Aymara people

Indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America

This article is about the Aymara ethnic group. For the language, see Aymara language.

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Ethnic group

Aymara

Aymara people in Jujuy Province, c. 1870.

Total population
2,324,675[1][2][3][4]
Regions with significant populations
Bolivia| 1,598,807[1]
Peru| 548,292[2]
Chile| 156,754[3]
Argentina| 20,822[4]
Languages
Aymara • Spanish
Religion
Majority:
Catholicism
Minority:

* Evangelicalism
* Traditional

Related ethnic groups
Quechuas, Urus

The Aymara or Aimara (Aymara: aymara listenⓘ), people are an indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America. About 2.3 million live in northwest Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, and Peru. Their ancestors lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca Empire in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later during the Spanish conquest of Peru in the 16th century. With the Spanish American wars of independence (1810–1825), the Aymaras became subjects of the new nations of Bolivia and Peru. After the War of the Pacific (1879–1883), Chile annexed territory with the Aymara population.[5]

## Etymology

[edit]

The name of the Aymara people stems from the word Ayma-ra-mi meaning "a place with many communally owned farms". The word "Aymara" also refers to a group of language dialects of which the origin, spread and time-frame are debated.[6]

## History

[edit]

### Early history

[edit]

The early history of the Aymara people is uncertain. Various hypotheses have been voiced.[7] Archeological data of the Titicaca basin in the Altiplano (high plain) comes from the site of the ancient city of Tiwanaku. A radiocarbon dating study suggests the ancient city was founded in about 110 CE.[8] Origin legends of the Aymara people in terms of time frame seem inconsistent to archeologists. Archeologist, Carlos Mamani Condori, suggests this is because the Aymara tradition may see the passage of time as a continuum rather than in terms of prehistory and history.[9] The Aymara may have been settlers from elsewhere rather than the builders of the ancient city.[7] Pedro Cieza de León (1518-1554), the Spanish chronicler of Peru, wrote that the Aymara people he met did not know who had built the ancient city.[10]

### Inca era

[edit]

Puerta del Sol, Tiwanaku, Bolivia

#### Kingdom of Cusco

[edit]

When Inca migrants first arrived at the traditional lands of the Aymara people, some Aymara people and other ethnic groups were living side by side in the village of Acamaca. Acamaca, located to the north of Lake Titicaca, would grow to be the site of the later Kingdom of Cusco, the capital of the Inca Empire and the current day city of Cusco. The Inca arrived not as an army but as migrants searching for agricultural land.[11]

The Aymara people of the Altiplano, the Titicaca basin, and the ancient city of Tiwanaku to the south of Lake Titicaca, also encountered the Inca civilisation prior to the rise of the Inca Empire.[12] One of the Inca origin stories tells of Manco Capac and Mama Occlo being brought up from the waters of Lake Titicaca by the Sun God to create an Inca dynasty.

The rulers of the Kingdom of Cusco were obligated to travel regularly to the Isla del Sol (Sun Island), a rocky island in the southern part of Lake Titicaca, for ritual worship of the Sun God. Charles Stanish writes,[12]

> Throughout their short reigns, Inca emperors were obligated to make a long pilgrimage to the Island of the Sun and the Island of the Moon to the ruined but ritually powerful city of Tiwanaku, sought to have some of their sons and daughters conceived and born in the lake area (and) offered precious objects to the cold waters.

In 1438, Aymara warriors were, be it as mercenaries, volunteers or conscripts, present in the army of the Inca ruler, Pachacuti in the defense of Cusco during the Inca-Chanka war.[13]

#### Inca empire

[edit]

The date of Inca conquest of the Altaplano is uncertain beyond that, it began later than 1438 CE and was well completed by 1500 CE.[14]

The often quoted Spanish conquistador and chronicler, Pedro Cieza de León travelled through the Altaplano in 1548.[15] He gives the ruler, Viracocha Inca (c. 1410 - 1438 CE) as the first to expand Inca territory south from the Kingdom of Cusco but that he was unsuccessful in securing the area.[15] Again, de León records Viracocha's successor, Pachacuti (c. 1418 - 1471 CE) as the leader who succeeded in bringing the area under Inca control, effected by his son, Yupanqui (c. 1471 - 1493 CE).[15] This chronology has been used widely by historians and archeologists in this field following the seminal work of John Howland Rowe.[16]

