Bohemianism

Practice of an unconventional lifestyle

For other uses, see Bohemian (disambiguation).

Not to be confused with Bohemistics or Bohemism.

Pierre-Auguste Renoir, The Bohemian (or Lise the Bohemian), 1868, oil on canvas, Berlin, Germany: Alte Nationalgalerie

Bohemianism is a social and cultural movement that has, at its core, a way of life away from society's conventional norms and expectations. The term originates from the French bohème and spread to the English-speaking world. It was used to describe mid-19th-century non-traditional lifestyles, especially of artists, writers, journalists, musicians, and actors in major European cities.

Bohemian is a 19th-century historical and literary topos that places the milieu of young metropolitan artists and intellectuals—particularly those of the Latin Quarter in Paris—in a context of poverty, hunger, appreciation of friendship, idealization of art and contempt for money. Based on this topos, the most diverse real-world subcultures are often referred to as "bohemian" in a figurative sense, especially (but by no means exclusively) if they show traits of a precariat.

Bohemians were associated with unorthodox or anti-establishment political or social viewpoints expressed through free love, frugality, and—in some cases—simple living, van dwelling or voluntary poverty. A more economically privileged, wealthy, or even aristocratic bohemian circle is sometimes referred to as haute bohème[1] (literally "Upper Bohemian").[2]

The term bohemianism emerged in France in the early 19th century out of perceived similarities between the urban Bohemians and the Romani people; La bohème was a common term for the Romani people of France, who were thought to have reached France in the 15th century via Bohemia (the western part of modern Czech Republic). Bohemianism and its adjective bohemian in this specific context are not connected to the native inhabitants of the historical region of Bohemia (the Czechs).[3]

## Origins[edit]

### European bohemianism[edit]

Literary and artistic bohemians were associated in the French imagination with the roving Romani people, often pejoratively referred to as "gypsies". Romani were called bohémiens in French because they were believed to have come to France from Bohemia.[3][4]

The title character in Carmen (1875), a French opera by Georges Bizet set in the Spanish city of Seville, is referred to as a "bohémienne" in Meilhac and Halévy's libretto. Her signature aria declares love itself to be a "gypsy child" (enfant de Bohême), going where it pleases and obeying no laws.

> The term bohemian has come to be very commonly accepted in our day as the description of a certain kind of literary gypsy, no matter in what language he speaks, or what city he inhabits .... A Bohemian is simply an artist or "littérateur" who, consciously or unconsciously, secedes from conventionality in life and in art.

> — Westminster Review, 1862[3])

Henri Murger's 1845 collection of short stories, Scènes de la vie de bohème (Scenes of Bohemian Life), was written to glorify and legitimize the bohemian lifestyle.[5] Murger's collection formed the basis of Giacomo Puccini's 1896 opera La bohème.

In England, bohemian in this sense initially was popularised in William Makepeace Thackeray's 1848 novel Vanity Fair. Public perceptions of the alternative lifestyles supposedly led by artists were further molded by George du Maurier's romanticized best-selling novel of Bohemian culture Trilby (1894). The novel outlines the fortunes of three expatriate English artists, their Irish model, and two colourful Central European musicians, in the artist quarter of Paris.

In Spanish literature, the Bohemian impulse can be seen in Ramón del Valle-Inclán's 1920 play Luces de Bohemia.

In his song "La Bohème", Charles Aznavour described the Bohemian lifestyle in Montmartre. The 2001 film Moulin Rouge! also imagines the Bohemian lifestyle of actors and artists in Montmartre at the turn of the 20th century.

### American bohemianism[edit]

Bohemian Grove during the summer Hi-Jinks, circa 1911–1916

In the 1850s, Bohemian culture started to become established in the United States via immigration.[6] In New York City in 1857, a group of 15 to 20 young, cultured journalists flourished as self-described bohemians until the American Civil War began in 1861.[7] This group gathered at a German bar on Broadway called Pfaff's beer cellar.[8] Members included their leader Henry Clapp Jr., Ada Clare, Walt Whitman, Fitz Hugh Ludlow, and actress Adah Isaacs Menken.[8]

Similar groups in other cities were broken up as well by the Civil War and reporters spread out to report on the conflict. During the war, correspondents began to assume the title bohemian, and newspapermen in general took up the moniker. Bohemian became synonymous with newspaper writer.[7] In 1866, war correspondent Junius Henri Browne, who wrote for the New York Tribune and Harper's Magazine, described bohemian journalists such as he was, as well as the few carefree women and lighthearted men he encountered during the war years.[9]

