Bangladesh

Country in South Asia

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Bangladesh (disambiguation).

People's Republic of Bangladesh

গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ (Bengali)
Gôṇôprôjātôntrī Bāṅlādēś

Flag

Emblem

Anthem:
আমার সোনার বাংলা (Bengali)
Amar Sonar Bangla
("My Golden Bengal")

Government Seal

Capital

and largest city

| Dhaka
23°45′50″N 90°23′20″E﻿ / ﻿23.76389°N 90.38889°E﻿ / 23.76389; 90.38889
Official language
and national language| Bengali[1][2]
Recognised foreign language| English[3]
Ethnic groups

(2022 census)[4]

| 99% Bengali

1% others

* Bishnupriyas
* Chakmas
* Garos
* Khasis
* Khumis
* Manipuris
* Marmas
* Mizos
* Mrus
* Santals
* Tanchangyas
* Tripuris

Religion

(2022 census)[5][6][7]

* 91.04% Islam (official)
* 7.95% Hinduism
* 0.61% Buddhism
* 0.30% Christianity
* 0.12% other

Demonym(s)| Bangladeshi
Government| Unitary parliamentary republic under an interim government

• President

| Mohammed Shahabuddin

• Chief Adviser

| Muhammad Yunus

• Chief Justice

| Syed Refaat Ahmed
Legislature| Jatiya Sangsad
Formation

• Bengal Sultanate

| 1352

• Bengal Subah

| 1576

• British Bengal

| 1757

• East Bengal

| 1947

• East Pakistan

| 1955

• Declaration and liberation war

| 26 March 1971

• Provisional government

| 10 April 1971

• Victory

| 16 December 1971

• Current constitution

| 16 December 1972
Area

• Total

| 148,460[8] km2 (57,320 sq mi) (92nd)

• Water (%)

| 6.4

• Land area

| 130,170 km2[8]

• Water area

| 18,290 km2[8]
Population

• 2022 census

| 169,828,911[9][10] (8th)

• Density

| 1,165/km2 (3,017.3/sq mi) (13th)
GDP (PPP)| 2024 estimate

• Total

|  $1.620 trillion[11] (25th)

• Per capita

|  $9,410[12] (126th)
GDP (nominal)| 2024 estimate

• Total

|  $455.166 billion[13] (34th)

• Per capita

|  $2,650[14] (137th)
Gini (2022)|  49.9[15]
high inequality
HDI (2022)|  0.670[16]
medium (129th)
Currency| Taka (৳) (BDT)
Time zone| UTC+6 (BST)
Drives on| left
Calling code| +880
ISO 3166 code| BD
Internet TLD| .bd
.বাংলা

This article contains Bengali text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols.

Bangladesh,[a] officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh,[b] is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and among the most densely populated with a population of 170 million in an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi). Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the north, west, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast. To the south, it has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal. It is separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor, and from China by the mountainous Indian state of Sikkim. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's political, financial, and cultural centre. Chittagong is the second-largest city and the busiest port. The official language is Bengali, with Bangladeshi English also used in government.

Bangladesh is part of the historic and ethnolinguistic region of Bengal, which was divided during the Partition of British India in 1947 as the eastern enclave of the Dominion of Pakistan, from which it gained independence in 1971 after a bloody war.[17] The country has a Bengali Muslim majority. Ancient Bengal was known as Gangaridai and was a stronghold of pre-Islamic kingdoms. The Muslim conquest after 1204 led to the sultanate and Mughal periods, during which an independent Bengal Sultanate and wealthy Mughal Bengal transformed the region into an important centre of regional affairs, trade, and diplomacy. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 marked the beginning of British rule. The creation of Eastern Bengal and Assam in 1905 set a precedent for the emergence of Bangladesh. The All-India Muslim League was founded in Dhaka in 1906.[18] The Lahore Resolution in 1940 was supported by A. K. Fazlul Huq, the first Prime Minister of Bengal. The present-day territorial boundary was established with the announcement of the Radcliffe Line.

In 1947, East Bengal became the most populous province in the Dominion of Pakistan and was renamed East Pakistan, with Dhaka as the legislative capital. The Bengali Language Movement in 1952, the 1958 Pakistani coup d'état, and the 1970 Pakistani general election spurred Bengali nationalism and pro-democracy movements. The refusal of the Pakistani military junta to transfer power to the Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, triggered the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. The Mukti Bahini, aided by India, waged a successful armed revolution; the conflict saw the Bangladeshi genocide. The new state of Bangladesh became a constitutionally secular state in 1972, although Islam was declared the state religion in 1988.[19] In 2010, the Bangladesh Supreme Court reaffirmed secular principles in the constitution.[20] The Constitution of Bangladesh officially declares it a socialist state.[21]

A middle power in the Indo-Pacific,[22] Bangladesh is home to the fifth-most spoken native language, the third-largest Muslim-majority population, and the second-largest economy in South Asia. It maintains the third-largest military in the region and is the largest contributor to UN peacekeeping operations.[23] Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic based on the Westminster system. Bengalis make up almost 99% of the population.[24] The country consists of eight divisions, 64 districts, and 495 subdistricts, and includes the world's largest mangrove forest. Bangladesh hosts one of the largest refugee populations due to the Rohingya genocide.[25] Bangladesh faces challenges like corruption, political instability, overpopulation, and effects of climate change. Bangladesh has twice chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum and hosts the Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC) headquarters. It is a founding member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and a member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Commonwealth of Nations.

## Etymology

[edit]

Main article: Names of Bengal

The etymology of Bangladesh ("Bengali country") can be traced to the early 20th century, when Bengali patriotic songs, such as Aaji Bangladesher Hridoy by Rabindranath Tagore and Namo Namo Namo Bangladesh Momo by Kazi Nazrul Islam, used the term in 1905 and 1932 respectively.[26] Starting in the 1950s, Bengali nationalists used the term in political rallies in East Pakistan. The term Bangla is a major name for both the Bengal region and the Bengali language. The origins of the term Bangla are unclear, with theories pointing to a Bronze Age proto-Dravidian tribe,[27] and the Iron Age Vanga Kingdom.[28] The earliest known usage of the term is the Nesari plate in 805 AD. The term Vangala Desa is found in 11th-century South Indian records.[29][30] The term gained official status during the Sultanate of Bengal in the 14th century.[31][32] Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah proclaimed himself as the first "Shah of Bangala" in 1342.[31] The word Bangāl became the most common name for the region during the Islamic period.[33] 16th-century historian Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak mentions in his Ain-i-Akbari that the addition of the suffix "al" came from the fact that the ancient rajahs of the land raised mounds of earth in lowlands at the foot of the hills which were called "al".[34] This is also mentioned in Ghulam Husain Salim's Riyaz-us-Salatin.[35] The Indo-Aryan suffix Desh is derived from the Sanskrit word deśha, which means "land" or "country". Hence, the name Bangladesh means "Land of Bengal" or "Country of Bengal".[30]

## History

[edit]

Main article: History of Bangladesh

Part of a series on the

History of Bangladesh

* Etymology
* Timeline
* Traditional
* Urheimat

Ancient

* Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 3300 BCE
* Bronze Age, c. 3300 – c. 1200 BCE
* Iron Age, c. 1200 – c. 200 BCE
* Janapada, c. 1200 – c. 600 BCE
* Northern Black Polished Ware, c. 700 – c. 200 BCE
* Pundra kingdom, c. 700 – c. 200 BCE
* Bengal in Mahabharata, c. 400 – c. 325 BCE
* Gangaridai kingdom, c. 350 – c. 325 BCE
* Mauryan Empire, c. 325 – c. 185 BCE
* Samatata kingdom, c. 232 BCE – c. 800 AD
* Shunga–Kushan Period, c. 185 BCE – c. 75 AD
* Southwestern Silk Road, c. 114 BCE – c. 1450 AD
* Indo-Roman trade relations, c. 30 BCE – c. 600 AD

Classical

* Gupta Empire, c. 240 – c. 550 AD
* Harikela kingdom, c. 600 - c. 650
* Gauda Kingdom, c. 590 – c. 626
* Gour (Sylhet), c. 600 – c. 1303
* Khadga dynasty, c. 650 – c. 750
* Pala Empire, c. 750 – c. 1100
* Arrival of Islam, c. 800 – c. 1050
* Candra dynasty, c. 900 – c. 1050
* Sena dynasty, c. 1070 – c. 1320
* Deva dynasty, c. 1100 – c. 1250

Mediaeval

* Bhulua (Noakhali), c. 1203 – c. 1600s
* Delhi Sultanate, c. 1204 – c. 1338
* Mamluk Dynasty
* Khalji Dynasty
* Tugluq Dynasty
* Sonargaon Sultanate, c. 1338 – c. 1352
* Bengal Sultanate, c. 1352 – c. 1576
* Ilyas Shahi dynasty
* Hussain Shahi dynasty
* Karrani dynasty
* Suri Dynasty, c. 1540 – c. 1556
* Twelve Bhuyans, c. 1550 – c. 1620
* Porto Grande de Bengala, c. 1528 – c. 1666
* Chittagong-Arakan Kingdom, c. 1530 – c. 1666
* Mughal Empire, c. 1576 – c. 1717
* Bengal Subah

Modern

* Nawabs of Bengal, c. 1717 – c. 1757
* Company Raj, c. 1757 – c. 1858
* Bengal famine of 1770
* Faraizi Movement, c. 1818 – c. 1884
* The Great Rebellion, c. 1857 – c. 1858
* British Raj, c. 1858 – c. 1947
* Bengal Renaissance
* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Eastern Bengal and Assam
* Bengal famine of 1943
* Prime Minister of Bengal
* Noakhali riots
* East Bengal, c. 1947 – c. 1955
* Partition of Bengal (1947)
* East Bengali refugees
* Bengali Language Movement
* East Pakistan, c. 1955 – c. 1971
* 1964 East Pakistan riots
* Indo-Pakistani War of 1965
* Six Point Movement
* 1969 uprising in East Pakistan
* Pakistani general election, 1970
* Non-cooperation movement, 1971
* Bangladesh Liberation War, c. 1971
*     * Declaration of Independence
* Provisional Government of Bangladesh
* 1971 Bangladesh Genocide (Rape)
* Bangladesh Forces
* Surrender of Pakistan

Contemporary

* Post-independence years, 1972 – 1975
* Bangladesh famine of 1974
* Bangladesh Krishak Sramik Awami League
* Assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman
* Jail Killing Day
* Military rule, 1975 – 1990
* Military coups in Bangladesh
* Chittagong Hill Tracts conflict
* 1990 Mass Uprising
* Transition to democracy, 1991 – 2008
* Caretaker government of Bangladesh
* Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord
* 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis
* Parliamentary era, 2009–2024
* Vision 2021 and Digital Bangladesh
* Bangladesh Rifles revolt
* 2013 Shapla Square protests
* 2013 Bangladesh quota reform movement
* International Crimes Tribunal
* 2015 Bangladeshi political crisis
* 2018 Bangladesh road-safety protests
* 2018 Bangladesh quota reform movement
* 2021 Bangladesh Communal Violence
* Smart Bangladesh
* Bangladesh protests (2022–2024)
* 2024 Bangladesh quota reform movement
* Non-cooperation movement, 2024
* Interim Government era, 2024–present
* Yunus interim government

Related articles

* Timeline of Bangladeshi history
* Bangladeshi art
* Bengali literature

Bangladesh portal

* v
* t
* e

The history of Bangladesh dates back over four millennia to the Chalcolithic period. The region's early history was characterized by a succession of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms and empires that fought for control over the Bengal region. Islam arrived in the 8th century and gradually became dominant from the early 13th century with the conquests led by Bakhtiyar Khalji and the activities of Sunni missionaries like Shah Jalal. Muslim rulers promoted the spread of Islam by building mosques across the region. From the 14th century onward, Bengal was ruled by the Bengal Sultanate, founded by Fakhruddin Mubarak Shah, who established an individual currency. The Bengal Sultanate expanded under rulers like Shamsuddin Ilyas Shah, leading to economic prosperity and military dominance, with Bengal being referred to by Europeans as the richest country to trade with. The region later became a part of the Mughal Empire, and according to historian C. A. Bayly, it was probably the empire's wealthiest province.

Following the decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 1700s, Bengal became a semi-independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal, ultimately led by Siraj-ud-Daulah. It was later conquered by the British East India Company after the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal played a crucial role in the Industrial Revolution in Britain, but also faced significant deindustrialization. The Bengal Presidency was established during British rule.

The borders of modern Bangladesh were established with the partition of Bengal between India and Pakistan during the Partition of India in August 1947, when the region became East Pakistan as part of the newly formed State of Pakistan following the end of the British rule in the region. The Proclamation of Bangladeshi Independence in March 1971 led to the nine-month-long Bangladesh Liberation War, which culminated in the emergence of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. Independence was declared by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1971.

Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal

Since gaining independence, Bangladesh has faced political instability, economic reconstruction, and social transformation. The country experienced military coups and authoritarian rule, notably under General Ziaur Rahman and General Hussain Muhammad Ershad. The restoration of parliamentary democracy in the 1990s saw power alternate between the Awami League, and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. In recent decades, Bangladesh has achieved significant economic growth, emerging as one of the world's fastest-growing economies, driven by its garment industry, remittances, and infrastructure development. However, it continues to grapple with political instability, human rights issues, and the impact of climate change. The return of the Awami League to power in 2009 under Sheikh Hasina's leadership saw economic progress but criticisms of authoritarianism. Bangladesh has played a critical role in addressing regional issues, including the Rohingya refugee crisis, which has strained its resources and highlighted its humanitarian commitments.

The poverty rate went down from 80% in 1971 to 44% in 1991 to 13% in 2021.[36][37][38] Bangladesh emerged as the second-largest economy in South Asia,[39][40] surpassing the per capita income levels of both India and Pakistan.[41][40] As part of the green transition, Bangladesh's industrial sector emerged as a leader in building green factories, with the country having the largest number of certified green factories in the world in 2023.[42] In January 2024, Awami League led by Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina secured a fourth straight term in Bangladesh's general election. Following nationwide protests against the Awami League government, on 5 August 2024, Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina was forced to resign and flee to India.[43][44][45][46][47] An interim government was formed on 8 August, with Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus as the Chief Advisor.[48]

## Geography

[edit]

Main article: Geography of Bangladesh

Physical map of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is in South Asia on the Bay of Bengal. It is surrounded almost entirely by neighbouring India, and shares a small border with Myanmar to its southeast, though it lies very close to Nepal, Bhutan, and China. The country is divided into three regions. Most of the country is dominated by the fertile Ganges Delta, the largest river delta in the world.[49] The northwest and central parts of the country are formed by the Madhupur and the Barind plateaus. The northeast and southeast are home to evergreen hill ranges.

The Ganges delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôdda), Brahmaputra (Jamuna or Jomuna), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries. The Ganges unites with the Jamuna (main channel of the Brahmaputra) and later join the Meghna, finally flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Bangladesh is called the "Land of Rivers";[50] as it is home to over 57 trans-boundary rivers, the most of any nation-state. Water issues are hence politically complicated since the country is a lower riparian state to India.[51]

Bangladesh is predominantly rich fertile flat land. Most of it is less than 12 m (39 ft) above sea level, and it is estimated that about 10% of its land would be flooded if the sea level were to rise by 1 m (3.3 ft).[52] 17% of the country is covered by forests and 12% is covered by hill systems. The country's haor wetlands are of significance to global environmental science. The highest point in Bangladesh is the Saka Haphong, located near the border with Myanmar, with an elevation of 1,064 m (3,491 ft).[53] Previously, either Keokradong or Tazing Dong were considered the highest.

### Climate

[edit]

Main articles: Geography of Bangladesh § Climate, and Climate change in Bangladesh

Flooding after the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone, which killed around 140,000 people

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh's climate is tropical, with a mild winter from October to March and a hot, humid summer from March to June. The country has never recorded an air temperature below 0 °C (32 °F), with a record low of 1.1 °C (34.0 °F) in the northwest city of Dinajpur on 3 February 1905.[54] A warm and humid monsoon season lasts from June to October and supplies most of the country's rainfall. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores occur almost every year,[55] combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. The cyclones of 1970 and 1991 were particularly devastating, the latter killing approximately 140,000 people.[56]

In September 1998, Bangladesh saw the most severe flooding in modern history, after which two-thirds of the country went underwater, along with a death toll of 1,000.[57] As a result of various international and national level initiatives in disaster risk reduction, the human toll and economic damage from floods and cyclones have come down over the years.[58] The 2007 South Asian floods ravaged areas across the country, leaving five million people displaced, with a death toll around 500.[59]

#### Climate change

[edit]

Main article: Climate change in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is recognised to be one of the countries most vulnerable to climate change.[60][61] Over the course of a century, 508 cyclones have affected the Bay of Bengal region, 17 percent of which are believed to have made landfall in Bangladesh.[62] Natural hazards that come from increased rainfall, rising sea levels, and tropical cyclones are expected to increase as the climate changes, each seriously affecting agriculture, water and food security, human health, and shelter.[63] It is estimated that by 2050, a three-foot rise in sea levels will inundate some 20 percent of the land and displace more than 30 million people.[64] To address the sea level rise threat in Bangladesh, the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 has been launched.[65][66]

### Biodiversity

[edit]

Main article: Fauna of Bangladesh

A Bengal tiger, the national animal, in the Sundarbans

Bangladesh is located in the Indomalayan realm, and lies within four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic Plains moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests, and Sundarbans mangroves.[67] Its ecology includes a long sea coastline, numerous rivers and tributaries, lakes, wetlands, evergreen forests, semi evergreen forests, hill forests, moist deciduous forests, freshwater swamp forests and flat land with tall grass. The Bangladesh Plain is famous for its fertile alluvial soil which supports extensive cultivation. The country is dominated by lush vegetation, with villages often buried in groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo, betel nut, coconut, and date palm.[68] The country has up to 6000 species of plant life, including 5000 flowering plants.[69] Water bodies and wetland systems provide a habitat for many aquatic plants. Water lilies and lotuses grow vividly during the monsoon season. The country has 50 wildlife sanctuaries.