However, more recent historians warn that the chronology of the spread of the Inca empire from Cusco, south to the Altaplano, may be more complex. For example, the names of Incan leaders are variable and may have been used across generations; there were revolts amongst the elite of the Inca Kingdom of Cusco itself; and the history given by the Inca to the Spanish chroniclers was given as part mythology.[17] Furthermore, the dating of the conquest of the Incas by the finding of certain ceramics in archeological strata is, in this area, unreliable.[14]

#### Inca subjugation of the Aymara

[edit]

Rather than one ethnically homogenous group, the Aymara consisted of sometimes waring clans of differing dialects, traditions and geographic distribution. Among them were the Huamallas, Hatuncollas, Chuquitos and Azángaros, and, the Lupaqa and Colla. Their loyalty remained to their village and their local chiefs.[11]: 87 [18]

Unlike the many groups of indigenous peoples who lost every vestige of their civilization under Inca rule, the Aymara civilisation survived, at least partially. The Aymara insurrections were violent but also organised and persistent (one of twelve years duration). In the end, though, the Aymara were unsuccessful in throwing off the Inca. The outcome was harsh retribution in the form of executions or exile.[19][11]: 87

In addition to this direct punishment, the Aymara were increasingly subjugated by the building of civil, military, agricultural and religious infrastructure through their lands, removal of their sons to Cusco for education, taxation in the form of relinquishing sacred objects to the Inca. The Aymara were also required to give labour and military service to the Inca.[18]: 37

Moreover, groups of Aymara were removed from their village to work in other parts of the Empire, the number of Aymara living in Cusco itself was limited and colonists from elsewhere in the Empire were settled in the region.[20][18]

### Spanish colonial era

[edit]

#### Conquistadors

[edit]

Christopher Colombus (1451 - 1506 CE) set sail from Castile, Spain, in August 1492 CE to find a western sea passage to the spice rich East Indies. In 1513, Vasco Núñez de Balboa (1475 - 1519 CE) crossed the Isthmus of Panama into the Pacific ocean. Twenty-nine years later, on 16 November 1532, explorer and conquistador, Francisco Pizarro (1478 - 1541 CE), travelled south from La Isla Gorgona lured by stories of silver, gold and precious gems. On reaching Cajamarca, a town about 2000 km north of Cusco, Pizarro met and captured Atahualpa. Atahualpa, known for his tyrannical rule, was executed in July 1533.[21]

Pizarra reached Cusco by 1534. Some native groups saw the Spaniards as liberators and lent support to Pizarro. Pizarra also secured a lineage of Inca puppet rulers, including Manco Inca Yupanqui. Manco Inca Yupanqui, was ill treated by Pizarra's men. He escaped then returned with tens of thousands warriors, forcing Cusco into siege. After ten months, and the arrival of Spanish reinforcements, Manco Inca Yupanqui withdrew.[22]

Having secured Cusco, Pizarra continued south with the resources, wealth and infrastructure of the Inca and native labour. He benefited from the lack of cohesion between the Altiplano ethnic groups. He had unstoppable soldiers and weapons. In 1542, Spain created the Viceroyalty of Peru.

#### Ecomienderos

[edit]

In the new viceroyalty, explorers, conquistadors, governors and generals were given encomiendas. These grants from Spain gave the ecomienderos the right to demand taxes and labour from the indigenous people in return for military protection and religious instruction. They were a sign of an elite status in society.

Indigenous males between the ages of 18 and 50 were taxed in money and labour. Tax was collected by the village chiefs. One sixth of taxable males were already assigned to ecomienderos who collected the taxes. Twenty percent of the monies went to the crown. [23]

In practice, the responsibilities of the ecomiendas were applied partially or not at all.

