Caste system in Sri Lanka

Traditional social stratification

The caste systems in Sri Lanka are social stratification systems found among the ethnic groups of the island since ancient times. The models are similar to those found in Continental India, but are less extensive and important for various reasons. Modern times Sri Lanka is often considered to be a casteless society in South Asia.

The caste systems of Sri Lanka were historically not tied to the religious establishment but rather a tool to service the ruling elite -a model that was subsequently emulated witithn the European diaspora. At least three major, parallel caste systems exist in Sri Lankan society: Sinhalese, Sri Lankan Tamil and Indian Tamils.[1]

A universal welfare system that focused on providing education for everyone regardless of background has provided people from lower caste groups similar opportunities to enter jobs previously only frequented by those in upper-caste groups, with younger generations mostly rejecting any pressure to conform to caste-related jobs. The Civil War has also broken down caste barriers as they were seen as an obstacle toward ethnolinguistic unity.[1]

## Overview

[edit]

The caste system or feudal of the Sinhalese and Sri Lankan Tamils display some similar traits, where both systems having comparable castes with similar occupations and status.[2]

The interior arable land is largely dominated by the Govigama caste under the Sinhalese and by the Vellalar under the Sri Lankan Tamils, who are traditionally involved as husbandmen and form approximately half the population of their respective ethnicities.[3] The peasants under them are the Sinhalese Bathgama and Tamil Pallars.[4] The coastal land is dominated by the Karavas under the Sinhalese and the Karaiyar under the Tamils. Both castes share a common origin with background in seafaring, trade and warfare.[5][6] The artisans were collectively known as Navandanna by the Sinhalese and as Kammalar by the Tamils.[7] They constituted of respective endogamous castes traditionally involved as blacksmith, goldsmith, coppersmith, carpenters and stonemasons.[8][9] While toddy tapping was largely in the hands of the Sinhalese Durava and Tamil Nalavar, jaggery production was in the hands of the Sinhalese Vahumpura and Tamil Cantars.[6] The traditional drummers of both ethnicities, the Sinhalese Berava and Tamil Paraiyar, have religious importance in Buddhism and Hinduism, respectively. The domestic castes of barbers and dhobies were the respective Sinhalese Ambattaya and Hinnava, and Tamil Ambattar and Vannar.[10][11][12]

Political power and wealth have largely replaced caste as the main factor in Sri Lankan social stratification, especially in the Sinhalese and Indian Tamil communities.[13] Ponnambalam Ramanathan, under British Ceylon, opposed extending voting rights to the people and urged reservation of franchise only to men of the Vellalar caste.[14]

## Sinhalese castes

[edit]

See also: Category:Sinhalese castes

In traditional Sinhalese society Buddhist monks are placed at the top. Irrespective of the birth caste of a monk, even the king had to show respect to them.

The documented history of the island begins with the arrival of Prince Vijaya from India. Although the origin of Sri Lankan communities is unclear,[15] genetic studies on Sinhalese have shown that most of the Sinhala community are genetically related to North Indians, with traces from South India too.[16][17][18][19][20][21] About half of the Sinhalese population are Govigama.[22]

Ancient Sri Lankan texts, such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya, Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptions, show that a feudal system namely existed among the Sinhalese. Evidence of this hierarchy can be seen during the 18th-century British-Kandyan period,[23] indicating its continuation even after the Sri Lankan monarchy.[24][25] Colonialism and foreign intervention in the dynastic conflicts of the island throughout history have also influenced the caste system, some suggesting even a re-arrangement of the occupational castes.[26][27]

Kandyan castes

In the Central Highlands, many traditions of the Kingdom of Kandy were preserved from its 1818 collapse beyond independence in 1948 and the Land Reform Act of the 1970s. Although large agricultural landlords belonged to the Govigama caste, many now may not own land. Most Govigama were however ordinary farmers and tenants as absolute land ownership was exclusive to the king until the British colonial period.[28] The most important feature of the Kandyan system was Rajakariya ("the king's work"), which linked each caste to occupation and demanded service to the court and religious institutions.[29]