Bangladesh is home to much of the Sundarbans, the world's largest mangrove forest, covering an area of 6,000 square kilometres (2,300 sq mi) in the southwest littoral region. It is divided into three protected sanctuaries–the South, East, and West zones. The forest is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The northeastern Sylhet region is home to haor wetlands, a unique ecosystem. It also includes tropical and subtropical coniferous forests, a freshwater swamp forest, and mixed deciduous forests. The southeastern Chittagong region covers evergreen and semi-evergreen hilly jungles. Central Bangladesh includes the plainland Sal forest running along with the districts of Gazipur, Tangail, and Mymensingh. St. Martin's Island is the only coral reef in the country.

Bangladesh has an abundance of wildlife in its forests, marshes, woodlands, and hills.[68] The vast majority of animals dwell within a habitat of 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi).[70] The Bengal tiger, clouded leopard, saltwater crocodile, black panther and fishing cat are among the chief predators in the Sundarbans.[71] Northern and eastern Bangladesh is home to the Asian elephant, hoolock gibbon, Asian black bear and oriental pied hornbill.[72] The Chital deer are widely seen in southwestern woodlands. Other animals include the black giant squirrel, capped langur, Bengal fox, sambar deer, jungle cat, king cobra, wild boar, mongooses, pangolins, pythons and water monitors. Bangladesh has one of the largest populations of Irrawaddy and Ganges dolphins.[73] The country has numerous species of amphibians (53), reptiles (139), marine reptiles (19) and marine mammals (5). It also has 628 species of birds.[74]

Several animals became extinct in Bangladesh during the last century, including the one-horned and two-horned rhinoceros and common peafowl. The human population is concentrated in urban areas, limiting deforestation to a certain extent. Rapid urban growth has threatened natural habitats. The country has widespread environmental issues, pollution of the Dhaleshwari River by the textile industry and shrimp cultivation in Chakaria Sundarbans have both been described by academics as ecocides.[75][76] Although, many areas are protected under law, some Bangladeshi wildlife is threatened by this growth. The Bangladesh Environment Conservation Act was enacted in 1995. The government has designated several regions as Ecologically Critical Areas, including wetlands, forests, and rivers. The Sundarbans tiger project and the Bangladesh Bear Project are among the key initiatives to strengthen conservation.[72] It ratified the Rio Convention on Biological Diversity on 3 May 1994.[77] As of 2014[update], the country was set to revise its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.[77]

## Government and politics

[edit]

Main articles: Government of Bangladesh and Politics of Bangladesh

Bangabhaban (literally Bengal House) is the presidential palace of Bangladesh. It was originally a house for the Viceroy of India and the Governor of Bengal. The National Parliament building in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar, a neighborhood named after the first Prime Minister of Bengal

Bangladesh is a de jure representative democracy under its constitution, with a Westminster-style parliamentary republic that has universal suffrage. The head of government is the Prime Minister, who forms a government every five years. The President invites the leader of the largest party in parliament to become prime minister.[78]

Supreme Court of Bangladesh

The Government of Bangladesh is overseen by a cabinet headed by the Prime Minister of Bangladesh. The tenure of a parliamentary government is five years. The Bangladesh Civil Service assists the cabinet in running the government. Recruitment for the civil service is based on a public examination. In theory, the civil service should be a meritocracy. But a disputed quota system coupled with politicisation and preference for seniority have allegedly affected the civil service's meritocracy.[79] The President of Bangladesh is the ceremonial head of state[80] whose powers include signing bills passed by parliament into law. The President is the Supreme Commander of the Bangladesh Armed Forces and the chancellor of all universities. The Supreme Court of Bangladesh is the highest court of the land, followed by the High Court and Appellate Divisions. The head of the judiciary is the Chief Justice of Bangladesh, who sits on the Supreme Court. The courts have wide latitude in judicial review, and judicial precedent is supported by Article 111 of the constitution. The judiciary includes district and metropolitan courts divided into civil and criminal courts. Due to a shortage of judges, the judiciary has a large backlog.

The Jatiya Sangshad (National Parliament) is the unicameral parliament. It has 350 members of parliament (MPs), including 300 MPs elected on the first past the post system and 50 MPs appointed to reserved seats for women's empowerment. Article 70 of the Constitution of Bangladesh forbids MPs from voting against their party. However, several laws proposed independently by MPs have been transformed into legislation, including the anti-torture law.[81] The parliament is presided over by the Speaker of the Jatiya Sangsad, who is second in line to the president as per the constitution.[82]

### Administrative divisions

[edit]

Main article: Administrative geography of Bangladesh

Further information: Divisions of Bangladesh, Districts of Bangladesh, and Upazilas of Bangladesh

A clickable map of Bangladesh exhibiting its divisions.

Bangladesh is divided into eight administrative divisions,[83][53][84] each named after their respective divisional headquarters: Barisal (officially Barishal[85]), Chittagong (officially Chattogram[85]), Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur, and Sylhet.

Divisions are subdivided into districts (zila). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh, each further subdivided into upazila (subdistricts) or thana. The area within each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions, with each union consisting of multiple villages. In the metropolitan areas, police stations are divided into wards, further divided into mahallas.

There are no elected officials at the divisional or district levels, and the administration is composed only of government officials. Direct elections are held in each union (or ward) for a chairperson and several members. In 1997, a parliamentary act was passed to reserve three seats (out of 12) in every union for female candidates.[86]

Administrative Divisions of Bangladesh  Division | Capital  | Established  | Area (km2)
[87] | 2021 Population
(projected)[88] | Density
2021

|
|
|
|
|

Barisal Division | Barisal | 1 January 1993  | 13,225  | 9,713,000  | 734
Chittagong Division | Chittagong | 1 January 1829  | 33,909  | 34,747,000  | 1,025
Dhaka Division | Dhaka | 1 January 1829  | 20,594  | 42,607,000  | 2,069
Khulna Division | Khulna | 1 October 1960  | 22,284  | 18,217,000  | 817
Mymensingh Division | Mymensingh | 14 September 2015  | 10,584  | 13,457,000  | 1,271
Rajshahi Division | Rajshahi | 1 January 1829  | 18,153  | 21,607,000  | 1,190
Rangpur Division | Rangpur | 25 January 2010  | 16,185  | 18,868,000  | 1,166
Sylhet Division | Sylhet | 1 August 1995  | 12,635  | 12,463,000  | 986

### Foreign relations

[edit]

Main article: Foreign relations of Bangladesh

Bangladesh is considered a middle power in global politics.[89] It plays an important role in the geopolitical affairs of the Indo-Pacific,[90] due to its strategic location between South and Southeast Asia.[91] Bangladesh joined the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and the United Nations in 1974.[92][93] It relies on multilateral diplomacy on issues like climate change, nuclear nonproliferation, trade policy and non-traditional security issues.[94] Bangladesh pioneered the creation of SAARC, which has been the preeminent forum for regional diplomacy among the countries of the Indian subcontinent.[95] It joined the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation in 1974,[96] and is a founding member of the Developing 8 Countries.[97] In recent years, Bangladesh has focused on promoting regional trade and transport links with support from the World Bank.[98] Dhaka hosts the headquarters of BIMSTEC, an organisation that brings together countries dependent on the Bay of Bengal.

Relations with neighbouring Myanmar have been severely strained since 2016–2017, after over 700,000 Rohingya refugees illegally entered Bangladesh.[99] The parliament, government, and civil society of Bangladesh have been at the forefront of international criticism against Myanmar for military operations against the Rohingya, and have demanded their right of return to Arakan.[100][101]

Bangladesh shares an important bilateral and economic relationship with its largest neighbour India,[102] which is often strained by water politics of the Ganges and the Teesta,[103][104][105] and the border killings of Bangladeshi civilians.[106][107] Post-independent Bangladesh has continued to have a problematic relationship with Pakistan, mainly due to its denial of the 1971 Bangladesh genocide.[108] It maintains a warm relationship with China, which is its largest trading partner, and the largest arms supplier.[109] Japan is Bangladesh's largest economic aid provider, and the two maintain a strategic and economic partnership.[110] Political relations with Middle Eastern countries are robust.[111] Bangladesh receives 59% of its remittances from the Middle East,[112] despite poor working conditions affecting over four million Bangladeshi workers.[113] Bangladesh plays a major role in global climate diplomacy as a leader of the Climate Vulnerable Forum.[114]

### Military

[edit]

Main article: Bangladesh Armed Forces

Map of Bangladesh UN Peacekeeping Force deployments

The Bangladesh Armed Forces have inherited the institutional framework of the British military and the British Indian Army.[115] In 2022, the active personnel strength of the Bangladesh Army was around 250,000,[116] excluding the Air Force and the Navy (24,000).[117] In addition to traditional defence roles, the military has supported civil authorities in disaster relief and provided internal security during periods of political unrest. For many years, Bangladesh has been the world's largest contributor to UN peacekeeping forces. The military budget of Bangladesh accounts for 1.3% of GDP, amounting to US$4.3 billion in 2021.[118][119]

The Bangladesh Navy, one of the largest in the Bay of Bengal, includes a fleet of frigates, submarines, corvettes, and other vessels. The Bangladesh Air Force has a small fleet of multi-role combat aircraft. Most of Bangladesh's military equipment comes from China.[120] In recent years, Bangladesh and India have increased joint military exercises, high-level visits of military leaders, counter-terrorism cooperation and intelligence sharing. Bangladesh is vital to ensuring stability and security in northeast India.[121][122]

Bangladesh's strategic importance in the eastern subcontinent hinges on its proximity to China, its frontier with Burma, the separation of mainland and northeast India, and its maritime territory in the Bay of Bengal.[123] In 2002, Bangladesh and China signed a Defence Cooperation Agreement.[124] The United States has pursued negotiations with Bangladesh on a Status of Forces Agreement, an Acquisition and Cross-Servicing Agreement and a General Security of Military Information Agreement.[125][126][127] In 2019, Bangladesh ratified the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[128]

### Civil society

[edit]

Since the colonial period, Bangladesh has had a prominent civil society. There are various special interest groups, including non-governmental organisations, human rights organisations, professional associations, chambers of commerce, employers' associations, and trade unions.[129] The National Human Rights Commission of Bangladesh was set up in 2007. Notable human rights organisations and initiatives include the Centre for Law and Mediation, Odhikar, the Alliance for Bangladesh Worker Safety, the Bangladesh Environmental Lawyers Association, the Bangladesh Hindu Buddhist Christian Unity Council and the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee. The world's largest international NGO BRAC is based in Bangladesh. There have been concerns regarding the shrinking space for independent civil society in recent years.[130][131][132]

### Human rights

[edit]

Main article: Human rights in Bangladesh

The Rapid Action Battalion has been sanctioned by the United States for human rights abuses.

Torture is banned by the Constitution of Bangladesh,[133] but is rampantly used by Bangladesh's security forces. Bangladesh joined the Convention against Torture in 1998 and it enacted its first anti-torture law, the Torture and Custodial Death (Prevention) Act, in 2013. The first conviction under this law was announced in 2020.[134] Amnesty International Prisoners of Conscience from Bangladesh have included Saber Hossain Chowdhury and Shahidul Alam.[135][136] The widely criticized Digital Security Act was repealed and replaced by the Cyber Security Act in 2023.[137] The repeal was welcomed by the International Press Institute.[138]

On International Human Rights Day in December 2021, the United States Department of Treasury announced sanctions on commanders of the Rapid Action Battalion for extrajudicial killings, torture, and other human rights abuses.[139] Freedom House has criticised the government for human rights abuses, the crackdown on the opposition, mass media, and civil society through politicized enforcement.[140] Bangladesh is ranked "partly free" in Freedom House's Freedom in the World report,[141] but its press freedom has deteriorated from "free" to "not free" in recent years due to increasing pressure from the government.[142] According to the British Economist Intelligence Unit, the country has a hybrid regime: the third of four rankings in its Democracy Index.[143] Bangladesh was ranked 96th among 163 countries in the 2022 Global Peace Index.[144] According to National Human Rights Commission, 70% of alleged human-rights violations are committed by law-enforcement agencies.[145]

LGBT rights are frowned upon among social conservatives.[146] Homosexuality is affected by Section 377 of the Penal Code of Bangladesh, which was originally enacted by the British colonial government.[147][148] An underground LGBT scene is flourishing across the country. However, Bangladesh only recognises the local transgender and intersex community known as the Hijra, which is the most widely accepted LGBT group among poorer sections of society.[149][150] Organized crime by the Hijra is growing, with blackmailing and extortion rackets operating on Grindr and resulting in theft, murder and kidnapping.[151][152] According to the 2016 Global Slavery Index, an estimated 1,531,300 people are enslaved in Bangladesh, or roughly 1% of the population.[153][154][155][156]

### Corruption

[edit]

Main article: Corruption in Bangladesh

Like many developing countries, institutional corruption is an issue of concern for Bangladesh. Bangladesh was ranked 146th among 180 countries on Transparency International's 2018 Corruption Perceptions Index.[157] Land administration was the sector with the most bribery in 2015,[158] followed by education,[159] police[160] and water supply.[161] The Anti Corruption Commission was formed in 2004, and it was active during the 2006–08 Bangladeshi political crisis, indicting many leading politicians, bureaucrats and businessmen for graft.[162][163][164]

## Economy

[edit]

Main article: Economy of Bangladesh

Office blocks on Kemal Atatürk Avenue in Dhaka

Bangladesh is the second largest economy in South Asia after India.[39][40] The country has outpaced India and Pakistan in terms of per capita income.[41][40] According to the World Bank, "when the newly independent country of Bangladesh was born on December 16, 1971, it was the second poorest country in the world—making the country's transformation over the next 50 years one of the great development stories. Since then, poverty has been cut in half at record speed. Enrollment in primary school is now nearly universal. Hundreds of thousands of women have entered the workforce. Steady progress has been made on maternal and child health. And the country is better buttressed against the destructive forces posed by climate change and natural disasters. Bangladesh's success comprises many moving parts—from investing in human capital to establishing macroeconomic stability. Building on this success, the country is now setting the stage for further economic growth and job creation by ramping up investments in energy, inland connectivity, urban projects, and transport infrastructure, as well as focusing on climate change adaptation and disaster preparedness on its path toward sustainable growth."[165] Bangladesh has made one of the greatest leaps on the Human Development Index among Asian countries. According to UNDP, "Asia and the Pacific has observed the fastest Human Development Index (HDI) progress in the world—with Bangladesh being one of the best performers, moving from an HDI of 0.397 in 1990, the fourth lowest in the region, to a HDI of 0.661 in 2021. Only China had greater improvements in the region over this period".[166]

Chittagong has the busiest port on the Bay of Bengal.

In 2022, Bangladesh had the second largest foreign-exchange reserves in South Asia. The reserves have boosted the government's spending capacity despite tax revenues forming only 7.7% of government revenue.[167] A big chunk of investments have gone into the power sector. In 2009, Bangladesh was experiencing daily blackouts several times a day. In 2022, the country achieved 100% electrification.[168][169][170] One of the major anti-poverty schemes of the Bangladeshi government is the Ashrayan Project which aims to eradicate homelessness by providing free housing.[171] The poverty rate has gone down from 80% in 1971,[172] to 44.2% in 1991,[173] to 12.9% in 2021.[36] The literacy rate was 74.66% in 2022.[174] Bangladesh has a labor force of roughly 70 million,[175] which is the world's seventh-largest; with an unemployment rate of 5.2% as of 2021[update].[176] The government is setting up 100 special economic zones to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) and generate 10 million jobs.[177] The Bangladesh Investment Development Authority (BIDA) and the Bangladesh Economic Zones Authority (BEZA) have been established to help investors in setting up factories; and to complement the longstanding Bangladesh Export Processing Zone Authority (BEPZA).