In 1870, David Forbes (1828 - 1876), Mineralogist and voyager, wrote to the Ethnological Society of London, of his observations in Bolivia and Peru,

> Whatever may have been the condition of the Aymaras under the Incas, it became infinitely worse after the Spanish conquest; it is all but impossible to convey in words a true picture of the barbarous treatment which they, as well as the neighbouring Indian tribes, experienced at the hands of the Spaniards. Treated infinitely worse than slaves, they were torn from their homes and families to be driven like cattle either to the Coca plantations and Gold washings in the Yungas, or hot unhealthy valleys to the east of the high Andes (where they rapidly fell victims to a climate altogether unsuited to their constitution), or to the Silver mines of Potosí, Chayanta, Oruro, &c. (where from forced labour, ill-treatment, and insufficient food, they succumbed equally fast, only to be replaced by fresh supplies similarly obtained).[19]

#### New Laws

[edit]

In 1542, the Dominican friar, Bartolomé de las Casas (1474 - 1566) published his testimony of the abuse of the Aymara by the Spanish in his book, A Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indians.[24] On 20 November 1542, in response to criticism, King Charles I of Spain issued the New Laws (Ordenanzas de Barcelona or Leyes Nuevas).[24]

Indigenous people could no longer be slaves. They could not be sent to the mines without cause. Clergy and Civil servants had to give up their ecomiendas to the crown. New grants could not be given and importantly, an ecomienda could not be an inheritable property. [25] [26]

Among the approximate five hundred ecomiendas in the viceroyalty of Peru, there were cases of corruption and circumvention of the new laws. There were skirmishes between Royalist soldiers and groups of ecomienderos, culminating in the death of many ecomienderos in an insurrection led by Gonzalo Pizarro in 1848. [27]

The new laws started to stream line the encomienda system but Aymara numbers continued to fall. Furthermore, the indigenous labour force was redistributed causing forced and permanent displacement to cities, factories or mines.[23]

In the subsequent colonial era, the Aymara were organized into eleven tribes, which were the Canchi, Caranga, Charca, Colla, Collagua, Collahuaya, Omasuyo, Lupaca, Quillaca, Urbina, and Picasa. Aymara used many of the agricultural and technological techniques from the Spanish, such as the use of plows, draft animals, wheat, barley, sheep, cattle, and plank boats for fishing. However, the Aymara still engaged in traditional occupations like raising Alpacas, growing native crops, and net fishing.[28]

In response to colonial exploitation by the Spanish in fields of agriculture, mining, coca harvesting, domestic work, the Aymara (along with others) staged a rebellion in 1629. This was followed by a more significant uprising by Aymaras in 1780, in which the Aymara almost captured the city of La Paz, and many Spaniards were killed. This rebellion would be stopped by the Spanish two years later. However, uprisings would continue occurring against Spanish rule intermittently until Peruvian independence in 1821.[28]

Aymara poncho, 17th or 18th century

The War of the Pacific, starting in 1879, led Chile to occupy Peruvian territory with Aymara populations already by 1880.[5][29] Tarapacá Department was formally annexed in 1883 and Arica in 1929.[29] When compared with the Mapuche people of Araucanía who were also incorporated into Chile in the late 19th century the Aymara obtained relatively unfavorable views as "foreign elements" by Chilean elites contrasting with Mapuches who were seen as "primordial" Chileans.[5] Another difference between the groups is that the Aymara lands were not subject to colonization to the extent that Mapuche lands were.[29] The Aymaras in Chile inscribed their land ownership, mostly pastures, in Chilean registers in the early 20th century.[29] Today, most Chilean Aymaras live in the cities of the coast rather than their ancestral inland territories.[29]

The major reforms caused by the Bolivian Revolution of 1952 resulted in the Aymara being more integrated into mainstream Bolivian society. This also caused many Aymara to become severed or not affiliated with their native communities any longer. Most Bolivian Aymara today engage in farming, construction, mining, and working in factories. Though, a growing number are now in professional work. The Aymara language (along with Quechua) is now an official language in Bolivia, and there has been a rise of programs to assist the Aymara and their native lands.[28]

Linguists have learned that Aymara was once spoken much further north, at least as far north as the central parts of Peru. Most Andean linguists believe that it is likely that the Aymara originated or coalesced as a people in this area (see 'Geography' below).