The "Duraya" was a loose categorization of lower Kandyan castes, comprising the castes of Vahumpura, Puda, Panna, Velli, Berava, possibly Henaya, and more. The group was interpreted by the British for their own administrative purposes and was used loosely.[4]

Low Country Sinhalese castes

There are still differences between the caste structures of the highlands and those of the low country, although some service groups were common to both in ancient Sri Lanka. The southwestern coast has three other castes (the Salagama, the Durava and the Karava) in addition to the majority of ancient Govigama, which is common throughout the region. Some of these castes' ancestors are believed to have migrated from Southern India and have become important in the Sinhalese social system. The first-century BC Anuradhapura Abayagiri inscription referring to a Karava Devika may be the first reference to a specialized occupation.[30][31]

Sinhalese Castes and Sub-Castes during the later Colonial Period[32][33] Rank | Caste | Sub-Caste | Occupation | Location | Origin | % of population | Notes

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1 | Goyigama
1a. | Radalavaru | Governing elite | Kandyan |  | ~50%[34][35] |
1b. | Mudaliperuwa | Knighted elite |  |
1c. | Ratè atto | Lesser officers of state |  |
1d. | Goviyo | Farmers |  |
2 | Karava |  | Fisherman | Low Country | South India
(13–18th Century)[36][note 1] | 3/4 of Low Country population[38] | Achieved a higher status under
Portuguese and Dutch occupation.
3 | Salagama |  | Weavers/Cinnamon peelers
4 | Durava |  | Toddy tappers
5 | Navadanna |  | Artisans | Island wide |  |  | Status used to be above that of the
Karava, Salagama & Durava[39]
6 | Hannāli |  | Tailors | Kandyan |  |  | Virtually extinct[40]
7 | Hunu |  | Chunam burners | Island wide |  |  |
8 | Hēna |  | Washers to high castes | Island wide |  |  |
9 | Vahumpura |  | Jaggery makers | Island wide |  |  | Claims higher status in Ancient periods [41]
10 | Hinnā |  | Washers to Salagama | Low Country |  |  |
11 | Baḍahäla |  | Potters | Island wide |  |  |
12 | Panikki |  | Barbers | Low Country |  |  |
13 | Velli-durayi |  | Guardians of the sacred Bo tree | Kandyan |  |  |
14 | Panna-durayi |  | Possibly grass-cutters | Kandyan |  |  |
15 | Beravā |  | Tom-tom beaters | Island wide |  |  |
16 | Batgam Beravā |  | Tom-tom beaters | Kandyan |  |  |
17 | Kontadurayi |  | Unknown | Kandyan |  |  |
18 | Batgam |  | Possibly King's Palanquin bearers | Kandyan |  |  |
19 | Olī |  | Dancers | Island wide |  |  |
20 | Palī |  | Washers to low castes | Kandyan |  |  |
21 | Kinnara |  | Mat weavers | Kandyan |  |  |
22 | Galaha-beravā |  | Funeral drummers and executioners | Kandyan |  |  |
23 | Rodi |  | Beggars |  |  | 1,500–3000[42] |
24 | Kavikara |  | Shrine dancers and chanters |  |  |  |
25 | Demala-Gattara |  | Tamil outcastes | Low Country | South India
(during Portuguese rule)[43] |  |

## Sri Lankan Tamil castes

[edit]

See also: Category:Sri Lankan Tamil castes

The caste system has stronger religious ties than its Sinhalese counterpart, although both systems have comparable castes.[44] There are in the Sri Lankan Tamil caste system, distinctions between Northern and Eastern societies and also the agricultural, coastal and artisanal societies.