The Bangladeshi taka is the national currency. The service sector accounts for about 51.3% of total GDP and employs 39% of the workforce. The industrial sector accounts for 35.1% of GDP and employs 20.4% of the workforce. The agriculture sector makes up 13.6% of the economy but is the biggest employment sector, with 40.6% of the workforce.[167] In agriculture, the country is a major producer of rice, fish, tea, fruits, vegetables, flowers,[178] and jute. Lobsters and shrimps are some of Bangladesh's well-known exports.[179]

### Private sector

[edit]

The private sector accounts for 80% of GDP compared to the dwindling role of state-owned companies.[180] Bangladesh's economy is dominated by family-owned conglomerates and small and medium-sized businesses. Some of the largest publicly traded companies in Bangladesh include Beximco, BRAC Bank, BSRM, GPH Ispat, Grameenphone, Summit Group, and Square Pharmaceuticals.[181] Capital markets include the Dhaka Stock Exchange and the Chittagong Stock Exchange. Its telecommunications industry is one of the world's fastest-growing, with 171.854 million cellphone subscribers in January 2021.[182] Over 80% of Bangladesh's export earnings come from the garments industry.[8] Other major industries include shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, ceramics, electronics, and leather goods.[183] Muhammad Aziz Khan became the first person from Bangladesh to be listed as a billionaire by Forbes.[184]

### Infrastructure

[edit]

The Padma Bridge is a road-rail bridge which spans the Bangladeshi branch of the Ganges that is known as the Padma River. It is the longest bridge on the Ganges. When it was opened in June 2022, the bridge was expected to boost GDP by 1.23%.[185]

Since 2009, Bangladesh has embarked on a series of megaprojects. For instance, the 6.15 km long Padma Bridge was built for US$3.86 billion.[186] The bridge was the first self-financed megaproject in the country's history.[187] Other megaprojects include the Dhaka Metro, a mass rapid-transit system in the capital; Karnaphuli Tunnel, an underwater expressway in Chittagong; Dhaka Elevated Expressway; Chittagong Elevated Expressway; and the Bangladesh Delta Plan, designed to mitigate the impact of climate change.

### Tourism

[edit]

Further information: Tourism in Bangladesh

The tourism industry is expanding, contributing some 3.02% of total GDP.[188] Bangladesh's international tourism receipts in 2019 amounted to $391 million.[189] The country has three UNESCO World Heritage Sites (the Mosque City, the Paharpur Buddhist Ruins and the Sundarbans) and five tentative-list sites.[190] Activities for tourists include angling, water skiing, river cruising, hiking, rowing, yachting, and beachgoing.[191][192] The World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) reported in 2019 that the travel and tourism industry in Bangladesh directly generated 1,180,500 jobs in 2018 or 1.9% of the country's total employment.[193] According to the same report, Bangladesh experiences around 125,000 international tourist arrivals per year.[193] Domestic spending generated 97.7 percent of direct travel and tourism gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.[194]

### Energy

[edit]

Main articles: Electricity sector in Bangladesh, Energy policy of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Power Development Board, Natural gas and petroleum in Bangladesh, and Petrobangla

Wind turbines on Kutubdia Island

Bangladesh is gradually transitioning to a green economy. It has the largest off-grid solar power programme in the world, benefiting 20 million people.[195] An electric car called the Palki is being developed for production in the country.[196] Biogas is being used to produce organic fertilizer.[197]

Bangladesh continues to have huge untapped reserves of natural gas, particularly in its maritime territory.[198][199] A lack of exploration and decreasing proven reserves have forced Bangladesh to import LNG from abroad.[200][201][202] Gas shortages were further exasperated by the Russian invasion of Ukraine.[203]

While government-owned companies in Bangladesh generate nearly half of Bangladesh's electricity, privately owned companies like the Summit Group and Orion Group are playing an increasingly important role in both generating electricity, and supplying machinery, reactors, and equipment.[204] Bangladesh increased electricity production from 5 gigawatts in 2009 to 25.5 gigawatts in 2022. It plans to produce 50 gigawatts by 2041. U.S. companies like Chevron and General Electric supply around 55% of Bangladesh's domestic natural gas production and are among the largest investors in power projects. 80% of Bangladesh's installed gas-fired power generation capacity comes from turbines manufactured in the United States.[205]

The government stopped buying spot price LNG in June 2022. The country's forex reserves declined due to surging fuel imports. Bangladesh imported 30% of its LNG on the spot price market in 2022, down from 40% in 2021. Bangladesh continues to trade in LNG on the futures exchange markets.[206]

The Rooppur Nuclear Power Plant, Bangladesh's first operational nuclear plant, is nearing completion as of the end of 2023.[207]

## Demographics

[edit]

Main articles: Demographics of Bangladesh and Bengalis

Population (millions)Year| Pop.| ±% p.a.

|
|

1971 | 67,800,000| —
1980 | 80,600,000| +1.94%
1990 | 105,300,001| +2.71%
2000 | 129,600,000| +2.10%
2010| 148,700,000| +1.38%
2012| 161,100,200| +4.09%
2022| 165,160,000| +0.25%
Source: OECD/World Bank[208][209]

According to the 2022 Census, Bangladesh has a population of 165.1 million,[9] and is the eighth-most-populous country in the world, the fifth-most populous country in Asia, and the most densely populated large country in the world, with a headline population density of 1,265 people/km2 as of 2020[update].[210] Its total fertility rate (TFR), once among the highest in the world, has experienced a dramatic decline, from 5.5 in 1985 to 3.7 in 1995, down to 2.0 in 2020,[211] which is below the sub-replacement fertility of 2.1.[212] The majority of Bangladeshis live in rural areas, with only 39% of the population living in urban areas as of 2021[update].[213] It has a median age of roughly 28 years, with 26% of the total population aged 14 or younger,[214] and merely 5% aged 65 and above.[215]

Bangladesh is an ethnically and culturally homogeneous society, as Bengalis form 99% of the population.[209] The Adivasi population includes the Chakmas, Marmas, Santhals, Mros, Tanchangyas, Bawms, Tripuris, Khasis, Khumis, Kukis, Garos, and Bisnupriya Manipuris. The Chittagong Hill Tracts region experienced unrest and an insurgency from 1975 to 1997 in an autonomy movement by its indigenous people. Although a peace accord was signed in 1997, the region remains militarised.[216] Urdu-speaking stranded Pakistanis were given citizenship by the Supreme Court in 2008.[217] Bangladesh also hosts over 700,000 Rohingya refugees since 2017, giving it one of the largest refugee populations in the world.[99]

### Urban centres

[edit]

Further information: List of cities and towns in Bangladesh

Bangladesh's capital Dhaka and the largest city and is overseen by two city corporations that manage between them the northern and southern parts of the city. There are 12 city corporations which hold mayoral elections: Dhaka South, Dhaka North, Chittagong, Comilla, Khulna, Mymensingh, Sylhet, Rajshahi, Barisal, Rangpur, Gazipur and Narayanganj. But there are 8 district's in total. There being 8 districts in total. They are- Dhaka, Chittagong, Sylhet, Rangpur, Rajshahi, Khulna, Mymensingh, Barishal. Mayors are elected for five-year terms. Altogether there are 506 urban centres in Bangladesh which 43 cities have a population of more than 100,000.

Largest cities or towns in Bangladesh

[1]

| Rank  | Name | Pop.  |

Dhaka | 1 | Dhaka | 10,278,882  |
Gazipur

Narayanganj
2 | Chittagong | 3,227,246
3 | Gazipur | 2,674,697
4 | Narayanganj | 967,724
5 | Khulna | 718,735
6 | Rangpur | 708,384
7 | Mymensingh | 576,722
8 | Rajshahi | 552,791
9 | Sylhet | 532,426
10 | Cumilla | 439,414

### Language

[edit]

Main article: Languages of Bangladesh

The official and predominant language of Bangladesh is Bengali, which is spoken by more than 99% of the population as their native language.[218][219] Bengali is described as a dialect continuum where there are various dialects spoken throughout the country. There is a diglossia in which much of the population can understand or speak Standard Colloquial Bengali, and their regional dialects.[220] These include Chittagonian and Sylheti,[219] though some linguists consider them as separate languages.

English plays an important role in Bangladesh's judicial and educational affairs, due to the country's history as part of the British Empire. It is widely spoken and commonly understood, and is taught as a compulsory subject in all schools, colleges and universities, while the English-medium educational system is widely attended.[221]

Tribal languages, although increasingly endangered, include the Chakma language, another native Eastern Indo-Aryan language, spoken by the Chakma people. Others are Garo, Meitei, Kokborok and Rakhine. Among the Austroasiatic languages, the most spoken is the Santali language, native to the Santal people.[222]

The stranded Pakistanis and some sections of the Old Dhakaites often use Urdu as their native tongue. Still, the usage of the latter remains highly reproached.[223]

### Religion

[edit]

Religions in Bangladesh (2022)[224]

Islam (91.04%)

Hinduism (7.95%)

Buddhism (0.61%)

Christianity (0.30%)

Others (0.12%)

Main article: Religion in Bangladesh

Baitul Mukarram in Dhaka

Bangladesh was constitutionally proclaimed as a secular state in 1972. Secularism is one of its four founding constitutional principles. The constitution also grants freedom of religion, while establishing Islam as the state religion.[225][226][227][228] The constitution bans religion-based politics and discrimination, and proclaims equal recognition of people adhering to all faiths.[229] Islam is the largest religion across the country, being followed by about 91.1% of the population.[209][230][231] The vast majority of Bangladeshi citizens are Bengali Muslims, adhering to Sunni Islam. The country is the third-most populous Muslim-majority state in the world and has the fourth-largest overall Muslim population.[232]

Before the partition of India in 1941, Hindus formed 28% of the population. Mass exodus of Hindu-refugees from the then East Pakistan to India took place during the 1971 Bangladesh War of Independence, due to Pakistan Army's genocidal onslaught. After the formation of Bangladesh, the Hindus constituted 13.50% in 1974. In 2022, Hinduism is followed by 7.9% of the population,[209][230][231] mainly by the Bengali Hindus, who form the country's second-largest religious group and the third-largest Hindu community globally, after India and Nepal. Buddhism is the third-largest religion, at 0.6% of the population. Bangladeshi Buddhists are concentrated among the tribal ethnic groups in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. At the same time, coastal Chittagong is home to many Bengali Buddhists. Christianity is the fourth-largest religion at 0.3%, followed mainly by a small Bengali Christian minority. 0.1% of the population practices other religions like Animism or is irreligious.[209][233]

### Education

[edit]

Main article: Education in Bangladesh

Literacy rates in Bangladesh districts

The constitution states that all children shall receive free and compulsory education.[234] Education in Bangladesh is overseen by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Primary and Mass Education is responsible for implementing policy for primary education and state-funded schools at a local level. Primary and secondary education is compulsory, and is financed by the state and free of charge in public schools. Bangladesh has a literacy rate of 74.7% per cent as of 2019: 77.4% for males and 71.9% for females.[235][236] The country's educational system is three-tiered and heavily subsidised, with the government operating many schools at the primary, secondary and higher secondary levels and subsidising many private schools. In the tertiary education sector, the Bangladeshi government funds over 45 state universities[237] through the University Grants Commission (UGC), created by Presidential Order 10 in 1973.[238]

The education system is divided into five levels: primary (first to fifth grade), junior secondary (sixth to eighth grade), secondary (ninth and tenth grade), higher secondary (11th and 12th grade), and tertiary which is university level.[239] According to Hossain 2016, the formal schooling of secondary education in Bangladesh is seven years. The first three years are called junior secondary and include grades six to eight. The next two years are called secondary and include grades nine and ten. The final two years are called higher secondary and include grade eleven and twelve. Based on the information from Hossain 2016 and Daily Star 2010, to pass the fifth grade the Bangladesh Education Ministry requires a public exam called Primary School Certificate (PSC). During the eighth grade students have to pass the Junior School Certificate (JSC) exam to get enrolled in ninth grade, while tenth-grade students have to pass the Secondary School Certificate (SSC) exam to proceed to eleventh grade. Lastly, students have to pass the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) exam at grade twelve to apply for university.[240][241]

Universities in Bangladesh are of three general types: public (government-owned and subsidised), private (privately owned universities) and international (operated and funded by international organisations). The country has 47 public,[237] 105 private[242] and two international universities; Bangladesh National University has the largest enrolment, and the University of Dhaka (established in 1921) is the oldest. Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) is a premiere university for engineering education. University of Chittagong, established in 1966, has the largest campus.[243] Dhaka College, established in 1841, is the oldest educational institution for higher education in Bangladesh.[244] Medical education is provided by 29 government and private medical colleges. All medical colleges are affiliated with the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare.

Bangladesh was ranked 105th in the Global Innovation Index in 2023.[245]

### Health

[edit]

Main article: Health in Bangladesh

Historical development of life expectancy in Bangladesh, displaying significant strides since independence[246]

Bangladesh, by the constitution, guarantees healthcare services as a fundamental right to all of its citizens.[247] The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare is the largest institutional healthcare provider in Bangladesh,[248] and contains two divisions: Health Service Division and Medical Education And Family Welfare Division.[249] However, healthcare facilities in Bangladesh are considered less than adequate, although they have improved as the economy has grown and poverty levels have decreased significantly.[248] Bangladesh faces a severe health workforce crisis, as formally trained providers make up a small percentage of the total health workforce.[250] Significant deficiencies in the treatment practices of village doctors persist, with widespread harmful and inappropriate drug prescribing.[251]

Bangladesh's poor healthcare system suffers from severe underfunding from the government.[248] As of 2019[update], some 2.48% of total GDP was attributed to healthcare,[252] and domestic general government spending on healthcare was 18.63% of the total budget,[253] while out-of-pocket expenditures made up the vast majority of the total budget, totalling 72.68%.[254] Domestic private health expenditure was about 75% of the total healthcare expenditure.[255] As of 2020[update], there are only 5.3 doctors per 10,000 people, and about six physicians[256] and three nurses per 10,000 people, while the number of hospital beds is 8 per 10,000.[257][258] The overall life expectancy in Bangladesh at birth was 73 years (71 years for males and 75 years for females) as of 2020[update],[259] and it has a comparably high infant mortality rate (24 per 1,000 live births) and child mortality rate (29 per 1,000 live births).[260][261] Maternal mortality remains high, clocking at 173 per 100,000 live births.[262] Bangladesh is a key source market for medical tourism for various countries, mainly India,[263] due to its citizens dissatisfaction and distrust over their own healthcare system.[264]

The main causes of death are coronary artery disease, stroke, and chronic respiratory disease; comprising 62% and 60% of all adult male and female deaths, respectively.[265] Malnutrition is a major and persistent problem in Bangladesh, mainly affecting the rural regions, more than half of the population suffers from it. Severe acute malnutrition affects 450,000 children, while nearly 2 million children have moderate acute malnutrition. For children under the age of five, 52% are affected by anaemia, 41% are stunted, 16% are wasted, and 36% are underweight. A quarter of women are underweight and around 15% have short stature, while over half also suffer from anaemia.[266]

## Culture

[edit]

Main article: Culture of Bangladesh

See also: Culture of Bengal and Bengali Renaissance

### Architecture

[edit]

Main article: Architecture of Bangladesh

Mosque in the 15th century in a Bengali style

The architectural traditions of Bangladesh have a 2,500-year-old heritage.[267] Terracotta architecture is a distinct feature of Bengal. Pre-Islamic Bengali architecture reached its pinnacle in the Pala Empire when the Pala School of Sculptural Art established grand structures such as the Somapura Mahavihara. Islamic architecture began developing under the Bengal Sultanate, when local terracotta styles influenced medieval mosque construction.

The Sixty Dome Mosque was the largest medieval mosque built in Bangladesh and is a fine example of Turkic-Bengali architecture.[268] The Mughal style replaced indigenous architecture when Bengal became a province of the Mughal Empire and influenced urban housing development. The Kantajew Temple and Dhakeshwari Temple are excellent examples of late medieval Hindu temple architecture. Indo-Saracenic Revival architecture, based on Indo-Islamic styles, flourished during the British period. The zamindar gentry in Bangladesh built numerous Indo-Saracenic palaces and country mansions, such as the Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace, Dighapatia Palace, Puthia Rajbari and Natore Rajbari.

Bengali vernacular architecture is noted for pioneering the bungalow. Bangladeshi villages consist of thatched roofed houses made of natural materials like mud, straw, wood, and bamboo. In modern times, village bungalows are increasingly made of tin.[citation needed]

Muzharul Islam was the pioneer of Bangladeshi modern architecture. His varied works set the course of modern architectural practice in the country. Islam brought leading global architects, including Louis Kahn, Richard Neutra, Stanley Tigerman, Paul Rudolph, Robert Boughey and Konstantinos Doxiadis, to work in erstwhile East Pakistan. Louis Kahn was chosen to design the National Parliament Complex in Sher-e-Bangla Nagar. Kahn's monumental designs, combining regional red brick aesthetics, his concrete and marble brutalism and the use of lakes to represent Bengali geography, are regarded as one of the masterpieces of the 20th century. In recent times, award-winning architects like Rafiq Azam have set the course of contemporary architecture by adopting influences from the works of Islam and Kahn.[citation needed]

### Visual arts and crafts

[edit]

Main article: Bangladeshi art

Embroidery on Nakshi kantha (embroidered quilt), a centuries-old Bengali art tradition

The recorded history of art in Bangladesh can be traced to the 3rd century BCE, when terracotta sculptures were made in the region. In classical antiquity, notable sculptural Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist art developed in the Pala Empire and the Sena dynasty. Islamic art has evolved since the 14th century. The architecture of the Bengal Sultanate saw a distinct style of domed mosques with complex niche pillars that had no minarets. Mughal Bengal's most celebrated artistic tradition was the weaving of Jamdani motifs on fine muslin, which is now classified by UNESCO as an intangible cultural heritage. Jamdani motifs were similar to Iranian textile art (buta motifs) and Western textile art (paisley). The Jamdani weavers in Dhaka received imperial patronage.[269] Ivory and brass were also widely used in Mughal art. Pottery is thoroughly used in Bengali culture.

The modern art movement in Bangladesh took shape during the 1950s, particularly with the pioneering works of Zainul Abedin. East Bengal developed its own modernist painting and sculpture traditions, which were distinct from the art movements in West Bengal. The Art Institute Dhaka has been a significant centre for visual art in the region. Its annual Bengali New Year parade was enlisted as an intangible cultural heritage by UNESCO in 2016.