San Francisco journalist Bret Harte first wrote as "The Bohemian" in The Golden Era in 1861, with this persona taking part in many satirical doings, the lot published in his book Bohemian Papers in 1867. Harte wrote, "Bohemia has never been located geographically, but any clear day when the sun is going down, if you mount Telegraph Hill, you shall see its pleasant valleys and cloud-capped hills glittering in the West ..."[10]

Mark Twain included himself and Charles Warren Stoddard in the bohemian category in 1867.[7] By 1872, when a group of journalists and artists who gathered regularly for cultural pursuits in San Francisco were casting about for a name, the term bohemian became the main choice, and the Bohemian Club was born.[11] Club members who were established and successful, pillars of their community, respectable family men, redefined their own form of bohemianism to include people like them who were bons vivants, sportsmen, and appreciators of the fine arts.[10] Club member and poet George Sterling responded to this redefinition:

> Any good mixer of convivial habits considers he has a right to be called a bohemian. But that is not a valid claim. There are two elements, at least, that are essential to Bohemianism. The first is devotion or addiction to one or more of the Seven Arts; the other is poverty. Other factors suggest themselves: for instance, I like to think of my Bohemians as young, as radical in their outlook on art and life; as unconventional, and, though this is debatable, as dwellers in a city large enough to have the somewhat cruel atmosphere of all great cities.

> — Parry, 2005[12])

Despite his views, Sterling associated with the Bohemian Club, and caroused with artist and industrialist alike at the Bohemian Grove.[12]

Canadian composer Oscar Ferdinand Telgmann and poet George Frederick Cameron wrote the song "The Bohemian" in the 1889 opera Leo, the Royal Cadet.[13]

The impish American writer and Bohemian Club member Gelett Burgess, who coined the word blurb, supplied this description of the amorphous place called Bohemia:

Gelett Burgess drew this fanciful "Map of Bohemia" for The Lark, March 1, 1896 (see also The Winter's Tale § The seacoast of Bohemia)

> To take the world as one finds it, the bad with the good, making the best of the present moment—to laugh at Fortune alike whether she be generous or unkind—to spend freely when one has money, and to hope gaily when one has none—to fleet the time carelessly, living for love and art—this is the temper and spirit of the modern Bohemian in his outward and visible aspect. It is a light and graceful philosophy, but it is the Gospel of the Moment, this exoteric phase of the Bohemian religion; and if, in some noble natures, it rises to a bold simplicity and naturalness, it may also lend its butterfly precepts to some very pretty vices and lovable faults, for in Bohemia one may find almost every sin save that of Hypocrisy. ...

> His faults are more commonly those of self-indulgence, thoughtlessness, vanity and procrastination, and these usually go hand-in-hand with generosity, love and charity; for it is not enough to be one's self in Bohemia, one must allow others to be themselves, as well. ...

> What, then, is it that makes this mystical empire of Bohemia unique, and what is the charm of its mental fairyland? It is this: there are no roads in all Bohemia! One must choose and find one's own path, be one's own self, live one's own life.

> — Ayloh, 1902[14])

In New York City, the pianist Rafael Joseffy formed an organization of musicians in 1907 with friends, such as Rubin Goldmark, called "The Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club)".[15] Near Times Square, Joel Rinaldo presided over "Joel's Bohemian Refreshery", where the Bohemian crowd gathered from before the turn of the 20th century until Prohibition began to bite.[16][17][18][19] Jonathan Larson's musical Rent, and specifically the song "La Vie Boheme", portrayed the postmodern Bohemian culture of New York in the late 20th century.

In May 2014, a story on NPR suggested, after a century and a half, some Bohemian ideal of living in poverty for the sake of art had fallen in popularity among the latest generation of American artists. In the feature, a recent graduate of the Rhode Island School of Design related "her classmates showed little interest in living in garrets and eating ramen noodles."[20]

## People[edit]

An illustration from Henri Murger's 1899 book Bohemian Life.

The term has become associated with various artistic or academic communities and is used as a generalized adjective describing such people, environs, or situations: bohemian (boho—informal) is defined in The American College Dictionary as "a person with artistic or intellectual tendencies, who lives and acts with no regard for conventional rules of behavior".