The Aymaras overran and displaced the Uru, an older population from the Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopó regions. The Uru lived in this area as recently as the 1930s.[30]

## Geography

[edit]

Distribution of Aymaras through Bolivia's municipios

Most present-day Aymara speakers live in the Lake Titicaca basin, a territory from Lake Titicaca through the Desaguadero River and into Lake Poopó (Oruro, Bolivia) also known as the Altiplano. They are south of the lake. The capital of the ancient Aymara civilization is unknown. According to research by Cornell University anthropologist John Murra, there were at least seven different kingdoms. The capital of the Lupaqa Kingdom may be the city of Chucuito, located on the shore of Lake Titicaca.

The present urban center of the Aymara region may be El Alto, a 750,000-person city near the Bolivian capital, La Paz. For most of the 20th century, the center of cosmopolitan Aymara culture might have been Chuquiago Marka (La Paz). Bolivia's capital might have moved from Sucre to La Paz during the government of General José Manuel Pando (who died in 1917) and during the Bolivian Civil War.

Distribution of pre-Hispanic peoples in Chile. North is to the right of the map.

## Culture

[edit]

The Wiphala, flag of the Aymara

The Aymara flag is known as the Wiphala; it consists of seven colors patched together with diagonal stripes.

The native language of the Aymaras is Aymara. Many of the Aymaras speak Spanish as a second or first language when it is the predominant language in the areas where they live. The Aymara language has one surviving relative, spoken by a small, isolated group of about 1,000 people far to the north in the mountains inland from Lima in Central Peru (in and around the village of Tupe, Yauyos province, Lima department). This language, whose two varieties are known as Jaqaru and Kawki,[31] is of the same family as Aymara. Some linguists refer to this language as 'Central Aymara'. 'Southern Aymara' is the language spoken most widely and is spoken by people of the Titicaca region.

Most contemporary Aymaran urban culture developed in the working-class Aymara neighborhoods of La Paz, such as Chijini and neighboring El Alto. Both Quechua and Aymara women in Peru and Bolivia took up the style of wearing bowler hats in the 1920s. According to legend, a shipment of bowler hats was sent from Europe to Bolivia via Peru for use by Europeans working on railroad construction. They were given to the indigenous people if they were too small for the construction workers.[32] The luxurious, elegant, and cosmopolitan Aymara Chola dress, which is an icon of Bolivia (bowler hat, aguayo, heavy pollera, skirts, boots, jewelry, etc.) began and evolved in La Paz. It is an urban tradition of dress. This style of dress has become part of ethnic identification by Aymara women. Many Aymara live and work as campesinos in the surrounding Altiplano. Another recent innovation drawing on the Cholas' colorful aesthetics is buildings designed in a "Neo-Andean" style concentrated in El Alto.[33]

Traditional Aymara ceremony in Copacabana, on the border of Lake Titicaca in Bolivia

The Aymaras have grown and chewed coca plants for centuries, using their leaves in traditional medicine as well as in ritual offerings to the father god Inti (Sun) and the mother goddess Pachamama (Earth). During the last century, there has been conflict with state authorities over this plant during drug wars. Officials have carried out coca eradication to prevent the extraction and isolation of the drug cocaine. However, ritual use of coca has a central role in the indigenous religions of both the Aymaras and the Quechuas. Coca is used in the ritual curing ceremonies of the yatiri. Since the late 20th century, its ritual use has become a symbol of cultural identity.

Chairo is a traditional stew of the Aymaras. It is made of chuño (potato starch), onions, carrots, potatoes, white corn, beef, and wheat kernels. It also contains herbs such as coriander and spices. It is native to the region of La Paz.

## Religion and mythology

[edit]

Most modern Aymara practice a syncretic form of Catholicism infused with native practices and beliefs. Soon after the Spanish conquest, Jesuits and Dominican priests began to convert and proselytize among the Aymara. However, the Aymara continued to practice their native faith and only nominally accepted Christianity. Modern Aymara spirituality includes many syncretic beliefs like folk healing, divination, magic, and more. However, when it comes to the beliefs about the afterlife, the Aymara subscribe to a more standard view as found in traditional Christianity.[28]

In Aymara mythology, llamas are important beings. The Heavenly Llama is said to drink water from the ocean and urinate it as rain.[34] According to Aymara eschatology, llamas will return to the water springs and lagoons where they come from at the end of time.[34]

## Politics

[edit]

Literacy class in El Alto

The Aymaras and other indigenous groups have formed numerous movements for greater independence or political power. These include the Tupac Katari Guerrilla Army, led by Felipe Quispe, and the Movement Towards Socialism, a political party organized by the Cocalero Movement and Evo Morales. These and other Aymara organizations have led political activism in Bolivia, including the 2003 Bolivian Gas War and the 2005 Bolivia protests.