Modern Bangladesh has produced many of South Asia's leading painters, including SM Sultan, Mohammad Kibria, Shahabuddin Ahmed, Kanak Chanpa Chakma, Kafil Ahmed, Saifuddin Ahmed, Qayyum Chowdhury, Rashid Choudhury, Quamrul Hassan, Rafiqun Nabi and Syed Jahangir, among others. Novera Ahmed and Nitun Kundu were the country's pioneers of modernist sculpture.

In recent times, photography as a medium of art has become popular. Biennial Chobi Mela is considered the largest photography festival in Asia.[270]

### Literature

[edit]

Main article: Bangladeshi literature

Syed Mujtaba Ali

Bengali literature is a millennium-old tradition; the Charyapadas are the earliest examples of Bengali poetry. Sufi spiritualism inspired many Bengali Muslim writers. During the Bengal Sultanate, medieval Bengali writers were influenced by Arabic and Persian works. Sultans of Bengal patronized Bengali literature. Examples include the writings of Maladhar Basu, Bipradas Pipilai, Vijay Gupta, and Yasoraj Khan. The Chandidas are notable lyric poets from the early Medieval Age. Syed Alaol was the bard of Middle Bengali literature. The Bengal Renaissance shaped modern Bengali literature, including novels, short stories, and science fiction. Rabindranath Tagore was the first non-European laureate of the Nobel Prize in Literature and is described as the Bengali Shakespeare.[271] Kazi Nazrul Islam was a revolutionary poet who espoused political rebellion against colonialism and fascism. Begum Rokeya is regarded as the pioneer feminist writer of Bangladesh.[272] Other renaissance icons included Michael Madhusudan Dutt and Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay. The writer Syed Mujtaba Ali is noted for his cosmopolitan Bengali worldview.[273] Jasimuddin was a renowned pastoral poet. Shamsur Rahman and Al Mahmud are considered two of the greatest Bengali poets to have emerged in the 20th century. Farrukh Ahmad, Sufia Kamal, Syed Ali Ahsan, Ahsan Habib, Abul Hussain, Shahid Qadri, Fazal Shahabuddin, Abu Zafar Obaidullah, Omar Ali, Al Mujahidi, Syed Shamsul Huq, Nirmalendu Goon, Abid Azad, Hasan Hafizur Rahman and Abdul Hye Sikder are important figures of modern Bangladeshi poetry. Ahmed Sofa is regarded as the most important Bangladeshi intellectual in the post-independence era. Humayun Ahmed was a popular writer of modern Bangladeshi magical realism and science fiction. Notable writers of Bangladeshi fictions include Mir Mosharraf Hossain, Akhteruzzaman Elias, Alauddin Al Azad, Shahidul Zahir, Rashid Karim, Mahmudul Haque, Syed Waliullah, Shahidullah Kaiser, Shawkat Osman, Selina Hossain, Shahed Ali, Razia Khan, Anisul Hoque, and Abdul Mannan Syed.

The annual Ekushey Book Fair and Dhaka Literature Festival, organised by the Bangla Academy, are among the enormous literary festivals in South Asia.

### Museums and libraries

[edit]

Main articles: Museums in Bangladesh and List of libraries in Bangladesh

The Varendra Research Museum in Rajshahi, maintained by Rajashi University[274]

Established in 1910, the Varendra Research Museum is the oldest museum in Bangladesh.[274][275] It houses important collections from both the pre-Islamic and Islamic periods, including the sculptures of the Pala-Sena School of Art and the Indus Valley civilisation, and Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian manuscripts and inscriptions.[276][277]

The Ahsan Manzil, the former residence of the Nawab of Dhaka, is a national museum housing collections from the British Raj.[277][278]

Bangladesh National Museum in Dhaka

The Tajhat Palace Museum preserves artifacts of the rich cultural heritage of North Bengal, including Hindu-Buddhist sculptures and Islamic manuscripts. The Mymensingh Museum houses the personal antique collections of Bengali aristocrats in central Bengal. The Ethnological Museum of Chittagong showcases the lifestyle of various tribes in Bangladesh. The Bangladesh National Museum is located in Shahbagh, Dhaka, and has a rich collection of antiquities. The Liberation War Museum documents the Bangladeshi struggle for independence and the 1971 genocide.[citation needed]

The Hussain Shahi dynasty established royal libraries during the Bengal Sultanate. Libraries were established in each district of Bengal by the Zamindar gentry during the Bengal Renaissance in the 19th century. The trend of establishing libraries continued until the beginning of World War II. In 1854, four major public libraries were opened, including the Bogra Woodburn Library, the Rangpur Public Library, the Jessore Institute Public Library, and the Barisal Public Library.

The Northbrook Hall Public Library was established in Dhaka in 1882 in honour of Lord Northbrook, the Governor-General. Other libraries inaugurated in the British period included the Victoria Public Library, Natore (1901), the Sirajganj Public Library (1882), the Rajshahi Public Library (1884), the Comilla Birchandra Library (1885), the Shah Makhdum Institute Public Library, Rajshahi (1891), the Noakhali Town Hall Public Library (1896), the Prize Memorial Library, Sylhet (1897), the Chittagong Municipality Public Library (1904) and the Varendra Research Library (1910). The Great Bengal Library Association was formed in 1925.[279] The Central Public Library of Dhaka was established in 1959. The National Library of Bangladesh was established in 1972. The World Literature Centre, founded by Ramon Magsaysay Award winner Abdullah Abu Sayeed, is noted for operating numerous mobile libraries across Bangladesh and was awarded the UNESCO Jon, Amos Comenius Medal.[citation needed]

### Women

[edit]

Main article: Women in Bangladesh

See also: Gender inequality in Bangladesh

Further information: Child marriage in Bangladesh

Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain

Although as of 2015[update], several women occupied a key political office in Bangladesh, its women continue to live under a patriarchal social regime where violence is common.[280] Whereas in India and Pakistan, women participate less in the workforce as their education increases, the reverse is the case in Bangladesh.[280]

Bengal has a long history of feminist activism dating back to the 19th century. Begum Rokeya and Faizunnessa Chowdhurani played an important role in emancipating Bengali Muslim women from purdah, before the country's division, as well as promoting girls' education. Several women were elected to the Bengal Legislative Assembly in the British Raj. The first women's magazine, Begum, was published in 1948.

In 2008, Bangladeshi female workforce participation stood at 26%.[280] According to a report published by the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics in March 2023, the female labour force participation rate has reached to 42.68%.[281] in 2022 Women dominate blue collar jobs in the Bangladeshi garment industry. Agriculture, social services, healthcare, and education are chosen occupations for Bangladeshi women, while their employment in white collar positions has steadily increased.

### Performing arts

[edit]

A Baul playing the ektara at Lalon Shah's shrine in Kushtia

Theatre in Bangladesh includes various forms with a history dating back to the 4th century CE.[282] It includes narrative forms, song and dance forms, supra-personae forms, performances with scroll paintings, puppet theatre and processional forms.[282] The Jatra is the most popular form of Bengali folk theatre. The dance traditions of Bangladesh include indigenous tribal and Bengali dance forms, as well as classical Indian dances, including the Kathak, Odissi and Manipuri dances.

The music of Bangladesh features the Baul mystical tradition, listed by UNESCO as a Masterpiece of Intangible Cultural Heritage.[283] Fakir Lalon Shah popularised Baul music in the country in the 18th century and it has since been one of the most popular music genres in the country since then. Most modern Bauls are devoted to Lalon Shah.[284] Numerous lyric-based musical traditions, varying from one region to the next, exist, including Gombhira, Bhatiali and Bhawaiya. Folk music is accompanied by a one-stringed instrument known as the ektara. Other instruments include the dotara, dhol, flute, and tabla. Bengali classical music includes Tagore songs and Nazrul Sangeet. Bangladesh has a rich tradition of Indian classical music, which uses instruments like the sitar, tabla, sarod, and santoor.[285] Sabina Yasmin and Runa Laila were considered the leading playback singers in the 1990s, while musicians such as Ayub Bachchu and James are credited with popularising rock music in Bangladesh.[286][287]

### Media and cinema

[edit]

Main articles: Media of Bangladesh and Cinema of Bangladesh

Anwar Hossain playing Siraj-ud-Daulah, the last independent Nawab of Bengal, in the 1967 film Nawab Sirajuddaulah

The Bangladeshi press is diverse and privately owned. Over 200 newspapers are published in the country. Bangladesh Betar is a state-run radio service.[288] The British Broadcasting Corporation operates the popular BBC Bangla news and current affairs service. Bengali broadcasts from Voice of America are also very popular. Bangladesh Television (BTV) is the state-owned television network, operating two main television stations broadcast from Dhaka and Chittagong, alongside a satellite service known as BTV World. Around forty privately owned television networks, including several news channels, are also broadcast in the country.[289] Freedom of the media remains a major concern due to government attempts at censorship and the harassment of journalists.[citation needed]

The cinema of Bangladesh dates back to 1898 when films began screening at the Crown Theatre in Dhaka. The Dhaka Nawab Family patronised the production of several silent films in the 1920s and 30s. In 1931, the East Bengal Cinematograph Society released the first full-length feature film in Bangladesh, titled Last Kiss. The first feature film in East Pakistan, Mukh O Mukhosh, was released in 1956. During the 1960s, 25–30 films were produced annually in Dhaka. By the 2000s, Bangladesh produced 80–100 films a year. While the Bangladeshi film industry has achieved limited commercial success, the country has produced notable independent filmmakers. Zahir Raihan was a prominent documentary maker assassinated in 1971. Tareque Masud is regarded as one of Bangladesh's outstanding directors.[290][291] Masud was honoured by FIPRESCI at the 2002 Cannes Film Festival for his film The Clay Bird. Tanvir Mokammel, Mostofa Sarwar Farooki, Humayun Ahmed, Alamgir Kabir, Chashi Nazrul Islam and Sohanur Rahman Sohan, who was best known in Dhallywood for directing romantic films.[292] His film Ananta Bhalobasha released in 1999 marked a turning point in Bangladeshi cinema by introducing Shakib Khan, who is now one of the biggest superstars in the industry,[293] are some of the prominent directors of Bangladeshi cinema. Bangladesh has a very active film society culture. It started in 1963 in Dhaka. Now around 40 Film Societies are active all over Bangladesh. Federation of Film Societies of Bangladesh is the parent organisation of the film society movement of Bangladesh. Active film societies include the Rainbow Film Society, Children's Film Society, Moviyana Film Society, and Dhaka University Film Society.[citation needed]

### Textiles

[edit]

See also: Textile arts of Bangladesh and Muslin trade in Bengal

A ramp walk by a model during a fashion show in Bangladesh in 2012

The Nakshi Kantha is a centuries-old embroidery tradition for quilts, said to be indigenous to eastern Bengal (Bangladesh). The sari is the national dress for Bangladeshi women. Mughal Dhaka was renowned for producing the finest muslin saris, as well as the famed Dhakai and Jamdani, the weaving of which is listed by UNESCO as one of the masterpieces of humanity's intangible cultural heritage.[294] Bangladesh also produces the Rajshahi silk. The shalwar kameez is also widely worn by Bangladeshi women. In urban areas, some women can be seen in Western clothing. The kurta and sherwani are the national dress of Bangladeshi men; the lungi and dhoti are worn in informal settings. Aside from ethnic wear, domestically tailored suits and neckties are customarily worn by the country's men in offices, in schools, and at social events.

The handloom industry supplies 60–65% of the country's clothing demand.[295] The Bengali ethnic fashion industry has flourished. The retailer Aarong is one of South Asia's most successful ethnic wear brands. The development of the Bangladesh textile industry, which supplies leading international brands, has promoted the local production and retail of modern Western attire. The country now has several expanding local brands like Westecs and Yellow. Bangladesh is the world's second-largest garment exporter. Among Bangladesh's fashion designers, Bibi Russell has received international acclaim for her "Fashion for Development" shows.[296]

### Cuisine

[edit]

Main article: Bangladeshi cuisine

Further information: Bengali cuisine

Panta bhat with Hilsa fish, a popular dish consumed on Pahela Baishakh (Bengali New Year)

Bangladeshi cuisine, formed by its geographic location and climate, is rich and diverse; sharing its culinary heritage with the neighbouring Indian state of West Bengal.[297]: 14 The staple dish is white rice, which along with fish, forms the culinary base. Varieties of leaf vegetables, potatoes, gourds and lentils (dal) also play an important role. Curries of beef, mutton, chicken and duck are commonly consumed,[298] along with multiple types of bhortas (mashed vegetables),[299] bhajis (stir fried vegetables) and tarkaris (curried vegetables).[297]: 8 Mughal-influenced dishes include kormas, kalias, biryanis, pulaos, teharis and khichuris.[298]

Egg Chitoi Pitha Puri, Bangladeshi Local Food

Among the various used spices, turmeric, fenugreek, nigella, coriander, anise, cardamom and chili powder are widely used; a famous spice mix is the panch phoron. Condiments and herbs used include red onions, green chillies, garlic, ginger, cilantro, and mint.[297]: 12 Coconut milk, mustard paste, mustard seeds, mustard oil, ghee, achars[298] and chutneys are also widely used in the cuisine.[297]: 13–14

Fish is the main source of protein, owing to the country's riverine geography, and it is often enjoyed with its roe. The hilsa is the national fish and is immensely popular; a famous dish is shorshe ilish. Other highly consumed fishes include rohu, pangas, and tilapia.[300] Lobsters, shrimps and dried fish (shutki) also play an important role, with the chingri malai curry being a famous shrimp dish.[297]: 8 In Chittagong, famous dishes include kala bhuna and mezban, the latter being a traditionally popular feast, featuring the serving of mezbani gosht, a hot and spicy beef curry.[297]: 10 [298][301] In Sylhet, the shatkora lemons are used to marinate dishes, a notable one is beef hatkora.[301] Among the tribal communities in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, cooking with bamboo shoots is popular.[302] Khulna is renowned for using chui jhal (piper chaba) in its meat-based dishes.[301][298]

Kacchi Biryani, a popular dish originating in the capital Dhaka

Bangladesh has a vast spread of desserts, including distinctive sweets such as the rôshogolla, roshmalai, chomchom, sondesh, mishti doi and kalojaam, and jilapi.[303] Pithas are traditional boiled desserts made with rice or fruits.[304] Halwa and shemai, the latter being a variation of vermicelli; are popular desserts during religious festivities.[305][306] Ruti, naan, paratha, luchi and bakarkhani are the main local breads.[307][298] Hot milk tea is the most commonly consumed beverage in the country, being the centre of addas.[308] Borhani, mattha and lassi are popular traditionally consumed beverages.[309][310] Kebabs are widely popular, particularly seekh kebab, chapli kebab, shami kebab, chicken tikka and shashlik, along with various types of chaaps.[298] Popular street foods include chotpoti, jhal muri, shingara,[311] samosa and fuchka.[312]

### Holidays and festivals

[edit]

Main articles: Public holidays in Bangladesh and List of festivals in Bangladesh

Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali new year, is the major festival of Bengali culture and sees widespread festivities. Of the major holidays celebrated in Bangladesh, only Pahela Baishakh comes without any pre-existing expectations (specific religious identity, a culture of gift-giving, etc.) and has become an occasion for celebrating the simpler, rural roots of Bengal. Other cultural festivals include Nabonno and Poush Parbon, Bengali harvest festivals.[313]

A fair in Comilla

The Muslim festivals of Eid al-Fitr, Eid al-Adha, Mawlid, Muharram, Chand Raat, Shab-e-Barat; the Hindu festivals of Durga Puja, Janmashtami and Rath Yatra; the Buddhist festival of Buddha Purnima, which marks the birth of Gautama Buddha, and the Christian festival of Christmas are national holidays in Bangladesh and see the most widespread celebrations in the country. The two Eids are celebrated with a long streak of public holidays and allow celebrating the festivals with their families outside the city.[313]

Alongside national days like the remembrance of 21 February 1952 Language Movement Day (declared as International Mother Language Day by UNESCO in 1999),[314] Independence Day and Victory Day. On Language Movement Day, people congregate at the Shaheed Minar in Dhaka to remember the national heroes of the Bengali Language Movement. Similar gatherings are observed at the National Martyrs' Memorial on Independence Day and Victory Day to remember the national heroes of the Bangladesh Liberation War.[315]

### Sports

[edit]

Main article: Sports in Bangladesh

Bangladesh cricket team

In rural Bangladesh, several traditional indigenous sports such as Kabaddi, Boli Khela, Lathi Khela and Nouka Baich remain fairly popular. While Kabaddi is the national sport,[316] Cricket is the most popular sport in the country. The national cricket team participated in their first Cricket World Cup in 1999 and the following year was granted Test cricket status. Bangladesh reached the quarter-final of the 2015 Cricket World Cup, the semi-final of the 2017 ICC Champions Trophy and they reached the final of the Asia Cup 3 times – in 2012, 2016, and 2018. Shakib Al Hasan is widely regarded as one of the greatest All-rounders in the history of Cricket and as one of the greatest Bangladeshi sportsman ever.[317][318][319][320][321][322] On 9 February 2020, the Bangladesh youth national cricket team won the men's Under-19 Cricket World Cup, held in South Africa. This was Bangladesh's first World Cup victory.[323][324] In 2018, the Bangladesh women's national cricket team won the 2018 Women's Twenty20 Asia Cup defeating India women's national cricket team in the final.[325]

