* Nonviolence
* Replaceability argument
* Sentientism
* Speciesism
* Tirukkuṟaḷ

|

Religious|

* Buddhism
* Christianity (Seventh-day Adventist Church)
* Hinduism
* Sattvic
* Ahimsa
* Islam
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Pythagoreanism
* Rastafari
* Sikhism
* Taoism

Food
and drink|

* Agave syrup
* Chicken fillet roll
* Coconut burger
* Coconut milk
* Fruits
* Grains
* cereals
* legumes
* Gelatin substitutes
* Agar
* Carrageenan
* Gulaman
* Konjac jelly
* Microbial cellulose
* Jambon
* Meat alternative
* List of meat substitutes
* Miso
* Mochi
* Mock duck
* Nutritional yeast
* Plant cream
* Plant milk
* Quinoa
* Quorn
* Seitan
* Soy yogurt
* Tempeh
* Tofu
* Tofurkey
* Cheese
* Vegetables
* Vegetarian bacon
* Hot dog
* Vegetarian mark
* Sausage
* Sausage roll
* Beer
* Wine
* Veggie burger

Groups
and events|

| Vegan|

* American Vegan Society
* Beauty Without Cruelty
* Food Empowerment Project
* Go Vegan
* Nederlandse Vereniging voor Veganisme
* Our Hen House
* Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine
* Plamil Foods
* Vegan Awareness Foundation
* Vegan flag
* Vegan Outreach
* Vegan Prisoners Support Group
* The Vegan Society
* Veganmania
* Veganuary
* Veganz
* World Vegan Day

|

Vegetarian|

* Alcott House
* Bible Christian Church
* Boston Vegetarian Society
* Christian Vegetarian Association
* European Vegetarian Union
* French Vegetarian Society
* Hare Krishna Food for Life
* International Vegetarian Union
* Jewish Veg
* Meat-free days
* Meatless Monday
* Friday Fast
* North American Vegetarian Society
* Order of the Golden Age
* ProVeg Deutschland
* ProVeg International
* ProVeg Nederland
* Swissveg
* Toronto Vegetarian Association
* Vegetarian Federal Union
* Vegetarian Society
* Vegetarian Society (Singapore)
* Veggie Pride
* Viva! Health
* World Esperantist Vegetarian Association
* World Vegetarian Day

Companies|

* List of vegetarian and vegan companies

Books,
reports,
journals|

* On Abstinence from Eating Animals (3rd century)
* An Essay on Abstinence from Animal Food, as a Moral Duty (1802)
* Vegetable Cookery (1812)
* A Vindication of Natural Diet (1813)
* Reasons for not Eating Animal Food (1814)
* Moral Inquiries on the Situation of Man and of Brutes (1824)
* Nature's Own Book (1835)
* Fruits and Farinacea (1845)
* The Pleasure Boat (1845)
* The Ethics of Diet (1883)
* What is Vegetarianism? (1886)
* Shelley's Vegetarianism (1891)
* Behind the Scenes in Slaughter-Houses (1892)
* Why I Am a Vegetarian (1895)
* Figs or Pigs? (1896)
* Fifty Years of Food Reform (1898)
* Thirty-nine Reasons Why I Am a Vegetarian (1903)
* The Meat Fetish (1904)
* The New Ethics (1907)
* A Fleshless Diet (1910)
* The Benefits of Vegetarianism (1927)
* Living the Good Life (1954)
* Ten Talents (1968)
* Diet for a Small Planet (1971)
* The Vegetarian Epicure (1972)
* Moosewood Collective Cookbooks (1973)
* The Farm Vegetarian Cookbook (1975)
* Laurel's Kitchen (1976)
* Moosewood Cookbook (1977)
* Fit for Life (1985)
* Diet for a New America (1987)
* The Sexual Politics of Meat (1990)
* Vegetarian Cooking for Everyone (1997)
* The China Study (2005)
* Skinny Bitch (2005)
* Livestock's Long Shadow (2006)
* The Bloodless Revolution (2006)
* Eating Animals (2009)
* Why We Love Dogs, Eat Pigs, and Wear Cows (2009)
* The Vegan Studies Project (2015)
* Animal (De)liberation (2016)
* The End of Animal Farming (2018)
* Vegetable Kingdom (2020)
* Making a Stand for Animals (2022)
* Meat Atlas (annual)

Films and shows|

* The Animals Film (1981)
* Diet for a New America (film) (1991)
* A Cow at My Table (1998)
* Meet Your Meat (2002)
* Post Punk Kitchen (2003–2005)
* Peaceable Kingdom (2004)
* Earthlings (2005)
* A Sacred Duty (2007)
* Fat, Sick and Nearly Dead (2010)
* Planeat (2010)
* Forks Over Knives (2011)
* Vegucated (2011)
* Live and Let Live (2013)
* Cowspiracy (2014)
* PlantPure Nation (2015)
* What the Health (2017)
* Carnage (2017)
* Dominion (2018)
* Eating You Alive (2018)
* The Game Changers (2018)
* Maa Ka Doodh (2023)
* You Are What You Eat: A Twin Experiment (2024)