The agricultural society has mainly the castes of the Sri Lankan Vellalar who make more than half of the Tamil population in srilanka, Nalavar and Koviyar, where the Vellalar and the Koviyar castes are the dominating ones, particularly in Northern Sri Lanka. They constitute approximately half of the Sri Lankan Tamil population and are the major land owning and agricultural caste.[45][46]

The Northern and Western coastal societies are dominated by the Karaiyars, who are traditionally a seafaring and warrior caste.[47] The Paravar and the Thimilar are also among the coastal communities involved in fishing. The Paravars or Bharathas are traditionally found in the western part of the island in the Mannar region, who many also are descendants from South Indian Paravar traders and seamen who settled there under Portuguese rule.[48] The Mukkuvars, traditional pearl divers in western Sri Lanka, dominate greater parts of Eastern Sri Lanka where they are the major landowners also involved in agriculture.[49][50] The Mukkuvars are largely Muslims or Roman Catholic in the Puttalam region of the western part of the island, and predominantly Hindus in the eastern part of the island.[51]

The artisans, known locally as Kammalar or Vishwakarma consists of the Kannar (brass-workers), Kollar (blacksmiths), Tattar (goldsmiths), Tatchar (carpenters), Kartatchar (sculptor).[52][53] Along with the Kammalar were the Ambattar (barbers), Kadaiyar (lime burners), Koviar (farmers), Kusavar (potters), Maraiyar (conch blowers), Nattuvar (musician), Nalavar (toddy-tappers), Pallar (farmers), Paraiyar (drummers and weavers), Turumbar (dhobies) and Vannar (dhobies) the domestic servants termed as Kudimakkal.[54] The Kudimakkal gave ritual importance in marriage, funeral and other temple ceremonies.[55][56]

A few slave castes exist as well. One caste called the Demalagattaru were an ancient caste of Tamil captives during times of war between Sinhalese and Tamil.[57]

Other Sri Lankan Tamil castes of importance are the eastern Vellalars, Cantar (oil-presser), Iyer (priests), Madapalli (former royal cooks), Seerpadar descendents of Chola Queen Seerpaatha thevi (udaiyars,poodies,land owners, worriers,cultivators), kaikolar (cotton-weavers), Siviyar (royal palanquin bearers)[58][59] and Maravar (Warrior).[60][61][62] The Sri Lankan Chetties, traditional merchants, along with the Bharatha people, traditional sea-traders, are both colonial South Indian migrant castes and listed as their own ethnicities in Sri Lankan census.[63] The Coast Veddas, found mainly in Eastern Sri Lanka are considered a Tamil caste among the Sri Lankan Tamils.[64]

The village deities of the Sri Lankan Tamils are also shaped by the caste structure. The Sri Lankan Moors don't practice the caste system, however, follow a matriclan system which is an extension of Tamil tradition.[65]

## Indian Tamil castes

[edit]

The Tolkāppiyam Porulatikaram indicating the four-fold division is the earliest Tamil literature to mention caste.[66] Sangam literature however mentions only five kudis associated with the five tinais.[66][67] Colonialism also had influenced the caste system.[68][69]

Indian Tamils or Tamils of Indian origin (Hill Country Tamils, who were Indians brought to the island by the British as indentured labour) and the group of Indian Tamil people who migrated to Sri Lanka as merchants also follows the Indian caste system form which is called jāti. Their caste structure resembles that of a Tamil Nadu village.

Those who are considered to be of higher castes occupy the first row of line rooms, and that sect includes Maravar, Kallar, Agamudaiyar, Mudaliyar (kaikolars), Mutharaiyar (Watch mans) etc. They perform respectable jobs such as factory work and grinding of tea as minor labour work, on the other hand, they are also involved in business activities. Even though they belong to the labour category under the British rule and post-independence of the country, they were influential among conductors, tea makers, kanganese (or supervisors), and other officials. The workers considered low caste live in the dwellings that are away from the centre and these dwellings are called distant or lower lines. This group consists of Paraiyars, Sakkiliar, washers and barbers. The yard sweepers and changes of clothes are in the lowest rank.[70]

## See also

[edit]