Bangladesh football team

Football is also a leading sport in Bangladesh.[326] Although football was seen as the most popular sport in the country before the 21st century, success in cricket has overshadowed its previous popularity. The first instance of a national football team was the emergence of the Shadhin Bangla Team, which played friendly matches throughout India to raise international awareness about the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971.[327] On 25 July 1971, the team's captain, Zakaria Pintoo, became the first person to hoist the Bangladesh flag on foreign land before their match in Nadia district of West Bengal.[328] Following independence, the national football team participated in the AFC Asian Cup (1980), becoming only the second South Asian team to do so.[329] Bangladesh's most notable achievements in football include the 2003 SAFF Gold Cup and 1999 South Asian Games. In 2022, the Bangladesh women's national football team won the 2022 SAFF Women's Championship.[330][331]

Bangladesh archers Ety Khatun and Roman Sana won several gold medals winning all the 10 archery events (both individual and team events) in the 2019 South Asian Games.[332] The National Sports Council regulates 42 sporting federations.[333] Chess is very popular in Bangladesh. Bangladesh has five grandmasters in chess. Among them, Niaz Murshed was the first grandmaster in South Asia.[334] In 2010, mountain climber Musa Ibrahim became the first Bangladeshi climber to conquer Mount Everest.[335] Wasfia Nazreen is the first Bangladeshi climber to climb the Seven Summits.[336]

Bangladesh hosts several international tournaments. Bangabandhu Cup is an international football tournament hosted in the country. Bangladesh hosted the South Asian Games several times. Bangladesh co-hosted the ICC Cricket World Cup 2011 with India and Sri Lanka in 2011. Bangladesh solely hosted the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 championship. Bangladesh hosted the Cricket Asia Cup in 2000, 2012, 2014 and 2016. Bangladesh has also hosted the 1985 Men's Hockey Asia Cup.[337]

## See also

[edit]