Magazines|

* Naked Food
* Satya
* Vegetarian Times
* VegNews
* The Animals' Agenda

Academics,
activists,
authors,
physicians|

| Vegan|

* Elisa Aaltola
* Carol J. Adams
* Suzanne M. Babich
* Martin Balluch
* Neal D. Barnard
* David Benatar
* Steven Best
* Yves Bonnardel
* Will Bonsall
* Will Bulsiewicz
* Georges Butaud
* Jodey Castricano
* T. Colin Campbell
* Robert Cook
* Brenda Davis
* Garth Davis
* Jan Deckers
* Alan Desmond
* George Dornbusch
* Mylan Engel
* Caldwell Esselstyn
* Gary L. Francione
* Joel Fuhrman
* Kristi Funk
* Valéry Giroux
* Lewis Gompertz
* Michael Greger
* A. Breeze Harper
* Oscar Horta
* Melanie Joy
* Joel Kahn
* Avery Yale Kamila
* Michael Klaper
* Aph Ko
* Renan Larue
* Maxwell G. Lee
* Thomas Lepeltier
* Howard Lyman
* Al-Ma'arri
* Reed Mangels
* John A. McDougall
* James E. McWilliams
* Vesanto Melina
* Gemma Newman
* David Nibert
* Jack Norris
* David Olivier
* David Pearce
* Emelia Quinn
* Tom Regan
* Jérôme Segal
* Peter Singer
* David Sztybel
* Sunaura Taylor
* Richard Twine
* Kim A. Williams
* Corey Lee Wrenn
* Laura Wright
* Sophie Zaïkowska

|

Vegetarian|

* Phyllis B. Acosta
* William Alcott
* Bertrand P. Allinson
* Thomas Allinson
* Charles R. Attwood
* William Axon
* Eduard Baltzer
* Horace A. Barrows
* Geoffrey Barstow
* Sidney H. Beard
* George Bedborough
* Ernest Bell
* Robert Bell
* Ragnar Berg
* Rynn Berry
* Maximilian Bircher-Benner
* George Black
* Ernest Bonnejoy
* Lucius Duncan Bulkley
* J. L. Buttner
* Paul Carton
* Job Caudwell
* James Clark
* George Cheyne
* Henry S. Clubb
* Antonio Cocchi
* Edwin Collier
* Lenna F. Cooper
* Daniël de Clercq
* Daniel Dombrowski
* James Elmslie Duncan
* Eknath Easwaran
* T. Forster
* Charles W. Forward
* Michael Allen Fox
* Peter Foxcroft
* Greta Gaard
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Narasinh Narayan Godbole
* Jeremiah Hacker
* John Haddon
* Walter Hadwen
* Alexander Haig
* Edward Hare
* William Harvey
* Philippe Hecquet
* Brian Hines
* Martin Luther Holbrook
* Isaac Jennings
* John Harvey Kellogg
* Norman Kerr
* Daniel H. Kress
* William Lambe
* W. R. C. Latson
* Elmer Lee
* Susan M. Levin
* Andrew Linzey
* Clair Linzey
* Alice Garrett Marsh
* Elmer McCollum
* William Metcalfe
* Eli Peck Miller
* Harry Willis Miller
* J. Howard Moore
* Reuben D. Mussey
* Helen Nearing
* Scott Nearing
* Francis William Newman
* R. E. O'Callaghan
* Josiah Oldfield
* Dean Ornish
* Cyril V. Pink
* A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada
* Rod Preece
* James Rachels
* Ulma Doyle Register
* Rollo Russell
* Henry Stephens Salt
* Johan Lindström Saxon
* James Scholefield
* Richard H. Schwartz
* James Simpson
* Ernest Lester Smith
* William O. Stephens
* Alan Stoddard
* Russell Thacher Trall
* Frederick Towgood
* Sidney Trist
* Valluvar
* Emil Weilshäuser
* Ellen G. White
* Severin Wielobycki
* Howard Williams
* Frank Wokes
* W. A. Sibly
* Jon Wynne-Tyson
* Tzachi Zamir
* Kathleen Keen Zolber

Chefs and
cookbook authors|

* Nava Atlas
* Mayim Bialik
* Carleigh Bodrug
* Gypsy Boots
* BOSH!
* Martha Brotherton
* Edward Espe Brown
* Tabitha Brown (actress)
* Suzy Amis Cameron
* Hannah Che
* Pinky Cole
* Chloe Coscarelli
* Yamuna Devi
* Sue Donaldson
* Crescent Dragonwagon
* Rose Elliot
* Rip Esselstyn
* Toni Fiore
* Carol Lee Flinders
* Alexis Gauthier
* Dick Gregory
* Richa Hingle
* Madhur Jaffrey
* Mollie Katzen
* Frances Moore Lappé
* Deborah Madison
* Linda McCartney
* Mary McCartney
* Hetty Lui McKinnon
* Tracye McQuirter
* Joanne Lee Molinaro
* Moosewood Collective
* Charity Morgan
* Isa Chandra Moskowitz
* Bawa Muhaiyaddeen
* Gaz Oakley
* Colleen Patrick-Goudreau
* Mathew Pritchard
* Satchidananda Saraswati
* Derek Sarno
* Miyoko Schinner
* Alicia Silverstone
* Hannah Sunderani
* Bryant Terry
* Anna Thomas
* Haile Thomas
* Lauren Toyota
* Jeeca Uy
* Umberto Veronesi
* Nisha Vora
* Alan Wakeman