Quispe has said that one of his group's goals is to establish an independent indigenous state. They have proposed the name Qullasuyu, after the eastern (and largely Aymara) region of the Inca empire, which covered the southeastern corner of present-day Peru and western Bolivia.

Evo Morales is an Aymara coca grower from the Chaparé region. His Movement Toward Socialism party has forged alliances with both rural indigenous groups and urban working classes to form a broad leftist coalition in Bolivia. Morales has run for president in several elections since the late 20th century, gaining increasing support. In 2005 he won a surprise victory, winning the largest majority vote since Bolivia returned to democracy. He is the first indigenous president of Bolivia. He is credited with the ousting of Bolivia's previous two presidents.

Aymaras themselves make significant distinctions between Bolivian and Chilean Aymaras to establish by nationality who has a say on local issues (and who is excluded from the decision-making process).[5]

## Notable people

[edit]

* Gregoria Apaza, Revolutionary
* Elysia Crampton, American musician
* Jaime Escalante, teacher
* Pato Hoffmann, actor
* Túpac Katari, revolutionary
* Remedios Loza, television presenter and politician
* Freddy Mamani, Bolivian architect
* Evo Morales, 65th President of Bolivia
* Roberto Mamani Mamani, Bolivian contemporary artist
* Rosmery Mollo, reproductive health nurse
* Rosa Palomino, human rights activist
* Bartolina Sisa, revolutionary
* Wendy Sulca, Peruvian singer
* Ramiro Vaca, Bolivian soccer player
* César, Bolivian soccer player
* Diego Cayupil, Chilean soccer player
* Luis Jiménez Cáceres, Chilean politician, conventional constituent of the Chilean Constitutional Convention
* Isabella Mamani, Chilean politician, conventional constituent of the Chilean Constitutional Convention
* Javier García Choque, Chilean politician
* Jaume Cuéllar, Spanish-Bolivian soccer player
* Joselito Vaca, Bolivian soccer player
* Roberto Fernandez, Bolivian soccer player
* Diego Wayar, Bolivian soccer player

## See also

[edit]

* Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal

* Katarismo
* Kimsa Chata
* Socialist Aymara Group
* Wiphala

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b "Censo de Población y Vivienda 2012 Bolivia Características de la Población". Instituto Nacional de Estadística, República de Bolivia. p. 29\. Archived from the original on 2021-08-01. Retrieved 2020-03-28.
2. ^ a b "Perú: Perfil Sociodemográfico" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. p. 214.
3. ^ a b "Síntesis de Resultados Censo 2017" (PDF). Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, Santiago de Chile. p. 16.
4. ^ a b "Censo Nacional de Población, Hogares y Viviendas 2010: Resultados definitivos: Serie B No. 2: Tomo 1" (PDF) (in Spanish). INDEC. p. 281\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 5 December 2015.
5. ^ a b c d Vergara, Jorge Iván; Gundermann, Hans (2012). "Constitution and internal dynamics of the regional identitary in Tarapacá and Los Lagos, Chile". Chungara (in Spanish). 44 (1). University of Tarapacá: 115–134. doi:10.4067/s0717-73562012000100009.
6. ^ Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo (2015). Urton, Gary; von Hagen, Adriana (eds.). Encyclopedia of the Incas - Aymara. Translated by Fraser, Barbara. Rowman and Littlefield. p. 49\. ISBN 9780759123632.
7. ^ a b Browman, David L. (October 1994). "Titicaca Basin Archaeolinguistics: Uru, Pukina and Aymara AD 750-1450". World Archeology. 26 (2): 235–251. doi:10.1080/00438243.1994.9980274. JSTOR 124854. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
8. ^ Marsh, Erik (2012). "A Bayesian Re-Assessment of the Earliest Radiocarbon Dates from Tiwanaku, Bolivia". Radiocarbon. 54 (2): 203. Bibcode:2012Radcb..54..203M. doi:10.2458/azu_js_rc.v54i2.15826. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
9. ^ Aguilar, Joseph; Preucel, Robert (2013). "Chapter 13". In Schmidt, Peter Ridgway; Mrozowski, Stephen A. (eds.). The Death of Prehistory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 285\. ISBN 9780199684595. Retrieved 4 August 2024.
10. ^ Tschopik Jr, Harry (1946). Steward, Julian (ed.). Handbook of South American Indians: The Andean civilizations. U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 501\. ISBN 9781404741430.
11. ^ a b c Rostworowski de diez Canseco, Maria (1999). History of the Inca Realm. Cambridge University Press. p. 12\. ISBN 9780521637596. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
12. ^ a b Stanish, Charles (31 December 2011). Goldstein, Peg (ed.). Lake Titicaca: Legend, myth and science. University of California Los Angeles: Cotsen Institute of Archeology Press. p. 12\. ISBN 9781938770272.
13. ^ Brundage, Burr Cartwright (1963). Empire of the Inca (volume 69.). University of Oklahoma Press. p. 88\. ISBN 9780806119243.
14. ^ a b Pärssinen, Martti; Siiriäinen, Ari (1997). "Inka-style ceramics and their chronological relationship to the Inka expansion in the southern Lake Titicaca area (Bolivia)". Latin American Antiquity. 8 (3): 255. doi:10.2307/971655. JSTOR 971655.
15. ^ a b c Bauer, Brian S.; Standish, Charles (28 October 2010). Ritual and pilgrimage in the ancient Andes - the islands of the sun and the moon (book). University of Texas Press. ISBN 9780292792036.
16. ^ Rowe, John H. (January 1945). "Absolute chronology in the Andean area". American Antiquity. 10 (3). Cambridge University Press: 265–284.
17. ^ de Acosta, José (2002). "Of Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui and what happened up to the time of Huayna Capac". In Mangan, Jane E. (ed.). Natural and moral history of the Indies. Vol. 6\. Translated by López-Morillas, Frances. Duke University Press. p. 363.
18. ^ a b c Swartley, Lynn (2018). Inventing Indigenous Knowledge Archaeology, Rural Development and the Raised Field Rehabilitation Project in Bolivia. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 9781317794202.
19. ^ a b Forbes, David (1870). On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru. London: Taylor and Francis. p. 5.
20. ^ Klein, Herbert S. (2003). A concise history of Bolivia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521807824.
21. ^ Spate, Oscar H. K. (2004). The Spanish Lake. Canberra, ACT: Australian National University e-press. ISBN 1920942165.
22. ^ Abercrombie, Thomas A. (1998). pathways of memory and power - ethnography and history among an Andean people. The University of Wisconsin press. p. 139\. ISBN 0299153142.
23. ^ a b Dawson, Thomas Cleland (1904). The South American Republics: Peru, Chile, Bolivia, Ecuador, Venezuela, Colombia, Panama. G.P. Putnam's Sons.
24. ^ a b Thomas, Nancy J. (2019-12-05). A Long Walk, a Gradual Ascent: The Story of the Bolivian Friends Church in Its Context of Conflict. Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN 978-1-5326-7975-9.