* Bangladesh portal
* Asia portal

* Index of Bangladesh-related articles
* Outline of Bangladesh
* East Bengal

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ /ˌbæŋɡləˈdɛʃ, ˌbɑːŋ-/; Bengali: বাংলাদেশ, romanized: Bāṅlādēś, pronounced [ˈbaŋlaˌdeʃ] ⓘ
2. ^ Bengali: গণপ্রজাতন্ত্রী বাংলাদেশ, romanized: Gôṇôprôjātôntrī Bāṅlādēś, pronounced [ɡɔnopɾodʒat̪ɔnt̪ɾi‿baŋlad̪eʃ]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh". Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 1 February 2017.
2. ^ বাংলা ভাষা প্রচলন আইন, ১৯৮৭ [Bengali Language Implementation Act, 1987]. bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd (in Bengali). Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. Archived from the original on 7 January 2024. Retrieved 7 January 2024.
3. ^ Historical Evolution of English in Bangladesh (PDF). Mohammad Nurul Islam. 1 March 2019. pp. 9–. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 February 2024. Retrieved 10 November 2023.
4. ^ "Ethnic population in 2022 census" (PDF).
5. ^ "Census data confirm decline of Bangladesh's religious minorities". asianews.it. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
6. ^ The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh ( ACT NO. OF 1972 ). (n.d.). In Bangladesh. Retrieved 13 June 2023, from http://bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd/act-367/section-24549.html Archived 17 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
7. ^ "Population of minority religions decrease further in Bangladesh". The Business Standard. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 5 May 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
8. ^ a b c d "Bangladesh". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 13 November 2021. (Archived 2021 edition.)
9. ^ a b "Population and Housing Census 2022: Post Enumeration Check (PEC) Adjusted Population" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. 18 April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 30 May 2023.
10. ^ "Report: 68% Bangladeshis live in villages". Dhaka Tribune. 28 November 2023. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
11. ^ "Download World Economic Outlook database: April 2023". International Monetary Fund – IMF. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
12. ^ "Download World Economic Outlook database: April 2023". International Monetary Fund – IMF. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
13. ^ "Download World Economic Outlook database: April 2023". IMF. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
14. ^ "Download World Economic Outlook database: April 2023". IMF. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 4 December 2023.
15. ^ "KEY FINDINGS HIES 2022" (PDF) (Press release). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. p. 15\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 13 April 2023.
16. ^ Nations, United (13 March 2024). "Human Development Report 2023-24". Archived from the original on 18 March 2024. Retrieved 18 March 2024 - via hdr.undp.org.
17. ^ Frank E. Eyetsemitan; James T. Gire (2003). Aging and Adult Development in the Developing World: Applying Western Theories and Concepts. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 91\. ISBN 978-0-89789-925-3. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
18. ^ "Muslim League – Banglapedia". Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 20 March 2024.
19. ^ "Bangladesh profile – Timeline". BBC News. 26 February 2019. Archived from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
20. ^ "Bangladesh" (PDF). U.S. State Department. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 7 November 2016.
21. ^ "Article Preamble, Section Preamble" (PDF). Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. 4 November 1972.
22. ^ "A rising Bangladesh starts to exert its regional power". The Interpreter. Lowyinstitute.org. 21 February 2019. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
23. ^ "Contribution of Uniformed Personnel to UN by Country and Personnel Type" (PDF). United Nations. 4 April 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
24. ^ Roy, Pinaki; Deshwara, Mintu (9 August 2022). "Ethnic population in 2022 census: Real picture not reflected". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 9 August 2022. Retrieved 11 August 2022.
25. ^ Mahmud, Faisal. "Four years on, Rohingya stuck in Bangladesh camps yearn for home". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
26. ^ "Notation of song aaji bangladesher hridoy". Archived from the original on 4 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015.
27. ^ "Bangladesh: early history, 1000 B.C.–A.D. 1202". Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress. September 1988. Archived from the original on 7 December 2013. Retrieved 1 December 2014. "Historians believe that Bengal, the area comprising present-day Bangladesh and the Indian state of West Bengal, was settled in about 1000 B.C. by Dravidian-speaking peoples who were later known as the Bang. Their homeland bore various titles that reflected earlier tribal names, such as Vanga, Banga, Bangala, Bangal, and Bengal."
28. ^ "Vanga | ancient kingdom, India". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 July 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
29. ^ Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 220\. ISBN 978-0-87113-800-2. "In C1020 ... launched Rajendra's great northern escapade ... peoples he defeated have been tentatively identified ... 'Vangala-desa where the rain water never stopped' sounds like a fair description of Bengal in the monsoon."
30. ^ a b Sen, Sailendra Nath (1999) [First published 1988]. Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. p. 281\. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0. Archived from the original on 16 January 2023. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
31. ^ a b Ahmed, Salahuddin (2004). Bangladesh: Past and Present. APH Publishing. p. 23\. ISBN 978-81-7648-469-5. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 14 May 2016.
32. ^ "But the most important development of this period was that the country for the first time received a name, ie Bangalah." Banglapedia: Islam, Bengal Archived 23 July 2015 at the Wayback Machine
33. ^ Sircar, D.C. (1971) [First published 1960]. Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India (2nd ed.). Motilal Banarsidass. p. 135\. ISBN 978-81-208-0690-0. Archived from the original on 6 February 2023. Retrieved 19 April 2016.
34. ^ Land of Two Rivers, Nitish Sengupta
35. ^ RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal Archived 15 December 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.
36. ^ a b "Pre-Pandemic Level: Poverty set to drop further". The Daily Star. 8 October 2021. Archived from the original on 3 December 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
37. ^ "What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years". 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
38. ^ "Bangladesh: Reducing Poverty and Sharing Prosperity". World Bank. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
39. ^ a b "Bangladesh ranked 41st largest economy in 2019 all over the world". The Daily Star. 8 January 2019. Archived from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
40. ^ a b c d Sayeed Iftekhar Ahmed (18 March 2022). "Where do Bangladesh and Pakistan stand after 50 years of separation?". Scroll.in. Archived from the original on 4 April 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
41. ^ a b Sharma, Mihir (31 May 2021). "South Asia Should Pay Attention to Its Standout Star" (Opinion). Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
42. ^ ". Spearheading sustainable industries" Archived 18 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Dhaka Tribune. 6 August 2023.
43. ^ "Bangladesh's prime minister flees country and resigns after deadly protest". Sky News. 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 5 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
44. ^ "Bangladesh PM has resigned and left country, reports say". The Guardian. 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
45. ^ "Bangladesh PM Sheikh Hasina has resigned and left the country, media reports say". Reuters. 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 6 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
46. ^ "Bangladesh PM Sheikh Hasina resigns and flees as protesters storm palace". The Straits Times. Singapore. 5 August 2024. Archived from the original on 7 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
47. ^ "Bangladesh PM Sheikh Hasina has resigned and left the country, media reports say". South China Morning Post. 5 August 2024. Retrieved 5 August 2024.
48. ^ "Yunus-led interim govt sworn in". The Daily Star. 8 August 2024. Archived from the original on 8 August 2024. Retrieved 8 August 2024.
49. ^ Aditi Rajagopal (8 February 2020). "How the World's Largest Delta Might Slowly Go Under Water". Discovery. Archived from the original on 8 February 2020. Retrieved 9 March 2020.
50. ^ "No Place Like Home – BANGLADESH: LAND OF RIVERS". Environmental Justice Foundation. Archived from the original on 30 September 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.
51. ^ Suvedī, Sūryaprasāda (2005). International watercourses law for the 21st century. Ashgate Publishing. pp. 154–166. ISBN 978-0-7546-4527-6.
52. ^ Ali, A. (1996). "Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution. 92 (1–2): 171–179. Bibcode:1996WASP...92..171A. doi:10.1007/BF00175563. S2CID 93611792. Archived from the original on 1 February 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.
53. ^ a b "Bangladesh". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 15 May 2007. (Archived 2007 edition.)
54. ^ "Map of Dinajpur". kantaji.com. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 17 April 2015.
55. ^ Alexander, David E. (1999) [1993]. "The Third World". Natural Disasters. Kluwer Academic Publishers. p. 532\. ISBN 978-0-412-04751-0.
56. ^ "Beset by Bay's Killer Storms, Bangladesh Prepares and Hopes Archived 2 September 2024 at the Wayback Machine ". Los Angeles Times. 27 February 2005
57. ^ Haggett, Peter (2002) [2002]. "The Indian Subcontinent". Encyclopedia of World Geography. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2, 634. ISBN 978-0-7614-7308-4. OCLC 46578454. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
58. ^ Raju, M. N. A. (10 March 2018). "Disaster Preparedness for Sustainable Development in Bangladesh". Daily Sun. Archived from the original on 24 July 2021. Retrieved 26 September 2019.
59. ^ "Bangladesh flood death toll nears 500, thousands ill". Reuters. 15 August 2007. Archived from the original on 5 February 2008. Retrieved 15 August 2007.
60. ^ Kulp, Scott A.; Strauss, Benjamin H. (29 October 2019). "New elevation data triple estimates of global vulnerability to sea-level rise and coastal flooding". Nature Communications. 10 (1): 4844. Bibcode:2019NatCo..10.4844K. doi:10.1038/s41467-019-12808-z. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 6820795. PMID 31664024.
61. ^ "Report: Flooded Future: Global vulnerability to sea level rise worse than previously understood". climatecentral.org. 29 October 2019. Archived from the original on 2 November 2019. Retrieved 3 November 2019.
62. ^ Chaturvedi, Sanjay (29 April 2016). Climate Change and the Bay of Bengal. Flipside Digital Content Company Inc. ISBN 978-981-4762-01-4. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 25 July 2023.
63. ^ Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, 2008 (PDF). Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. 2008. ISBN 978-984-8574-25-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2009.
64. ^ Glennon, Robert. "The Unfolding Tragedy of Climate Change in Bangladesh". Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 23 November 2017.
65. ^ "Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100". The Dutch water sector. 20 May 2019. Archived from the original on 13 May 2023. Retrieved 24 September 2019.
66. ^ "Bangladesh Delta Plan (BDP) 2100" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
67. ^ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant; Noss, Reed; Hansen, Matt; Locke, Harvey; Ellis, Erle C; Jones, Benjamin; Barber, Charles Victor; Hayes, Randy; Kormos, Cyril; Martin, Vance; Crist, Eileen; Sechrest, Wes; Price, Lori; Baillie, Jonathan E. M.; Weeden, Don; Suckling, Kierán; Davis, Crystal; Sizer, Nigel; Moore, Rebecca; Thau, David; Birch, Tanya; Potapov, Peter; Turubanova, Svetlana; Tyukavina, Alexandra; de Souza, Nadia; Pintea, Lilian; Brito, José C.; Llewellyn, Othman A.; Miller, Anthony G.; Patzelt, Annette; Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Timberlake, Jonathan; Klöser, Heinz; Shennan-Farpón, Yara; Kindt, Roeland; Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow; van Breugel, Paulo; Graudal, Lars; Voge, Maianna; Al-Shammari, Khalaf F.; Saleem, Muhammad (2017). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
68. ^ a b Bangladesh | history – geography :: Plant and animal life Archived 3 February 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
69. ^ "Flora and Fauna – Bangladesh high commission in India". Bangladesh High Commission, New Delhi. Archived from the original on 20 August 2013.
70. ^ Soraya Auer; Anika Hossain (7 July 2012). "Lost Wards of the State". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
71. ^ Peter Haggett (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography. Marshall Cavendish. p. 2620\. ISBN 978-0-7614-7289-6. Archived from the original on 28 March 2024. Retrieved 20 January 2017.
72. ^ a b "Bears in Bangladesh". Bangladesh Bear Project. Archived from the original on 14 February 2015. Retrieved 14 February 2015.
73. ^ "6,000 Rare, Large River Dolphins Found in Bangladesh". National Geographic. March 2009. Archived from the original on 12 October 2014. Retrieved 13 February 2015.
74. ^ Hossain, Muhammad Selim (23 May 2009). "Conserving biodiversity must for survival". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 30 May 2015. Retrieved 30 May 2015.
75. ^ Suny, Rabby Us; Sarkar, Oliver Tirtho; Hasan, Md Abid (20 June 2022), "Political Economy of River Ecocide in Bangladesh: A Study in the Context of Dhaleshwari River", Politics of Climate Change, WORLD SCIENTIFIC, pp. 83–103, doi:10.1142/9789811263750_0005, ISBN 978-981-12-6374-3, archived from the original on 10 July 2023, retrieved 10 July 2023
76. ^ Zaman, Samia (7 June 2023). "The Bangladesh Environmental Humanities Reader: by Samina Luthfa, Mohammad Tanzimuddin Khan, and Munasir Kamal, Lanham, Lexinton Books, 2022 ISBN:978-1-4985-9913-9 and 978-1-4985-9914-6". Environmental Politics. 32 (4): 752–754. doi:10.1080/09644016.2023.2192149. ISSN 0964-4016. S2CID 257785219.
77. ^ a b "Bangladesh – Country Profile". cbd.int. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2015.
78. ^ "Is Bangladesh becoming an autocracy?". Deutsche Welle. 27 March 2018. Archived from the original on 23 December 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
79. ^ Kabir, A. (12 August 2013). "No Meritocracy: Bangladesh's Civil Service". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 9 October 2019. Retrieved 9 October 2019.
80. ^ "President". The Nexus Commonwealth Network. Archived from the original on 10 October 2019. Retrieved 10 October 2019.
81. ^ "Amendment to anti-torture law to hinder HR protection, says ASK". New Age. Archived from the original on 23 January 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
82. ^ Shahid, S. A. (18 January 2019). "Deputy speaker from opposition, no chance for war criminals". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 14 October 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2019.
83. ^ "National Web Portal of Bangladesh". Bangladesh Government. 15 September 2015. Archived from the original on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 23 September 2015.
84. ^ "Rangpur becomes a divivion". bdnews24.com. 25 January 2010. Archived from the original on 3 September 2015. Retrieved 6 August 2011.
85. ^ a b "Bangladesh changes English spellings of five districts". bdnews24.com. 2 April 2018. Archived from the original on 15 December 2020. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
86. ^ Local Government Act, No. 20, 1997
87. ^ "Health Bulletin 2016" (PDF). Directorate General of Health Services. p. 14\. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2022.
88. ^ "Population Projection of Bangladesh: Dynamics and Trends, 2011–2061" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. November 2015. pp. 25–28. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
89. ^ Hassan, Asif Muztaba (16 December 2021). "Bangladesh at 50: On the Path to Becoming a Middle Power". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
90. ^ Karim, Tariq A. (21 May 2022). "Understanding the Importance of Bangladesh in the Bay of Bengal and the Indo-Pacific". National Bureau of Asian Research. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
91. ^ Rahman, Mustafizur; Moazzem, Khondaker Golam; Chowdhury, Mehruna Islam; Sehrin, Farzana (September 2014). "Connecting South Asia and Southeast Asia: A Bangladesh Country Study" (PDF). Asian Development Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
92. ^ Sajen, Shamsuddoza (18 April 2020). "Bangladesh enters Commonwealth". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
93. ^ Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy (26 September 2014). "Bangladesh marks 40 years as Member State of the UN". United Nations. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
94. ^ "Roundtable on 'Non Traditional Security Threats in the Indo-Pacific Region' – NTS-Asia". 30 August 2022. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
95. ^ De, Prabir; Bhattacharyay, Biswa N. (September 2007). "Prospects of India–Bangladesh Economic Cooperation: Implications for South Asian Regional Cooperation" (PDF). Asian Development Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
96. ^ "Bangladesh an example of religious harmony: OIC". The Daily Star. 21 March 2021. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
97. ^ "Bangladesh receives "International Peace Award" as D-8 founding member". The Daily Star. 1 August 2022. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
98. ^ "Regional Trade and Connectivity in South Asia Gets More Than $1 Billion Boost from World Bank". Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
99. ^ a b "Bangladesh Is Not My Country". Human Rights Watch. 5 August 2018. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
100. ^ "Bangladesh and Myanmar Resume Talks on Rohingya Repatriation". Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
101. ^ "Bangladesh tells UN that Rohingya refugees must return to Myanmar". Al Jazeera. 17 August 2022. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
102. ^ "India-Bangladesh Bilateral Relations" (PDF). Ministry of External Affairs (India). March 2021. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
103. ^ "India and Bangladesh Conflict over the Ganges River | Climate-Diplomacy". January 1957. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
104. ^ Karim, Sajid (November 2020). Transboundary Water Cooperation between Bangladesh and India in the Ganges River Basin: Exploring a Benefit-sharing Approach (PDF) (Master's). Uppsala University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
105. ^ Banerji, Anuttama (9 April 2021). "India Must Settle the Teesta River Dispute With Bangladesh for Lasting Gains". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
106. ^ Kamruzzaman, Md. (11 February 2021). "'Unlawful killings' along India border: Bangladeshi families seek justice". Anadolu Agency. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
107. ^ Anik, Syed Samiul Basher (22 December 2020). "Bangladesh sees highest border deaths in 10 years". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
108. ^ Janjua, Haroon (30 March 2021). "Should Pakistan apologize to Bangladesh for the 1971 war?". DW News. Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
109. ^ Bhattacharjee, Joyeeta (27 June 2018). "Decoding China-Bangladesh relationship". Observer Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
110. ^ Shazzad, Hussain (10 February 2022). "50 Years of Japan-Bangladesh Ties: From Economic to Strategic Partnership". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 26 September 2022. Retrieved 26 September 2022.
111. ^ "Bangladesh and Saudi Arabia have extremely cordial relations – Rizvi". 27 March 2013. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
112. ^ "Middle East dual shock spillover on Bangladesh's remittance". 19 July 2020. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
113. ^ "Experts: Middle East remains key to Bangladesh's fortunes in a changing world". Dhaka Tribune. 29 June 2022. Archived from the original on 27 September 2022. Retrieved 27 September 2022.
114. ^ "COP26 and Bangladesh: Time to Consolidate Climate Diplomacy". 11 October 2021. Archived from the original on 28 September 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
115. ^ "The Military and Democracy in Bangladesh". press-files.anu.edu.au. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
116. ^ *International Institute for Strategic Studies (14 February 2018). The Military Balance 2018. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-85743-955-7.
117. ^ Including service and civilian personnel. See Bangladesh Navy. Retrieved 17 July 2007.
118. ^ "Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
119. ^ Alif, Abdullah (11 June 2020). "Budget FY21: Military spending increases by Tk2,327 crore". Dhaka Trbiune. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
120. ^ Balachandran, P.K. (12 April 2017). "Rivals India and China woo Bangladesh with aid totalling $46 b". Daily FT. Archived from the original on 28 July 2017. Retrieved 27 July 2017.
121. ^ Bhattacharjee, Joyeeta (May 2020). "Migration, river management, radicalisation: What does the future hold for India-Bangladesh relations?". Observer Research Foundation. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
122. ^ "Bangladesh and India's Northeast: A security perspective". The Daily Star. 15 October 2011. Archived from the original on 8 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
123. ^ Anu Anwar, Michael Kugelman (1 December 2021). "The U.S. Should Deepen Ties With Bangladesh". Foreignpolicy.com. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
124. ^ Kinne, Brandon J. (15 August 2018). "Defense Cooperation Agreements and the Emergence of a Global Security Network". International Organization. 72 (4): 799–837. doi:10.1017/S0020818318000218. S2CID 158722872.
125. ^ Paul, Bimal Kanti (2005). "Bangladeshi American Response to the 1998 Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA): An Assessment". The Professional Geographer. 57 (4): 495–505. Bibcode:2005ProfG..57..495P. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9272.2005.00494.x. S2CID 129498633. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
126. ^ Ashraf, Nazmul (11 May 2002). "U.S. keen on military ties with Dhaka | Uae". Gulf News. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 14 February 2022.
127. ^ "US wants 2 defence deals with Bangladesh". The Daily Star. 18 October 2019. Archived from the original on 7 February 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2022.
128. ^ "Bangladesh ratifies nuclear weapons prohibition treaty". Dhaka Tribune. 28 September 2020. Archived from the original on 20 September 2020. Retrieved 15 August 2020.
129. ^ "Detail". bti-project.org. Archived from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
130. ^ "The rise and fade of NGOs?". 26 October 2021. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
131. ^ "Bangladesh's NGOs at 50: a conversation between David Lewis and Naomi Hossain". 25 October 2021. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
132. ^ "Is our civil society dead?". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
133. ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh | 35\. Protection in respect of trial and punishment". bdlaws.minlaw.gov.bd. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
134. ^ Mashraf, Ali (29 September 2020). "Jonny's custodial death case: Lessons learned from the verdict". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
135. ^ "Bangladesh: Prisoner of conscience faces prolonged detention: Shahidul Alam". Amnesty International. 11 September 2018. Archived from the original on 8 January 2022. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
136. ^ "Bangladesh: Senior Awami League politician in danger of torture" (PDF) (Press release). Amnesty International. 9 January 2003. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
137. ^ Mahmud, Faisal. "Bangladesh to tone down 'draconian' digital security law". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
138. ^ "Bangladesh: IPI welcomes repeal and replacement of Digital Security Act". 18 August 2023. Archived from the original on 26 February 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
139. ^ "Treasury Sanctions Perpetrators of Serious Human Rights Abuse on International Human Rights Day". U.S. Department of the Treasury. Archived from the original on 26 February 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
140. ^ "Bangladesh: Country Profile". Freedom House. 30 March 2022. Archived from the original on 12 February 2015. Retrieved 18 February 2015.
141. ^ Bangladesh Archived 12 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Freedom House. Retrieved 27 April 2015.
142. ^ "Bangladesh – Country report – Freedom in the World – 2016". freedomhouse.org. 27 January 2016. Archived from the original on 10 June 2016. Retrieved 12 May 2016.
143. ^ "Democracy Index 2014: Democracy and its discontents" (PDF). The Economist. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022 - via Sudestada.com.uy.
144. ^ "Global Peace Index 2022" (PDF). Institute for Economics & Peace. June 2022. pp. 10–11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 16 June 2022.
145. ^ Ridwanul Hoque (5 August 2015). "Clashing ideologies". D+C, development and cooperation. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 21 December 2015.
146. ^ Knight, Kyle (18 January 2019). "LGBT Activists Are Using Visual Arts to Change Hearts and Minds in Bangladesh". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
147. ^ Ashif Islam Shaon (27 April 2016). "Where does Bangladesh stand on homosexuality issue?". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 5 June 2017. Retrieved 30 May 2017.
148. ^ "Bangladesh authorities arrest 27 men on suspicion of being gay". The Independent. 19 May 2017. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 21 June 2019.
149. ^ "Understanding the Lives of Bangladesh's LGBTI Community". International Republican Institute. 8 April 2021. Archived from the original on 8 March 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
150. ^ Shakil Bin Mushtaq. "Bangladesh Adds Third Gender Option to Voter Forms". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 15 August 2019.
151. ^ Rahman, Mukhlesur (30 April 2009). "Organised crimes by hijras shoot up". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
152. ^ "Architect Imtiaz killed by gay app-based racket". New Age. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 26 February 2024.
153. ^ Kevin Bales; et al. "Bangladesh". The Global Slavery Index 2016. The Minderoo Foundation. Archived from the original on 13 March 2018. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
154. ^ Bales, Kevin (2016). Blood and Earth: Modern Slavery, Ecocide, and the Secret to Saving the World (First ed.). Spiegel & Grau. pp. 71–97. ISBN 978-0-8129-9576-3.
155. ^ Siddharth, Kara (2012). Bonded Labor: Tackling the System of Slavery in South Asia. Columbia University Press. pp. 104–22.
156. ^ McGoogan, Cara; Rashid, Muktadir (23 October 2016). "Satellites reveal 'child slave camps' in Unesco-protected park in Bangladesh". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 13 March 2018.
157. ^ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2018 – Transparency International". Transparency International. Archived from the original on 30 January 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2017.
158. ^ Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Archived 7 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 1
159. ^ Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Archived 7 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 12
160. ^ Corruption in Service Sectors: National Household Survey 2015 Archived 7 January 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Transparency International Bangladesh, Dhaka, 2016, p. 21
161. ^ The Business of Bribes: Bangladesh: The Blowback of Corruption Archived 9 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Public Broadcasting Services, Arlington, Virginia, 2009