Restaurants|

* Ben & Esther's Vegan Jewish Deli
* Cinnaholic
* Crossroads Kitchen
* Green Elephant Vegetarian Bistro
* Greens Restaurant
* Hiltl Restaurant
* Little Pine (restaurant)
* Moosewood Restaurant
* Purezza
* Slutty Vegan
* Souley Vegan
* The Sound Lounge, London
* Veggie Galaxy
* Veggie Grill

Former restaurants|

* Cranks (restaurant)
* Food for Thought (restaurant)
* InSpiral Lounge
* Lentil as Anything
* Minerva Café
* New Riverside Cafe
* Nix (restaurant)
* Penny Cafeteria
* Pink Peacock
* The Hollow Reed
* The Pitman Vegetarian Hotel

Related|

* Vegetarian and vegan symbolism
* List of vegan media
* Juice fasting
* Vegetarian and vegan dog diet
* Vegaphobia
* Plant-based diet
* Plant-based action plan
* Sustainable diet
* Low-carbon
* Planetary health
* Flexitarianism
* Pescetarianism
* Pollotarianism

* v
* t
* e

Sustainability

* Outline
* Index

Principles|

* Anthropocene
* Environmentalism
* Global governance
* Human impact on the environment
* Planetary boundaries
* Development

Consumption|

* Anthropization
* Anti-consumerism
* Circular economy
* Earth Overshoot Day
* Ecological footprint
* Ethical
* Green consumption
* Micro-sustainability
* Over-consumption
* Product stewardship
* Simple living
* Social return on investment
* Steady-state economy
* Sustainability
* Advertising
* Brand
* Marketing myopia
* Sustainable
* Consumer behaviour
* Market
* Systemic change resistance
* Tragedy of the commons

World population|

* Demographic transition
* Family planning
* Control
* Sustainable population

Technology|

* Appropriate
* Environmental technology
* Natural building
* Sustainable architecture
* Sustainable design
* Sustainable industries
* Sustainable packaging

Biodiversity|

* Biosecurity
* Biosphere
* Conservation biology
* Endangered species
* Holocene extinction
* Invasive species

Energy|

* Carbon footprint
* Renewable energy
* Sustainable energy

Food|

* Civic agriculture
* Climate-smart agriculture
* Community-supported agriculture
* Cultured meat
* Sustainable agriculture
* Sustainable diet
* Sustainable fishery

Water|

* Footprint
* Hydroelectricity
* Hydropower
* Marine energy
* Micro hydro
* Ocean thermal energy conversion
* Pico hydro
* Reclaimed water
* Run-of-the-river hydroelectricity
* Scarcity
* Security
* Small hydro
* Tidal power
* Tidal stream generator
* Water heat recycling
* Water recycling shower

Accountability|

* Corporate environmental responsibility
* Corporate social responsibility
* Environmental accounting
* Environmental full-cost accounting
* Environmental planning
* Sustainability
* Accounting
* Measurement
* Metrics and indices
* Reporting
* Standards and certification
* Sustainable yield

Applications|

* Advertising
* Art
* Business
* City
* Climate finance
* Community
* Disinvestment
* Eco-capitalism
* Eco-cities
* Eco-investing
* Eco-socialism
* Ecovillage
* Environmental finance
* Green economy
* Construction
* Fashion
* Finance
* Gardening
* Geopark
* Green
* Development
* Infrastructure
* Marketing
* Greening
* Impact investing
* Landscape
* Livelihood
* Living
* Market
* Organic movement
* Organizations
* Procurement
* Refurbishment
* Socially responsible business
* Socially responsible marketing
* Sanitation
* Sourcing
* Space
* Sustainability organization
* Tourism
* Transport
* Urban drainage systems
* Urban infrastructure

Sustainable management|

* Environmental
* Fisheries
* Forest
* Humanistic capitalism
* Landscape
* Materials
* Natural resource
* Planetary
* Recycling
* Waste

Agreements and
conferences|

* UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)
* Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983)
* Our Common Future (1987)
* Earth Summit (1992)
* Rio Declaration on Environment and Development (1992)
* Agenda 21 (1992)
* Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)
* Lisbon Principles (1997)
* Earth Charter (2000)
* UN Millennium Declaration (2000)
* Earth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg)
* UN Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012)
* Sustainable Development Goals (2015)

* Category
* Lists
* Science
* Studies
* Degrees

Authority control databases: National |

* Czech Republic

|

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