Many prominent European and American figures of the 19th and 20th centuries belonged to the bohemian subculture, and any comprehensive "list of bohemians" would be tediously long. Bohemianism has been approved of by some bourgeois writers such as Honoré de Balzac,[citation needed] but most conservative cultural critics do not condone bohemian lifestyles.[citation needed]

In Bohemian Manifesto: a Field Guide to Living on the Edge, author Laren Stover breaks down the bohemian into five distinct mind-sets or styles, as follows:

* Beat: also drifters, but non-materialist and art-focused
* Dandy: no money, but try to appear as if they have it by buying and displaying expensive or rare items – such as brands of alcohol[21]
* Gypsy: the expatriate types, they create their own Gypsy ideal of nirvana wherever they go
* Nouveau: bohemians that are rich who attempt to join traditional bohemianism with contemporary culture
* Zen: "post-beat", focus on spirituality rather than art

Aimée Crocker, an American world traveler, adventuress, heiress, and mystic, was dubbed the "queen of Bohemia" in the 1910s by the world press for living an uninhibited, sexually liberated, and aggressively non-conformist life in San Francisco, New York, and Paris. She spent the bulk of her fortune inherited from her father Edwin B. Crocker, a railroad tycoon and art collector, on traveling all over the world (lingering the longest in Hawaii, India, Japan, and China) and partying with famous artists of her time such as Oscar Wilde, Robert Louis Stevenson, Mark Twain, the Barrymores, Enrico Caruso, Isadora Duncan, Henri Matisse, Auguste Rodin, and Rudolph Valentino. Crocker had countless affairs and married five times in five different decades of her life, each man being in his twenties. She was famous for her tattoos and pet snakes and was reported to have started the first Buddhist colony in Manhattan. Spiritually inquisitive, Crocker had a ten-year affair with occultist Aleister Crowley and was a devoted student of Hatha Yoga.[citation needed]

Maxwell Bodenheim, an American poet and novelist, was known as the king of Greenwich Village Bohemians during the 1920s and his writing brought him international fame during the Jazz Age.

Former brewery turned artist center in Prenzlauer Berg

In the 20th-century United States, the bohemian impulse was famously seen in the 1940s hipsters, the 1950s Beat generation (exemplified by writers such as William S. Burroughs, Allen Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac, and Lawrence Ferlinghetti), the much more widespread 1960s counterculture, and 1960s and 1970s hippies.

Rainbow Gatherings may be seen as another contemporary worldwide expression of the bohemian impulse.[22] An American example is Burning Man, an annual participatory arts festival held in the Nevada desert.

In 2001, political and cultural commentator David Brooks contended that much of the cultural ethos of well-to-do middle-class Americans is Bohemian-derived, coining the oxymoron "Bourgeois Bohemians" or "Bobos".[23] A similar term in Germany is Bionade-Biedermeier, a 2007 German neologism combining Bionade (a trendy lemonade brand) and Biedermeier (an era of introspective Central European culture between 1815 and 1848). The coinage was introduced in 2007 by Henning Sußebach, a German journalist, in an article that appeared in Zeitmagazin concerning Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg lifestyle.[24] The hyphenated term gained traction and has been quoted and referred to since. A German ARD TV broadcaster used the title Boheme and Biedermeier in a 2009 documentary about Berlin's Prenzlauer Berg.[25] The main focus was on protagonists, that contributed to the image of a paradise for the (organic and child-raising) well-to-do, depicting cafés where "Bionade-Biedermeier sips from Fair-Trade".[25]

## See also[edit]

Related terms

* Art colony
* Avant-garde
* Bohemian Club
* Bohemian Rhapsody
* Bohemian style
* La Boheme Magazine
* Boho-chic
* Counterculture
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Gentrification
* History of modern Western subcultures
* Lumpenproletariat
* Precariat
* Simple living
* Slumming
* Spiral of silence

Related cultures or movements

* Beat Generation
* Beatnik
* Bloomsbury Group
* Crusties
* Dandy
* Diggers
* Folk culture
* Freetown Christiania
* Freighthopping
* Goth
* Gutter punk
* Hippie
* Hipster (1940s subculture)
* Hipster (contemporary subculture)
* Libertine
* Merry Pranksters
* Nomads
* Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood
* Punk
* Sydney Push