162. ^ "Overview of corruption and anti-corruption in Bangladesh". U4. Archived from the original on 8 November 2015. Retrieved 9 December 2015.
163. ^ "ACC largely ineffective". The Daily Star. 21 May 2014. Archived from the original on 29 July 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
164. ^ "Anti Corruption Commission and Political Government: An Evaluation of Awami League Regime (2009–2012) | Government and Politics, JU". govpoliju.com. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2016.
165. ^ "Country on a Mission: The Remarkable Story of Bangladesh's Development Journey". World Bank. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
166. ^ "New directions for human development in Bangladesh". Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 1 February 2024.
167. ^ a b "Bangladesh – Market Overview". Trade.gov. 20 July 2022. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
168. ^ "How 100% electrification changed the rural game". The Business Standard. 14 March 2022. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
169. ^ "Bangladesh attains full electricity coverage with inauguration of China-funded power plant-Xinhua". English.news.cn. 23 March 2022. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
170. ^ "Electricity now in every house". The Daily Star. 22 March 2022. Archived from the original on 30 November 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
171. ^ "PM Hasina: 1 million families get free homes under Ashrayan project". Dhaka Tribune. 28 September 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
172. ^ "What milestones have Bangladesh crossed in 50 years". 26 March 2021. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
173. ^ "Bangladesh: Reducing Poverty and Sharing Prosperity". World Bank. Archived from the original on 3 January 2023. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
174. ^ "Population census 2022: Bangladesh's literacy rate now 74.66%". The Daily Star. 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
175. ^ "Labor force, total – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
176. ^ "Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
177. ^ Razzaque, Mohammad A.; Khondker, Bazlul H.; Eusuf, Abu. "Promoting inclusive growth in Bangladesh through special economic zones" (PDF). asiafoundation.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 October 2021. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
178. ^ "Floriculture: A lucrative sector in Bangladesh". The Business Standard. 12 September 2020. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
179. ^ Kabir, S. Humayun. "Sea Food Export from Bangladesh and Current Status of Traceability" (PDF). unescap.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 28 May 2016. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
180. ^ "Public sector needs to keep pace with private sector". The Business Standard. 20 January 2022. Archived from the original on 6 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
181. ^ "DS30 Index | Dhaka Stock Exchange". dse.com.bd.
182. ^ "Mobile Phone Subscribers in Bangladesh January, 2021 | BTRC". btrc.gov.bd. Archived from the original on 24 December 2021. Retrieved 24 December 2021.
183. ^ Ahaduzzaman; Sarkar, Prottasha; Anjum, Aniqa; Khan, Easir A. (7 December 2017). "Overview of Major Industries in Bangladesh". Journal of Chemical Engineering. 30 (1): 51–58. doi:10.3329/jce.v30i1.34798.
184. ^ "Muhammed Aziz Khan". Forbes. Archived from the original on 23 November 2022. Retrieved 23 November 2022.
185. ^ Ahmed, Md Tuhin (11 August 2022). "Economic impact of Padma Bridge". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 29 November 2023.
186. ^ Mahmud, Faisal (25 June 2022). "Bangladesh Unveils Padma River Bridge". VOA. Archived from the original on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
187. ^ "Padma Bridge collects over Tk52 crore tolls in 20 days". The Business Standard. 16 July 2022. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023.
188. ^ Byron, Rejaul Karim; Hasan, Mahmudul (28 November 2021). "Tourism's share 3.02% in GDP". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
189. ^ "International tourism, receipts (current US$) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
190. ^ "Tentative Lists". Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
191. ^ Lonely Planet's Best in Travel. Lonely Planet. 2011. ISBN 978-1-74220-090-3. Archived from the original on 24 February 1999. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
192. ^ "Top 10 best value destinations for 2011". Lonely Planet. 2011. Archived from the original on 16 January 2017. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
193. ^ a b "Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index 2019 edition: Bangladesh" (PDF). World Travel and Tourism Council. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
194. ^ "Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2013: Bangladesh" (PDF). World Travel and Tourism Council. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 October 2013.
195. ^ "Bangladesh Solar Home Systems Provide Clean Energy for 20 million People". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
196. ^ "Palki: An affordable locally assembled Electric Vehicle on its way". The Daily Star. 26 August 2022. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
197. ^ Mang, Heinz-Peter. "Situation Analysis of Agro-Industrial Biogas Plants in Bangladesh" (PDF). sreeda.gov.bd. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
198. ^ "Natural Gas – Underexplored in Bangladesh?". GEO ExPro. 15 December 2021. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
199. ^ "Bangladesh: Asia's New Energy Superpower?". Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
200. ^ "Imported LNG to be 24 times more expensive than local gas: CPD". The Business Standard. 13 February 2022. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
201. ^ "Bangladesh halts expensive spot LNG imports despite load-shedding". Reuters. 20 July 2022.
202. ^ Imam, Badrul (26 December 2021). "Let us not become dependent on LNG import". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 3 October 2022. Retrieved 3 October 2022.
203. ^ "Bangladesh is being 'killed by economic conditions elsewhere in the world'". Financial Times. London. 24 August 2022. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
204. ^ "Summit signs 22-year PPA for upcoming 583 MW gas power plant; GE to co-develop plant in Bangladesh". GE News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 23 October 2022.
205. ^ "Bangladesh – Power and Energy". 20 July 2022. Archived from the original on 5 October 2022. Retrieved 5 October 2022.
206. ^ Devnath, Arun (7 August 2022). "Bangladesh Plans Staggered Factory Holidays to Ease Power Crunch". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 12 October 2022.
207. ^ "Bangladesh gets first uranium shipment from Russia for its Moscow-built nuclear power plant". Associated Press News. 5 October 2023. Archived from the original on 9 December 2023. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
208. ^ CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Population 1971–2009 IEA (pdf. pp. 87–89)
209. ^ a b c d e "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
210. ^ "Population density (people per sq. km of land area) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
211. ^ "Fertility rate, total (births per woman) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 16 September 2021. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
212. ^ Bora, Jayanta Kumar; Saikia, Nandita; Kebede, Endale Birhanu; Lutz, Wolfgang (21 January 2022). "Revisiting the causes of fertility decline in Bangladesh: the relative importance of female education and family planning programs". Asian Population Studies. 19. Routledge: 81–104. doi:10.1080/17441730.2022.2028253. S2CID 246183181.
213. ^ "Urban population (% of total population) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
214. ^ "Population ages 0–14 (% of total population) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
215. ^ "Population ages 65 and above (% of total population) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
216. ^ Rashiduzzaman, M (1998). "Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns". Asian Survey. 38 (7): 653–70. doi:10.2307/2645754. JSTOR 2645754.
217. ^ Note on the nationality status of the Urdu-speaking community in Bangladesh Archived 22 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine. UNHCR – The UN Refugee Agency.
218. ^ Population and Housing Census 2022: Report on Socio-Economic and Demographic Survey 2023 (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. June 2024. p. xx. ISBN 978-984-35-2977-0. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 June 2024. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
219. ^ a b Rahim, Enayetur (1989). "Ethnicity and Linguistic Diversity". In Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert L. (eds.). Bangladesh: a country study. Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p. 59\. OCLC 49223313. Archived from the original on 28 March 2014. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
220. ^ Khan, Sameer Ud Dowla (21 February 2018). "Amago Basha". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 23 September 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
221. ^ Rahman, Mohammad Mosiur; Islam, Mohammad Shaiful; Karim, Abdul; Chowdhury, Takad Ahmed; Rahman, Muhammad Mushfiqur; Ibna Seraj, Prodhan Mahbub; Mehar Singh, Manjet Kaur (5 June 2019). "English language teaching in Bangladesh today: Issues, outcomes, and implications". Language Testing in Asia. 9 (9). doi:10.1186/s40468-019-0085-8. S2CID 189801612.
222. ^ Seung, Kim; Kim, Amy (2010). "The Santali cluster in Bangladesh: a sociolinguistic survey" (PDF). Survey Report. SIL International. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
223. ^ Ashrafi, Shah Tazrian (19 January 2021). "How the Urdu language and literature slipped into darkness in Bangladesh". TRT World (Opinion). Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 24 September 2022.
224. ^ "Census 2022: Bangladesh population now 165 million". 27 July 2022. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 28 July 2022.
225. ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh (part II)". Laws of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 19 January 2023. Retrieved 21 June 2022.
226. ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh". Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 17 May 2019. "Article 2A. – The state religion and Article 12. – Secularism and freedom of religion"
227. ^ "Bangladesh's Constitution of 1972, Reinstated in 1986, with Amendments through 2014" (PDF). constituteproject.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 October 2016. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
228. ^ Bergman, David (28 March 2016). "Bangladesh court upholds Islam as the religion of the state". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 6 January 2019. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
229. ^ "Report on International Religious Freedom". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on 26 May 2019. Retrieved 24 June 2017.
230. ^ a b "Religions in Bangladesh | PEW-GRF". Archived from the original on 27 November 2019. Retrieved 26 June 2022.
231. ^ a b "Know Bangladesh". Government of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 9 October 2018. Retrieved 10 October 2018.
232. ^ "Muslim Population by Country". Pew Research. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 26 July 2013. Retrieved 23 October 2013.
233. ^ ১০ বছরে ৯ লাখ হিন্দু কমেছে [Hindus reduced by 9 lakh in 10 years]. Prothom Alo (in Bengali). Archived from the original on 24 December 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2015.
234. ^ "The Constitution of the People's Republic of Bangladesh: Article 17 (Free and compulsory education)". Legislative and Parliamentary Affairs Division, Ministry of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
235. ^ "State minister: Literacy rate now 74.7%". Dhaka Tribune. BSS. 8 September 2020. Archived from the original on 14 April 2021. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
236. ^ "Bangladesh". UNESCO Institute for Statistics. 27 November 2016. Archived from the original on 28 March 2021. Retrieved 30 March 2021.
237. ^ a b info@ugc.gov.bd, University Grants Commission of Bangladesh. "List of Public Universities | University Grants Commission of Bangladesh". List of Public Universities | University Grants Commission of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 17 July 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
238. ^ "University Grant Commission (UGC)". Ministry of Education, Government of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 1 December 2012. Retrieved 29 March 2008.
239. ^ T. Neville Postlethwaite (1988). The Encyclopedia of Comparative Education and National Systems of Education. Pergamon Press. p. 130\. ISBN 978-0-08-030853-1.
240. ^ Mamun, Mohammed A.; Griffiths, Mark D. (2022). "Young Teenage Suicides in Bangladesh—Are Mandatory Junior School Certificate Exams to Blame?". International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. 20 (3): 1627–1631. doi:10.1007/s11469-020-00275-3. ISSN 1557-1874. S2CID 216076151.
241. ^ "News". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 10 August 2023. Retrieved 8 August 2023.
242. ^ info@ugc.gov.bd, University Grants Commission of Bangladesh. "List of Private Universities | University Grants Commission of Bangladesh". List of Private Universities | University Grants Commission of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 4 December 2023. Retrieved 24 June 2020.
243. ^ Mahmud, Tarek (19 October 2017). "Chittagong University: A model of campus tourism". Dhaka Tribune. Archived from the original on 7 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
244. ^ "Dhaka College". Banglapedia. Archived from the original on 28 September 2023. Retrieved 13 September 2023.
245. ^ WIPO (31 May 2024). Global Innovation Index 2023, 15th Edition. World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 978-92-805-3432-0. Archived from the original on 23 February 2024. Retrieved 29 October 2023.
246. ^ Byron, Rejaul Karim; Alamgir, Mohiuddin (1 July 2020). "Life expectancy rises". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
247. ^ "Chapter-5 | Health Services Division" (PDF). Ministry of Finance (Bangladesh). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
248. ^ a b c Ahmed, Syed Masud; Alam, Bushra Binte; Anwar, Iqbal; Begum, Tahmina; Huque, Rumana; AM Khan, Jahangir; Nababan, Herfina; Osman, Ferdaus Arfina (2015). Naheed, Aliya; Hort, Krishna (eds.). Bangladesh Health System Review (PDF). Vol. 5\. World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-9061-705-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 24 November 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
249. ^ "Health Ministry split into 2 divisions". New Age. 20 March 2017. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022. "The government has now split the Health and Family Welfare Ministry into two divisions. The new divisions under the ministry are — Health Services Division and Medical Education and Family Welfare Division."
250. ^ Ahmed, Syed Masud; Hossain, Md Awlad; Chowdhury, Ahmed Mushtaque Raja; Bhuiya, Abbas Uddin (22 January 2011). "The health workforce crisis in Bangladesh: shortage, inappropriate skill-mix, and inequitable distribution". Human Resources for Health. 9 (3). BioMed Central: 3. doi:10.1186/1478-4491-9-3. PMC 3037300. PMID 21255446.
251. ^ Mahmood, Shehrin S.; Iqbal, Mohammad; Hanifi, S M A; Wahed, Tania; Bhuiya, Abbas (6 July 2010). "Are 'Village Doctors' in Bangladesh a curse or a blessing?". BMC International Health and Human Rights. 10 (18). BioMed Central: 18. doi:10.1186/1472-698X-10-18. PMC 2910021. PMID 20602805.
252. ^ "Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
253. ^ "Domestic general government health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
254. ^ "Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
255. ^ "Domestic private health expenditure (% of current health expenditure) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
256. ^ "Physicians (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
257. ^ Islam, Md. Taimur; Talukder, Anup Kumar; Siddiqui, Md. Nurealam; Islam, Tofazzal (14 October 2020). "Tackling the COVID-19 pandemic: The Bangladesh perspective". Journal of Public Health Research. 9 (4): jphr.2020.1794. doi:10.4081/jphr.2020.1794. PMC 7582102. PMID 33117758.
258. ^ "Hospital beds (per 1,000 people) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
259. ^ "Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
260. ^ "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
261. ^ "Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
262. ^ "Maternal mortality ratio (modeled estimate, per 100,000 live births) – Bangladesh". World Bank. Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
263. ^ "Bangladesh a key source market for medical tourism". The Daily Star. 4 May 2018. Archived from the original on 4 October 2022. Retrieved 4 October 2022.
264. ^ Andaleeb, Syed Saad; Siddiqui, Nazlee; Khandakar, Shahjahan (July 2007). "Patient satisfaction with health services in Bangladesh". Health Policy and Planning. 22 (4). Oxford University Press: 263–273. doi:10.1093/heapol/czm017. PMID 17545252.
265. ^ Shawon, Md. Toufiq Hassan; Ashrafi, Shah Ali Akbar; Azad, Abul Kalam; Firth, Sonja M.; Chowdhury, Hafizur; Mswia, Robert G.; Adair, Tim; Riley, Ian; Abouzahr, Carla; Lopez, Alan D. (12 March 2021). "Routine mortality surveillance to identify the cause of death pattern for out-of-hospital adult (aged 12+ years) deaths in Bangladesh: introduction of automated verbal autopsy". BMC Public Health. 21 (491). BioMed Central: 491. doi:10.1186/s12889-021-10468-7. PMC 7952220. PMID 33706739.
266. ^ "Malnutrition". International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research, Bangladesh (ICDDR,B). Archived from the original on 1 October 2022. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
267. ^ Rahman, Mahbubur (2012). "Architecture". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 16 November 2020. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
268. ^ "Sixty Dome Mosque". beautifulbangladesh.gov.bd. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
269. ^ "In Search of Bangladeshi Islamic Art". The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum. Archived from the original on 12 August 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
270. ^ "Chobi Mela kicks off next month". The Daily Observer. 19 December 2014. Archived from the original on 21 March 2019. Retrieved 23 December 2019.
271. ^ Junaidul Haque (7 May 2011). "Rabindranath: He belonged to the world". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
272. ^ Rubaiyat, Hossain. "Begum Rokeya : The Pioneer Feminist of Bangladesh". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 15 August 2016. Retrieved 25 June 2016.
273. ^ "Syed Mujtaba Ali". The Daily Star. 18 September 2009. Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
274. ^ a b Rudro, Ashif Ahmed (7 July 2022). "Varendra Museum: A Review of the First Museum of Bangladesh". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
275. ^ "Varendra Research Society: The only research museum in the country". The Financial Express. 11 March 2024. Archived from the original on 11 March 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
276. ^ Howlader, Md. Ziaul Haque (11 March 2024). "Importance of Varendra Research Museum". daily-sun. Archived from the original on 11 March 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
277. ^ a b "Know About Bangladesh". The World University of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 11 March 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
278. ^ Morshed, Adnan Zillur (2 July 2018). "A Palace on the River: Ahsan Manzil". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 23 January 2024. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
279. ^ Rahman, Md Zillur (2012). "Library". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
280. ^ a b c Whispers to Voices: Gender and Social Transformation in Bangladesh (PDF). Bangladesh Development Series. Vol. 22\. World Bank. March 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 19 September 2017.
281. ^ "More women joining the workforce". The Business Standard. 29 March 2023. Archived from the original on 7 February 2024. Retrieved 7 February 2024.
282. ^ a b Ahmed, Syed Jamil (2000). Achinpakhi Infinity: Indigenous Theatre of Bangladesh. University Press. p. 396\. ISBN 978-984-05-1462-5.
283. ^ "UNESCO – The Samba of Roda and the Ramlila proclaimed Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2015.
284. ^ "Listeners name 'greatest Bengali'". BBC News. 14 April 2004. Archived from the original on 25 December 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
285. ^ London, Ellen (2004). Bangladesh. Gareth Stevens Pub. p. 29. ISBN 0-8368-3107-1.
286. ^ "Rock's leading light goes out". The Daily Star. 18 October 2018. Archived from the original on 20 October 2018. Retrieved 10 November 2018.
287. ^ Shahnewaz, Sadi Mohammad (23 December 2017). "An Ode to the Guru of Rock". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 28 September 2022.
288. ^ "Swadhin Bangla Betar Kendra's Rashidul Hossain passes away". bdnews24.com. Archived from the original on 29 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
289. ^ জমকালো আয়োজনে গ্রিন টিভির যাত্রা শুরু. Prothom Alo (in Bengali). 19 May 2023. Retrieved 5 September 2024.
290. ^ "Tareque Masud, filmmaker extraordinaire". The Daily Star. 13 August 2014. Archived from the original on 20 April 2019. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
291. ^ "Tareque Masud's 63rd birth anniversary observed". UNB. Archived from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 28 May 2020.
292. ^ Kamol, Ershad (23 May 2007). ""Our young generation is least interested in Dhallywood"". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 15 January 2017. Retrieved 6 December 2017.
293. ^ "Renowned filmmaker Sohanur Rahman Sohan found dead at home, a day after his wife's demise". The Times of India. 14 September 2023. ISSN 0971-8257. Archived from the original on 25 September 2023. Retrieved 25 September 2023.
294. ^ "Traditional art of Jamdani weaving – intangible heritage – Culture Sector – UNESCO". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 9 December 2015. Retrieved 2 January 2016.
295. ^ Ahmad, Shamsuddin (2012). "Textiles". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
296. ^ "more Bibi Russell". Archived from the original on 22 July 2015.
297. ^ a b c d e f Osman, Shawkat (16 February 2009). খুনতি কড়াই : Bangladeshi Cuisine. Mapin Publishing. ISBN 978-1-890-20602-4.
298. ^ a b c d e f g Yesmin, Shaheda (6 December 2016). "Bangladesh cuisine part I – delectable and diverse". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 6 December 2016. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
299. ^ Huda, Shahana (2 April 2019). "MASHED". The Daily Star. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022. "Bhorta is just another staple for Bengalis..."
300. ^ Rahman, Md. Naimur; Islam, Abu Reza Md Towfiqul (28 December 2020). "Consumer fish consumption preferences and contributing factors: empirical evidence from Rangpur city corporation, Bangladesh". Heliyon. 6 (12). Cell Press: e05864. Bibcode:2020Heliy...605864R. doi:10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05864. PMC 7779775. PMID 33426347.
301. ^ a b c Akbar, Ahsan (21 March 2021). "From kala bhuna to shatkora curry – let's all get a taste for Bangladesh". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2 September 2024. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
302. ^ "Bamboo shoots now a popular delicacy for tourists". The Business Standard. 16 August 2020. Archived from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
303. ^ Karim, Elita (24 June 2016). "The Concept of Desserts in Bangladesh". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
304. ^ "Winter Pitha". The Daily Star. 24 November 2015. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
305. ^ Khondokar, Faiza (15 March 2022). "Shab-e-Barat: The night of fortune and forgiveness". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
306. ^ "Variations on Vermicelli". The Daily Star. 5 July 2016. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
307. ^ Tariq, Jahanara (24 April 2018). "Bread 101". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
308. ^ Amatya, Suki; Mahin, Tamanna; Sadaaf, Bushra Humaira; Sarkar, Supriti (12 December 2017). "Coffee: a lifestyle or just another alternative to tea?". The Daily Star. Retrieved 1 October 2022.
309. ^ Jyoti Prakash, Tamang (2016). Ethnic Fermented Foods and Alcoholic Beverages of Asia. Springer. pp. 77–89. ISBN 9788132228004.
310. ^ Sarkar, Supriti (13 February 2018). "Tis' the season (almost) for Lassi". The Daily Star. Retrieved 24 April 2023.
311. ^ "All about shingaras". The Daily Star. 18 August 2023. Retrieved 7 June 2024.
312. ^ Haider, M. H. (9 March 2010). "street food 101". The Daily Star. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
313. ^ a b "Discover the Vibrant Festivals in Bangladesh – Travel Mate". 5 October 2023. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
314. ^ "The General Conference proclaim"International Mother Language Day" to be observed on 21 February". UNESCO. 16 November 1999. Retrieved 21 April 2019.
315. ^ "Pahela Baisakh". Banglapedia. Retrieved 12 July 2019.
316. ^ Faroqi, Gofran (2012). "Kabadi". In Islam, Sirajul; Jamal, Ahmed A. (eds.). Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh (Second ed.). Asiatic Society of Bangladesh.
317. ^ "Why Shakib Al Hasan is one of cricket's greatest allrounders". ESPNcricinfo. 24 March 2020. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
318. ^ "Is Shakib Al Hasan a greater allrounder than Garry Sobers?". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
319. ^ "Where does Shakib stand among the greatest test all-rounders?". The Financial Express. Retrieved 29 December 2021.
320. ^ "The Current All-Format World XI, As Based on the ICC Rankings". Wisden. 14 August 2021. Archived from the original on 13 May 2022. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
321. ^ "Top Five Shakib Al Hasan Match Winning Performances". dailycricket.com.bd. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
322. ^ "2019 World Fame 100: Who are the biggest names in sports?". ESPNcricinfo. Retrieved 30 March 2022.
323. ^ "U19s Cricket World Cup: Bangladesh beat India in final to win first title". BBC Sport. 9 February 2020. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
324. ^ Minhaz Uddin Khan (9 February 2020). "Young Tigers become World Champions". Dhaka Tribune. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
325. ^ "Champions of Asia T20 Cup 2018: Bangladesh Women's Cricket Team". The Daily Star. 12 June 2018. Archived from the original on 29 August 2018. Retrieved 14 August 2018.
326. ^ "Football ... the game which makes us come alive". The Financial Express. 14 December 2022.
327. ^ "'Shadhin Bangla Football Dal': A team like no other". The Business Standard. 16 December 2019. Archived from the original on 15 August 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
328. ^ "I am luckier than Pele: Zakaria Pintoo". New Age. 26 March 2021.
329. ^ Iqbal, Niar (6 April 2020). যে ম্যাচগুলো 'আফসোস' বাংলাদেশের ফুটবলে. Prothom Alo (in Bengali).
330. ^ "President, PM lauds Bangladesh team for winning SAFF Women's Championship 2022". Dhaka Tribune. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
331. ^ "Bangladesh women create history, clinch Saff Championship for first time". Dhaka Tribune. 19 September 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2022.
332. ^ "Ety, Sana complete Bangladesh's clean sweep in archery". The Daily Star. 9 December 2019.
333. ^ "All Affiliated National Federation/Association". National Sports Council. Archived from the original on 21 January 2013. Retrieved 25 January 2013.
334. ^ "Bangladesh Chess Federation". bdchessfed.com. Archived from the original on 29 January 2020. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
335. ^ "Musa conquers Everest". The Daily Star. 24 May 2010. Archived from the original on 27 October 2017.
336. ^ Mary Anne Potts (27 May 2016). "Bangladeshi Climber Shares Her Spiritual Journey for the Women of Her Country". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 19 November 2019.
337. ^ "Field hockey – Men's Asia Cup 1985 – Standings / Rankings". the-sports.org. Retrieved 6 February 2024.