25. ^ Andrien, Kenneth J. (2001). Andean Worlds: Indigenous History, Culture, and Consciousness Under Spanish Rule, 1532-1825. UNM Press. ISBN 978-0-8263-2358-3.
26. ^ Burkholder, Mark A. (2012-11-13). Spaniards in the Colonial Empire: Creoles vs. Peninsulars?. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-1-118-29207-5.
27. ^ Lockhart, James (1994-01-01). Spanish Peru, 1532–1560: A Social History. Univ of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 978-0-299-14163-9.
28. ^ a b c d Skutsch, Carl, ed. (2005). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. New York: Routledge. p. 160\. ISBN 1-57958-468-3.
29. ^ a b c d e González Cortez, Héctor; Gundermann Kröll, Hans (2022). "La propiedad de la tierra entre los Aymara del altiplano chileno, 1880-2020" [Land property between the Aymara of the Chilean altiplano, 1880-2020]. Norte Grande Geography Journal (in Spanish). 83 (83): 67–86. doi:10.4067/S0718-34022022000300067.
30. ^ Aaron I. Naar, Los Hombres del Lago". Note: This documentary film tells about the smallest community of Uru-Muratos, Puñaca Tintamaria. Narrated by ex-leader Daniel Mauricio Choque, the movie recounts the history of their community, customs, and current problems: their persistent poverty, lack of land and representation, the contamination of Lake Poopó, and the effects of global warming. See a 12-minute piece from the film on YouTube.
31. ^ Martha Hardman has long argued that Jaqaru and Kawki are two separate languages but most other linguists consider them to be two closely related dialects.
32. ^ Pateman, Robert (2006). Bolivia (Cultures of the World, Second). Marshall Cavendish. p. 70\. ISBN 9780761420668.
33. ^ Banerjee, Sreya (October 17, 2015). "In pictures: Bolivia's colourful Andean mansions". BBC News. Retrieved September 3, 2023.
34. ^ a b Montecino Aguirre, Sonia (2015). "Llamas". Mitos de Chile: Enciclopedia de seres, apariciones y encantos (in Spanish). Catalonia. p. 415\. ISBN 978-956-324-375-8.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Adelson, Laurie, and Arthur Tracht. Aymara Weavings: Ceremonial Textiles of Colonial and 19th Century Bolivia. [Washington, D.C.]: Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, 1983. ISBN 0-86528-022-3
* Buechler, Hans C. The Masked Media: Aymara Fiestas and Social Interaction in the Bolivian Highlands. Approaches to Semiotics, 59. The Hague: Mouton, 1980. ISBN 90-279-7777-1
* Buechler, Hans C., and Judith-Maria Buechler. The Bolivian Aymara. Case studies in cultural anthropology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1971. ISBN 0-03-081380-8
* Carter, William E. Aymara Communities and the Bolivian Agrarian Reform. Gainesville: University of Florida Press, 1964.
* Eagen, James. The Aymara of South America, First peoples. Minneapolis: Lerner Publications Co, 2002. ISBN 0-8225-4174-2
* Forbes, David. "On the Aymara Indians of Bolivia and Peru," The Journal of the Ethnological Society of London. Vol 2 (1870): 193–305.
* Kolata, Alan L. Archived 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine Valley of the Spirits: A Journey into the Lost Realm of the Aymara Archived 2019-09-13 at the Wayback Machine. New York: Wiley, 1996. ISBN 0-471-57507-0
* Hardman, Martha James. The Aymara Language in Its Social and Cultural Context: A Collection Essays on Aspects of Aymara Language and Culture. Gainesville: University Presses of Florida, 1981. ISBN 0-8130-0695-3
* Lewellen, Ted C. Peasants in Transition: The Changing Economy of the Peruvian Aymara : a General Systems Approach. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press, 1978. ISBN 0-89158-076-X
* Murra, John. "An Aymara Kingdom in 1567," Ethnohistory 15, no. 2 (1968) 115–151.
* Orta, Andrew. Catechizing Culture: Missionaries, Aymara, and the "New Evangelism". New York: Columbia University Press, 2004. ISBN 0-231-13068-6
* Rivera Cusicanqui, Silvia. Oppressed but Not Defeated: Peasant Struggles Among the Aymara and Qhechwa in Bolivia, 1900-1980. Geneva: United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 1987.
* Tschopik, Harry. The Aymara of Chucuito, Peru. 1951.

## External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Aymara people.

* Aymara site in English
* Society: an essay
* Aymara worldview reflected in the concept of time
* NGO Chakana
* Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Aymara" . Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
* Aaron I. Naar, Los Hombres del Lago, a documentary film. It tells about Puñaca Tintamaria, the smallest community of Uru-Muratos. Narrated by the community's ex-leader, Daniel Moricio Choque, the movie recounts the history of the community, customs, and current problems: their poverty, lack of land and representation, the contamination of Lake Poopó, and the impact of global warming.

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