* Social class in Sri Lanka
* Caste system in India

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Salagama from the Coromandel Coast[37]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b Silva, Kalinga Tudor; Sivapragasam, P.P.; Thanges, Paramsothy (2009). "Caste Discrimination and Social Justice in Sri Lanka: An Overview" (PDF). Indian Institute of Dalit Studies. III. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
2. ^ Nubin, Walter (2002). Sri Lanka: Current Issues and Historical Background. Nova Publishers. p. 153\. ISBN 978-1-59033-573-4.
3. ^ Peebles, Patrick (2015-10-22). Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65\. ISBN 978-1-4422-5585-2.
4. ^ a b Meyer, Eric P. (2014-12-09). "Historical Aspects of Caste in the Kandyan Regions with Particular Reference to the non-Goyigama Castes of the Kägalla District". Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities. 40: 21–54\. doi:10.4038/sljh.v40i0.7229. ISSN 2279-3321.
5. ^ Swan, Bernard (1987). Sri Lankan Mosaic: Environment, Man, Continuity, and Change. Marga Institute, Sri Lanka Centre for Development Studies. p. 177.
6. ^ a b Markovits, Claude; Pouchepadass, Jacques; Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (2006). Society and Circulation: Mobile People and Itinerant Cultures in South Asia, 1750-1950. Anthem Press. p. 59\. ISBN 978-1-84331-231-4.
7. ^ Mahroof, M. M. M. (2000). "A Conspectus of Tamil Caste Systems in Sri Lanka: Away from a Parataxis". Social Scientist. 28 (11/12): 40–59\. doi:10.2307/3518280. ISSN 0970-0293. JSTOR 3518280.
8. ^ Ceylon Journal of Child Health. Ceylon Paediatric Association. 1977. p. 9.
9. ^ Seneviratna, Anuradha; Silva, Nimal De; Lanka), Madhyama Saṃskr̥tika Aramudala (Sri (1999). World heritage city of Kandy, Sri Lanka: conservation and development plan. Central Cultural Fund. p. 56\. ISBN 978-955-613-126-0.
10. ^ Pranāndu, Mihindukalasūrya Ār Pī Susantā (2005). Rituals, Folk Beliefs, and Magical Arts of Sri Lanka. Susan International. pp. 459–460\. ISBN 978-955-96318-3-5.
11. ^ Lanka), Indian Heritage Foundation (Sri (2003). Indo-Lankans, their two hundred-year saga. Indian Heritage Foundation. p. 199\. ISBN 978-955-8790-00-7.
12. ^ Nyrop, Richard F. (1971). Area Handbook for Ceylon. U.S. Government Printing Office. pp. 103–108.
13. ^ Caste in Jaffna And India, Review Article on Neville Jayaweera's Jaffna Exorcising the Past and Holding the Vision Dr Devanesan Nesiah (Sunday Leader 10.10.2014)
14. ^ Phadnis, Urmila; Muni, Sukh Deo; Bahadur, Kalim (1986). Domestic Conflicts in South Asia: Economic and Ethnic Dimensions. South Asian Publishers. p. 128\. ISBN 9788170030713.
15. ^ Kshatriya, GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Hum. Biol. 67 (6): 843–66\. PMID 8543296.
16. ^ Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi, Alberto Piazza (1996). The History and Geography of Human Genes. Princeton University. pp. 239–40\. ISBN 978-0691029054.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. ^ Kshatriya, GK (December 1995). "Genetic affinities of Sri Lankan populations". Hum. Biol. 67 (6): 843–66\. PMID 8543296.
18. ^ Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations, L Ranaweera, et al.; Journal of Human Genetics (2014)
19. ^ Pre-Vijayan Agriculture in Sri Lanka, by Prof. T. W. Wikramanayake
20. ^ A SHORT HISTORY OF LANKA by Humphry William Codrington, CHAPTER I; THE BEGINNINGS 'The princess and her retinue/dowry (service castes)'
21. ^ Buddhism Betrayed?: Religion, Politics, and Violence in Sri Lanka By Stanley Jeyaraja Tambiah, p. 152-3
22. ^ "Traditional Sri Lanka". Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2011-11-09.
23. ^ Kadayimpoth \- Boundary Books
24. ^ Mahavansha
25. ^ Sinhala Sanna ha Thudapath, Ananada this Kumara, Godage Publication,Second Edition,2006,pp 142,pp 137
26. ^ Kandy Fights the Portuguese, C.Gaston Perera, Vijithayapa Publications, 2007
27. ^ An Historical Relation Of The Island Ceylon In The East Indies, Robert Knox, 1681, pp. 46 & 73
28. ^ Land: Feudalism to Modernity.
29. ^ An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies by Robert Knox. 2004-12-13.
30. ^ de Silva, Raaj. "The ancient 'Kaurava Pavilion' at Anuradhapura". De Fonseka Web. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03.
31. ^ "Paranavithana S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol I Early Brahmi Inscriptions". Archived from the original on 2016-03-04.
32. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 93-4.
33. ^ Perera 1978, p. 315-16.
34. ^ De Silva 2014, p. 201.
35. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 95.
36. ^ De Silva 2014, p. 121.
37. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 108.
38. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 111.
39. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 112.
40. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 114.
41. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 117.
42. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 132.
43. ^ Ryan 1953, p. 136.
44. ^ M. M. M. Mahroof (November–December 2000). "A Conspectus of Tamil Caste Systems in Sri Lanka: Away from a Parataxis". Social Scientist. 28 (11/12): 40–59\. doi:10.2307/3518280. JSTOR 3518280.
45. ^ Peebles, Patrick (2015-10-22). Historical Dictionary of Sri Lanka. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65\. ISBN 9781442255852.
46. ^ Bush, Kenneth (2003-12-09). The Intra-Group Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict in Sri Lanka: Learning to Read Between the Lines. Springer. p. 52\. ISBN 9780230597822.
47. ^ Das, Sonia N. (2016). Linguistic Rivalries: Tamil Migrants and Anglo-Franco Conflicts. Oxford University Press. p. 236\. ISBN 9780190461782.
48. ^ Abeyasinghe, Tikiri (1966). Portuguese Rule in Ceylon, 1594-1612. Lake House Investments. pp. 62–63\. ISBN 978-0-8426-0780-3.
49. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1982-09-02). Caste Ideology and Interaction. Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–60\. ISBN 9780521241458.
50. ^ (Jaffna), University Teachers for Human Rights (1991). The Debasement of the law and of humanity and the drift towards total war. UTHR (Jaffna), University of Jaffna, Thirunelvely. p. 31.
51. ^ Hussein, Asiff (2007). Sarandib: An Ethnological Study of the Muslims of Sri Lanka. Asiff Hussein. p. 222\. ISBN 978-955-97262-2-7.
52. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1974). Tamils and Moors: caste and matriclan structure in eastern Sri Lanka. University of Chicago. p. 160.
53. ^ David, Kenneth (1977-01-01). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia. Walter de Gruyter. p. 186\. ISBN 9783110807752.
54. ^ David, Kenneth (1977-01-01). The New Wind: Changing Identities in South Asia. Walter de Gruyter. p. 203\. ISBN 9783110807752.
55. ^ Pranāndu, Mihindukalasūrya Ār Pī Susantā (2005). Rituals, folk beliefs, and magical arts of Sri Lanka. Susan International. p. 459\. ISBN 9789559631835.
56. ^ Raghavan, M. D. (1961). The Karāva of Ceylon: Society and Culture. K.V.G. De Sīlva. pp. 87–88.
57. ^ Gilbert, William H. (1945). "The Sinhalese caste system of central and southern Ceylon". Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 35 (3): 69–87\. ISSN 0043-0439.
58. ^ Phillius, Baldaeus (1960). A True and Exact Description of the Great Island of Ceylon. Ceylon Branch of the royal Asiatic Society. p. 371.
59. ^ Pulavar, M.M. and Brito, C. (1999). The Yalpana-vaipava-malai, Or, The History of the Kingdom of Jaffna. Asian Educational Services. p. 57\. ISBN 9788120613621.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
60. ^ McGilvray, Dennis B. (1983). "Paraiyar Drummers of Sri Lanka: Consensus and Constraint in an Untouchable Caste". American Ethnologist. 10 (1): 97–115\. doi:10.1525/ae.1983.10.1.02a00060. JSTOR 644706.
61. ^ Chitty, Simon Casie (1834). The Ceylon Gazetteer: Containing an Accurate Account of the Districts, Provinces, Cities, Towns ... &c. of the Island of Ceylon. Cotta Church Mission Press. p. 55.
62. ^ Modern Ceylon Studies. Vol. 4\. University of Ceylon. 1975. p. 28.
63. ^ "Census of Population and Housing of Sri Lanka" (PDF). Department of Census and Statistics. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-03-04. Retrieved 2017-12-20.
64. ^ Samarasinghe, S. W. R. de A.; Studies, International Centre for Ethnic; utviklingshjelp, Norway Direktoratet for (1990). The Vanishing aborigines: Sri Lanka's Veddas in transition. International Centre for Ethnic Studies in association with NORAD and Vikas Pub. House. p. 70\. ISBN 9780706952988.
65. ^ Klem, Bart (2011). "Islam, Politics and Violence in Eastern Sri Lanka" (PDF). The Journal of Asian Studies. 70 (3): 730–753\. doi:10.1017/S002191181100088X. JSTOR 41302391. S2CID 27739665.
66. ^ a b Chattopadhyaya, Brajadulal (2009). A Social History of Early India. CSC and Pearson Education. pp. 30–37\. ISBN 9788131719589.
67. ^ Kolappan, B (2015). "Early Tamil society was free of caste". The Hindu.
68. ^ Fernando, Laksiri (2013). "Philip Baldaeus Didn't See A Big Ethnic Difference In Ceylon". Colombo Telegraph.
69. ^ Schröder, Ulrike (2012). Ritual, Caste, and Religion in Colonial South India. Primus. p. 72,93–113,278. ISBN 978-9380607214.
70. ^ Radhakrishnan, V. "Indian origin in Sri Lanka: Their plight and struggle for survival". Proceedings of First International Conference & Gathering of Elders. International Center for Cultural Studies, USA. Archived from the original on 2008-03-20. Retrieved 2008-01-23.