### Sources

[edit]

* Ahmed, Salahuddin (2004). Bangladesh: Past and Present. APH Publishing. ISBN 978-81-7648-469-5.
* Baxter, Craig (1997). Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State. Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-3632-9. OCLC 47885632.
* Lewis, David (2011). Bangladesh: Politics, Economy and Civil Society. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-139-50257-3.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Ahmed, Nizam. The Parliament of Bangladesh (Routledge, 2018).
* Ali, S. Mahmud (2010). Understanding Bangladesh. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-70143-3.
* Ghosh, Manash (2021). Bangladesh War: Report from Ground Zero. Niyogi Books. ISBN 9789391125370.
* Baxter, Craig. Bangladesh: From a nation to a state (Routledge, 2018).
* Bose, Sarmila (2012). Dead Reckoning Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War. Hachette UK. ISBN 978-93-5009-426-6.
* Chakrabarty, Bidyut (2004). The Partition of Bengal and Assam, 1932-1947: Contour of Freedom. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-33274-8.
* Grover, Verinder (2000). Bangladesh: Government and Politics. Deep and Deep Publications. ISBN 978-81-7100-928-2.
* Guhathakurta, Meghna; van Schendel, Willem, eds. (2013). The Bangladesh Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-5304-1.
* Hasnat, GN Tanjina, Md Alamgir Kabir, and Md Akhter Hossain. "Major environmental issues and problems of South Asia, particularly Bangladesh." Handbook of environmental materials management (2018): 1-40. online
* Iftekhar Iqbal (2010) The Bengal Delta: Ecology, State and Social Change, 1840–1943 (Palgrave Macmillan) ISBN 0-230-23183-7
* Islam, Saiful, and Md Ziaur Rahman Khan. "A review of the energy sector of Bangladesh." Energy Procedia 110 (2017): 611–618. online
* Jannuzi, F. Tomasson, and James T. Peach. The agrarian structure of Bangladesh: An impediment to development (Routledge, 2019).
* Khan, Muhammad Mojlum (2013). The Muslim Heritage of Bengal: The Lives, Thoughts and Achievements of Great Muslim Scholars, Writers and Reformers of Bangladesh and West Bengal. Kube Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84774-052-6.
* Mookherjee, Nayanika (2015). The Spectral Wound: Sexual Violence, Public Memories, and the Bangladesh War of 1971. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0-8223-5949-4.
* M. Mufakharul Islam (edited) (2004) Socio-Economic History of Bangladesh: essays in memory of Professor Shafiqur Rahman, 1st Edition, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, OCLC 156800811
* M. Mufakharul Islam (2007) Bengal Agriculture 1920–1946: A Quantitative Study (Cambridge University Press), ISBN 0-521-04985-7
* Prodhan, Mohit. "The educational system in Bangladesh and scope for improvement." Journal of International Social Issues 4.1 (2016): 11–23. online
* Raghavan, Srinath (2013). 1971: A Global History of the Creation of Bangladesh. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72864-6.
* Rashid, Haroun Er (1977). Geography of Bangladesh. University Press. OCLC 4638928.
* Riaz, Ali. Bangladesh: A political history since independence (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016).
* Riaz, Ali (2010). Political Islam and Governance in Bangladesh. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-92624-2.
* Riaz, Ali; Rahman, Mohammad Sajjadur (2016). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Bangladesh. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-30877-5.
* Schendel, Willem van (2009). A History of Bangladesh. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-86174-8.
* Shelley, Israt J., et al. "Rice cultivation in Bangladesh: present scenario, problems, and prospects." Journal of International Cooperation for Agricultural Development 14.4 (2016): 20–29. online
* Sirajul Islam (edited) (1997) History of Bangladesh 1704–1971(Three Volumes: Vol 1: Political History, Vol 2: Economic History Vol 3: Social and Cultural History), 2nd Edition (Revised New Edition), The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, ISBN 984-512-337-6
* Sirajul Islam (Chief Editor) (2003) Banglapedia: A National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.(10 Vols. Set), (written by 1300 scholars & 22 editors) The Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, ISBN 984-32-0585-5
* Sisson, Richard; Rose, Leo E (1991). War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07665-5.
* Sogra, Khair Jahan (2014). The Impact of Gender Differences on the Conflict Management Styles of Managers in Bangladesh: An Analysis. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-6854-9.
* Umar, Badruddin (2006). The Emergence of Bangladesh: Rise of Bengali nationalism, 1958–1971. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-597908-4.
* Van Schendel, Willem. A history of Bangladesh (Cambridge University Press, 2020).
* Uddin, Sufia M. (2006). Constructing Bangladesh: Religion, Ethnicity, and Language in an Islamic Nation. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-7733-3.
* Wahid, Abu N.M..; Weis, Charles E (1996). The Economy of Bangladesh: Problems and Prospects. Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-95347-8.

## External links

[edit]

Bangladesh at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity
* Travel information from Wikivoyage

Government

* Official website
* Official Site of Bangladesh Investment Development Authority

General information

* Bangladesh at the Encyclopædia Britannica
* Bangladesh. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
* Bangladesh at Curlie
* Bangladesh from the BBC News
* Bangladesh from UCB Libraries GovPubs
* Geographic data related to Bangladesh at OpenStreetMap
* Wikimedia Atlas of Bangladesh
* Key Development Forecasts for Bangladesh from International Futures

* v
* t
* e

Bangladesh articles

History|

* Timeline
* Outline
* Topics:
* Bengal
* Aviation
* Literature
* Military
* Postal
* Rulers
* Cyclones
* Years

| Ancient|

* Vedic period
* Anga
* Vanga
* Pundra
* Suhma kingdom
* Magadha
* Pradyota
* Shaishunaga
* Nanda
* Gangaridai
* Maurya Empire
* Shunga Empire
* Kanva dynasty
* Gupta Empire

|

Classical and Medieval|

* Founding kingdom:
* Gauda Kingdom
* Classical empires:
* Pala
* Kamboja
* Sena
* Sultanates:
* Islamic rulers
* Delhi Sultanate
* Khalji dynasty
* Bengal Sultanate
* Sur Empire
* Baro-Bhuyan
* Mughal period:
* Bengal Subah
* Nawabs of Bengal
* Battle of Plassey

Colonial and Pakistan era|

* Portuguese Bengala
* British Bengal:
* Famine of 1770
* Sepoy Rebellion
* Bengal Renaissance
* Partition of Bengal (1905)
* Prime Minister of Bengal
* Lahore Resolution
* Famine of 1943
* Direct Action Day
* Partition of Bengal (1947)
* East Pakistan:
* Language Movement
* Legislative election in 1954
* Six point movement
* 1969 Uprising
* General election in 1970
* Proclamation of Independence
* Bangladesh Liberation War:
* Provisional Government
* Genocide
* Rape
* Timeline

Republic of Bangladesh|

* Famine of 1974
* Military coups
* 1975
* 1981
* 1982
* 1990 Uprising
* Political crisis in 2006–08
* Bangladesh Rifles revolt
* Battle of Begums
* Protests in 2013

Regional|

* Chittagong
* Dhaka
* Jessore
* Noakhali
* Rangpur
* Sylhet

Geography|

* Administrative:
* Divisions
* Districts
* Sub-districts
* Cities and towns
* Borders
* Nature:
* Islands
* Lakes
* Mountains
* National parks
* Rivers
* Places:
* Bay of Bengal
* Bengal Fan
* Chittagong Hill Tracts
* Cox's Bazar
* Ganges Basin
* Ganges Delta
* Hatirjheel
* Sundarbans
* World Heritage Sites

Politics|

| Government|

* Executive:
* President
* List
* Prime Minister
* List
* Cabinet
* Elections:
* Election Commission
* General elections
* Presidential elections
* Political parties
* Foreign relations
* Foreign policies
* Jatiya Sangsad (parliament):
* Constituencies
* Speaker
* Local government:
* City corporations
* Municipalities
* Upazila Parishads
* Union councils
* Law:
* Constitution
* Supreme Court
* High Court Division
* International Crimes Tribunal
* Chief Justice
* Attorney General
* Human rights:
* Forced disappearance
* Freedom of religion
* LGBT rights
* Women

|

Military and enforcement|

* Armed Forces:
* Army
* Navy
* Air Force
* Paramilitary:
* Border Guard
* Coast Guard
* Ansar
* Village Defence Party
* President Guard Regiment
* Special Security Force

* Intelligence:
* NSI
* DGFI
* CTIB
* Special Branch
* Police:
* APBn
* CID
* CTTC
* PBI
* RAB
* SPBn

Economy|

* Bangladesh Planning Commission
* Industries:
* Automotive
* Ceramics
* Electronics
* Food
* Pharmaceutical
* Textile
* Shipbuilding
* Steel
* Tea production
* Finance sectors:
* Banking
* Bangladesh Bank (central bank)
* Bangladeshi taka (currency)
* Financial system
* Stock Exchange:
* Chittagong
* Dhaka
* 2011 scam
* Energy and resources:
* Energy policy
* Electricity
* Natural gas and petroleum
* Nuclear energy
* Renewable energy
* Export Processing Zones
* Agriculture:
* Rice
* Poultry
* Fishing
* Forestry
* Tourism
* Poverty
* Infrastructure:
* Post
* Telecommunications
* Real estate
* Water supply and sanitation
* Transport:
* Airports
* Airlines
* Railway
* Roads
* Ports

Society|

| Demographics|

* Ethnic groups
* Bangladeshis
* Bengalis
* Names
* Crime
* Corruption
* Human trafficking
* Terrorism
* Education
* Schools
* Universities
* Health
* Hunger
* Religion
* Society

|

Culture|

* Architecture
* Bangaliana
* Baul
* Bangladeshi nationalism
* Bengalization
* Calendars
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Language
* Bengal studies
* Literature
* Music
* Public holidays
* Sports
* Theatre
* Radio stations
* Sexuality
* Marriage

Symbols|

* Amar Shonar Bangla
* Bangamata
* Bengal fire
* Bengal tiger
* Bungalow
* Flag
* Government Seal
* Ilish
* Jackfruit
* Kabaddi
* Bengal cat
* Mango tree
* National Emblem
* National Martyrs' Memorial
* Notuner Gaan
* Oriental magpie-robin
* Water lily
* Inventions and discoveries

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Countries and dependencies of Asia

Sovereign states|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia2
* Azerbaijan1
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus2
* East Timor
* Egypt1
* Georgia1
* India
* Indonesia1
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan1
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Russia1
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Turkey1
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

States with limited
recognition

* Abkhazia2
* Northern Cyprus2
* Palestine
* South Ossetia2
* Taiwan

Dependent
territories

| Australia|

* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands

|

Greece|

* Kastellorizo

United Kingdom|

* Akrotiri and Dhekelia2 (Sovereign Base Areas)
* British Indian Ocean Territory (British Overseas Territory)

Special administrative
regions of China

* Hong Kong
* Macau

* 1 Spans the conventional boundary between Asia and another continent.
* 2 Considered European for cultural, political and historical reasons but is geographically in West Asia.

* Category
* Asia portal

* v
* t
* e

South Asian topics

Countries and regions|

* Afghanistan
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* India
* North
* Northwest
* South
* Northeast
* Islands
* Maldives
* Nepal
* Pakistan
* Punjab
* Sri Lanka
* South Asian regions
* Northwestern
* Northern
* Eastern
* Southern
* General geography

Ethnic groups|

* Andamanese
* Austroasiatic
* Austronesian
* Dravidian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranic
* Nuristani
* Tibeto-Burman
* Turkic
* Other groups
* Afro-Asians
* Chinese
* European and Eurasian
* Semitic
* Diaspora

Culture|

* Architecture‎
* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Cultural sphere
* Fashion
* Languages
* Literature
* Music
* Mythology
* Philosophy
* Scripts
* Surnames

Environment|

* Monsoon
* Climate change

Economy and Politics|

* Human rights in South Asia
* Religious nationalism
* Hindu
* Muslim
* Sikh
* Stock exchanges
* Caste system

History|

* Archaeology
* Archaeological cultures
* Bronze Age
* Iron Age
* Middle kingdoms
* Medieval
* Early modern
* Colonial era
* Contemporary era
* Former countries

Religion|

* Dharmic
* Buddhism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Sikhism
* Islam
* Religious persecution
* Bangladesh
* India
* Pakistan

Sports|

* Cricket
* South Asian Football Federation
* South Asian Games
* Martial arts
* Physical culture
* Traditional games

Education|

* South Asian studies
* History

Military|

* Indo-Pakistani conflicts
* Sino-Indian border dispute
* Afghanistan–Pakistan skirmishes

Science and technology|

* Indian Institutes of Technology
* Inventions and discoveries
* History
* Swords
* Traditional medicine

* v
* t
* e

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

Agreements|

South Asian Free Trade Area

Summits|

* Dhaka 1985
* Bangalore 1986
* Kathmandu 1987
* Islamabad 1988
* Malé 1990
* Colombo 1991
* Dhaka 1993
* New Delhi 1995
* Malé 1997
* Colombo 1998
* Kathmandu 2002
* Islamabad 2004
* Dhaka 2005
* New Delhi 2007
* Colombo 2008
* Thimphu 2010
* Addu 2011
* Kathmandu 2014
* Islamabad 2016 (Cancelled)

Members|

* Afghanistan
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* India
* Maldives
* Nepal
* Pakistan
* Sri Lanka

Observers|

* Australia
* China
* European Union
* Iran
* Japan
* Mauritius
* Myanmar
* South Korea
* United States

Guests|

* South Africa
* Russia

Specialised agencies|

* SAARC Consortium on Open and Distance Learning
* SAARC Documentation Centre
* South Asia Co-operative Environment Programme
* Foundation of SAARC Writers and Literature
* SAARC Chamber of Commerce and Industry
* South Asian Federation of Accountants
* SAARC COVID-19 Emergency Fund

Related Articles|

* SAARC Secretary General
* SAARC Secretariat
* SAARC satellite
* South Asian University
* South Asian Games
* SAARC Literary Award
* SAARC Road
* SAARC Fountain

* v
* t
* e

Members of the Commonwealth of Nations

Sovereign states
(members)|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Australia
* Bahamas
* Bangladesh
* Barbados
* Belize
* Botswana
* Brunei
* Cameroon
* Canada
* Cyprus
* Dominica
* Eswatini (Swaziland)
* Fiji
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Grenada
* Guyana
* India
* Jamaica
* Kenya
* Kiribati
* Lesotho
* Malawi
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Malta
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Pakistan
* Papua New Guinea
* Rwanda
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Samoa
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Singapore
* Solomon Islands
* South Africa
* Sri Lanka
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tonga
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Tuvalu
* Uganda
* United Kingdom
* Vanuatu
* Zambia

Associated states|

* Cook Islands
* Niue

Dependent territories|

| Australia|

* Ashmore and Cartier Islands
* Australian Antarctic Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Coral Sea Islands
* Heard Island and McDonald Islands
* Norfolk Island

|

New Zealand|

* Ross Dependency
* Tokelau

United Kingdom|

* Akrotiri and Dhekelia
* Anguilla
* Bermuda
* British Antarctic Territory
* British Indian Ocean Territory
* British Virgin Islands
* Cayman Islands
* Falkland Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Montserrat
* Pitcairn Islands
* Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha
* South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands
* Turks and Caicos Islands

Source: Commonwealth Secretariat – Member Countries

* v
* t
* e

Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC)

* Secretary-General of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation: Hissein Brahim Taha

Member states|

| Members|

* Afghanistan
* Albania
* Algeria
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Benin
* Burkina Faso
* Brunei
* Cameroon
* Chad
* Comoros
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Guyana
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Ivory Coast
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Lebanon
* Libya
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Pakistan-OIC relations
* Palestine
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Senegal
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* Sudan
* Suriname
* Tajikistan
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* Uganda
* Uzbekistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen

|

Suspended|

* Syria

Observers|

Countries
and territories

* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Central African Republic
* Northern Cyprus1
* Russia
* Thailand

|

Muslim
communities

* Moro National Liberation Front

International
organizations

* Economic Cooperation Organization
* African Union
* Arab League
* Non-Aligned Movement
* United Nations

History|

| Declarations|

* Abuja Declaration (1989)
* Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam (1990)
* OIC Resolution 10/11 (2008)
* OIC Council of Foreign Ministers Resolution 10/37 (2010)

|

Sessions|

| Extraordinary|

* First
* Second
* Third
* Fourth
* Fifth
* Sixth
* Seventh
* Eighth
* Ninth
* Arab–Islamic (2023)

|

Demographics|

* Economy
* GDP
* GDP per capita
* Exports
* Imports
* Population
* Largest cities
* Education

* 1 As the "Turkish Cypriot State".

* v
* t
* e

Leaders of socialist states not espousing Marxism–Leninism

People's Democratic Republic of Algeria|

* Abdelmadjid Tebboune, Head of state
* Nadir Larbaoui, Head of government

People's Republic of Bangladesh|

* Mohammed Shahabuddin Chuppu, Head of state
* (Vacant), Head of government

State of Eritrea|

* Isaias Afwerki, Head of state and government

Republic of Guinea-Bissau|

* Umaro Sissoco Embaló, Head of state
* Nuno Gomes Nabiam, Head of government

Co-operative Republic of Guyana|

* Irfaan Ali, Head of state and government
* Mark Phillips, Deputy Head of government

Republic of India|

* Droupadi Murmu, Head of state
* Narendra Modi, Head of government

Democratic People's Republic of Korea|

* Kim Jong Un, General Secretary and Head of state
* Kim Tok-hun, Head of government

Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal|

* Ram Chandra Poudel, Head of state
* KP Sharma Oli, Head of government

Republic of Nicaragua|

* Daniel Ortega, Head of state and government

Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities|

* Councils of Good Government, Local leadership

Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic|

* Brahim Ghali, Head of state
* Bouchraya Hammoudi Bayoun, Head of government

Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka|

* Ranil Wickremesinghe, Head of state and government

Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|

* Îlham Ehmed and Mansur Selum, Co-Presidents
* Amina Omar and Riad Darar, Co-Chairs

United Republic of Tanzania|

* Samia Suluhu, Head of state
* Kassim Majaliwa, Head of government

Wa State|

* Bao Youxiang, Head of state and government

Authority control databases

International|

* ISNI
* VIAF
* FAST
* WorldCat

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* 2
* 3
* BnF data
* 2
* 3
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Spain
* Sweden
* Israel

Geographic|

* MusicBrainz area

People|

* UK Parliament

Other|

* IdRef
* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* NARA
* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine
* İslâm Ansiklopedisi

24°N 90°E﻿ / ﻿24°N 90°E﻿ / 24; 90
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[Pop.]: Population
*[±% p.a.]: Per annum growth rate