### Bibliography

[edit]

* De Silva, K. M. (2014). A history of Sri Lanka ([Revised.] ed.). Colombo: Vijitha Yapa Publications. ISBN 978-955-8095-92-8.
* Ryan, Bryce (1953). Caste in modern Ceylon. New Jersey: Rutgers University Press; New Jersey.
* Perera, H. T. D. (1978). "Causes of educated unemployment in developing countries: The case of Sri Lanka". Doctoral dissertation.
* Social Change in 19th century Ceylon. Patrick Peebles. 1995, Navrang ISBN 81-7013-141-3
* The adaptable peasant: agrarian society in western Sri Lanka under Dutch rule, 1740–1800, Nirmal Ranjith Dewasiri, ISBN 90-04-16508-8, p. 201
* Paranavithana S. 1970 Inscriptions of Ceylon Vol I Early Brahmi Inscriptions
* An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon in the East Indies by Robert Knox
* The International Dalit Solidarity Network: The Caste System in Sri Lanka

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[edit]

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* ← Kandyan period topics →

1592–1815

* Outline
* Bibliography
* Timeline
* Years
* Transitional period

* History

History|

| Kotte period

(1469-1592)

* Founding
* Wars of Kotte Succession
* Sitawaka occupation of Kandy (1582–1592)

|

Early Kandyan period

(1592-1707)

* Dissolution of the Sitawaka Kingdom
* Convention of Malvana
* Dutch–Portuguese War
* Mannar martyrs
* Portuguese conquest of the Jaffna kingdom
* 1615 Colombo earthquake
* Battle of Vannarapannai
* Roland Crappé's raids on Portuguese colonies
* Conquest of Koneswaram Temple
* Kandyan Treaty of 1638
* Siege of Galle (1640)
* 1664 Kandyan coup attempt
* Kandyan–Dutch war (1670–1675)
* An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon

Middle Kandyan period

(1707-1760)

* 1709 Kandyan rebellion

Late Kandyan period

(1760-1815)

* 1760 Kandyan coup attempt
* Kandyan–Dutch war (1764–1766)
* Treaty of Batticaloa
* American Revolutionary War
* Action of 12 August 1782
* Battle of Trincomalee
* Invasion of Ceylon
* Treaty of Amiens
* Kandyan Wars
* Great Rebellion of 1817–1818
* Kandyan Convention

* Kingdom of Kandy (1469–1815)

Government|

| The Royal family|

* Monarch
* House of Senasammata Vikramabahu
* House of Siri Sanga Bo
* House of Vimaladharmasuriya
* Nayaks of Kandy
* Consorts
* Randoli
* Rididoli
* Yakadadoli

|

Royal Palace and & court|

* Badde Lekams
* Diyawadana Nilame
* Basnayaka Nilame

Amātya Mandalaya|

* Maha Adigar
* Maha Mohottala
* Maha Dissava
* Dugganna Nilame
* Bandāra

Provincial|

* Disavani
* Dissava
* Rata
* Rate Mahatmaya
* Korale
* Korala
* Pattu

Judiciary|

* The Monarch
* Maha Naduwa
* Ratasabhas
* Gamsabhas

Politics|

| Domestic|

* Kandyan court politics
* Radala
* Relic of the tooth of the Buddha
* Flags

|

International|

* Foreign relations
* Cambodia
* Denmark
* France
* India
* Indonesia
* Myanmar
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Thailand
* United Kingdom

* Missions abraod
* 1693 Arakan (Burma)
* 1696 Arakan (Burma)
* 1706 Madura
* 1739 Madura
* 1741 Siam
* 1745–7 Siam
* 1750–3 Siam
* 1799–1800 Burma

* Missions to Sri Lanka
* 1602 Dutch
* 1697 Burmese
* 1710 Dutch
* 1731–32 Dutch
* 1736 Dutch
* 1745–46 Dutch
* 1756 Siam
* 1762 British
* 1782 British
* 1795–96 British
* 1800 British

Economy|

* Larin (Koku ridi)
* Fanam (Sinhala Silver Panama)
* Rājākariya
* Maral
* Cinnamon
* Elephants
* Salt

Society|

| Culture|

* Architecture
* Kandyan roof
* Madol Kurupawa
* Sandakada pahana
* Walauwa
* Kandyan law
* Castes
* Esala Perahera
* Esala Mangallaya
* Dance
* Literature
* in Pali, in Sinhalese
* Frescoes
* Ivories
* Jewelry

|

People|

* Ehelepola Nilame
* Gajaman Nona
* Gongalegoda Banda
* Joseph Vaz
* Keppetipola Disawe
* Kromma Muen Thepphiphit
* Kuruvita Rala
* Pedro de Gascogne
* Puran Appu
* Robert Knox
* Sieur de La Nérolle
* Sir John D'Oyly, 1st Baronet, of Kandy
* Wariyapola Sri Sumangala
* Weliwita Sri Saranankara Thero

Religion|

* Buddhism
* Relic of the tooth of the Buddha
* Asgiri Maha Viharaya
* Malwathu Maha Viharaya
* Sangharaja

Landmarks|

* Temple of the Tooth
* Natha Devale
* The Kandy House
* Udawattakele Forest Reserve
* Wales Park
* Royal Botanic Gardens, Peradeniya
* Kandy Lake
* Bogoda Wooden Bridge

* The Portuguese in Sri Lanka (1597–1658)

Administration|

* Captains
* Captain-majors
* Captain-generals

Economy|

* Maral
* Thombo
* Cinnamon
* Indian Ocean slave trade

Society|

| Culture|

* Architecture
* Portuguese buildings
* Music
* Baila music

|

Related peoples|

* Kaffirs
* Lascarins
* Mestiços
* Portuguese

Languages|

* Sri Lankan Portuguese creole
* Sinhala words of Portuguese origin

Religion|

* Catholicism

* The Dutch in Sri Lanka (1658–1796)

Administration|

* Dutch governors
* Maritime Provinces

Economy|

* Stuiver
* Ceylonese rixdollar
* Coffee
* Indian Ocean slave trade

Society|

| Culture|

* Architecture
* Dutch buildings
* Place names
* Dutch
* Music
* Kokis
* Lamprais

|

Related peoples|

* Burgher people
* Dutch
* Malays

* Joris van Spilbergen
* Sebald de Weert
* Philippus Baldaeus

Languages|

* Sri Lankan Creole Malay
* Sinhala words of Dutch origin

Religion|

* Protestantism
* Christian Reformed Church in Sri Lanka
* Lanka Reformed Church

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|

Related topics|

* Caste
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