|

## References[edit]

1. ^ "SeaDict Online Dictionary". Archived from the original on 6 April 2015. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
2. ^ Turque, Bill (17 February 2013). "Montgomery County looks to get hip". Washington Post. Retrieved 16 November 2013.
3. ^ a b c Harper, Douglas (November 2001). "Bohemian etymology". Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 2008-12-27.
4. ^ Bohemian Archived 2018-08-14 at the Wayback Machine in The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company.
5. ^ "Scenes de la Vie de Boheme". www.mtholyoke.edu. Archived from the original on 2010-10-29. Retrieved 2008-04-22.
6. ^ Roy Kotynek, John Cohassey (2008). American Cultural Rebels: Avant-Garde and Bohemian Artists, Writers and Musicians from the 1850s through the 1960s. McFarland
7. ^ a b c The Mark Twain Project. Explanatory Notes regarding the letter from Samuel Langhorne Clemens to Charles Warren Stoddard, 23 Apr 1867. Retrieved on July 26, 2009.
8. ^ a b Tarnoff, Benjamin (2014). The Bohemians: Mark Twain and the San Francisco Writers Who Reinvented American Literature. Penguin Press. pp. 54–55. ISBN 978-1594204739.
9. ^ Brown, Junius Henri. Four Years in Secessia, O.D. Case and Co., 1866
10. ^ a b Ogden, Dunbar H.; Douglas McDermott; Robert Károly Sarlós Theatre West: Image and Impact, Rodopi, 1990, pp. 17–42. ISBN 90-5183-125-0
11. ^ Bohemian Club Constitution, By-laws, and Rules, Officers, Committees, and Members, Bohemian Club, 1904, p. 11. Semi-centennial High Jinks in the Grove, Held in Field Circle on the Night of Friday July 28, 1922: Haig Patigian, Sire Semi-centennial high jinks in the Grove, 1922], Bohemian Club, 1922, pp. 11–22.
12. ^ a b Parry, 2005, p. 238.
13. ^ Leo, the Royal cadet [microform] : Cameron, George Frederick, 1854–1885 : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive. 2001-03-10. ISBN 9780665065514. Retrieved 2011-12-30.
14. ^ Burgess, Gelett. "Where is Bohemia?" collected in The Romance of the Commonplace. San Francisco: Ayloh, 1902. pp. 127–28
15. ^ Krehbiel, Henry Edward. The Bohemians (New York Musicians' Club) A historical narrative and record. Written and compiled for the celebration of the fifteenth anniversary of the foundation of the Club (1921), pp. 7–11.
16. ^ "SEIZE $75,000 LIQUOR IN BIG 'DRY' DRIVE". The New York Times. September 2, 1920. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
17. ^ "You Mustn't Crack Up the Darwinian Theory at Joe's". The New York Times. November 2, 1913. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
18. ^ Peters, Lisa N. (February 18, 2011). "Max Weber's Joel's Café: A Forgotten New York Establishment Comes to Light". Spanierman Modern Contemporary and Modern Art Blog. Retrieved March 26, 2011.
19. ^ "Joel's bohemian refreshery" Restaurant-ing through history
20. ^ Neda Ulaby (Director) (2014-05-15). "In Pricey Cities, Being A Bohemian Starving Artist Gets Old Fast". All Things Considered. NPR. Retrieved 2014-05-31.
21. ^ Stover, Laren (2004). Bohemian Manifesto: a Field Guide to Living on the Edge. Bulfinch Press. ISBN 0-8212-2890-0.
22. ^ Niman, Michael I. (1997). People of the Rainbow: a Nomadic Utopia. Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press. ISBN 0-87049-988-2.
23. ^ Brooks, David (2001). Bobos in Paradise: the New Upper Class and How They Got There. New York NY: Simon and Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85378-7.
24. ^ Sußebach, Henning (2009-01-08). "Szene: Bionade-Biedermeier". Die Zeit. ISSN 0044-2070. Retrieved 2016-09-02.
25. ^ a b News.de-Redaktion. "ARD-Doku 'Berlin-Prenzlauer Berg': Boheme und Biedermeier". Archived from the original on 2015-09-28. Retrieved 2015-09-27.

## Bibliography[edit]

* Easton, Malcolm (1964). Artists and Writers in Paris. The Bohemian Idea, 1803–1867 (ASIN B0016A7CJA ed.). London: Arnold.
* Graña, César (1964). Bohemian versus Bourgeois: French Society and the French Man of Letters in the Nineteenth Century. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00736-8.
* Parry, Albert. (2005.) Garretts & Pretenders: A History of Bohemianism in America, Cosimo, Inc. ISBN 1-59605-090-X
* Stansell, Christine (2000). American Moderns: Bohemian New York and the Creation of a New Century. Henry Holt & Company. ISBN 0-8050-4847-2.
* Wilson, Elizabeth (2002). Bohemians: The Glamorous Outcasts. Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 1-86064-782-0.

## Further reading[edit]

* Levin, Joanna (2010). Bohemia in America, 1858–1920. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-6083-6.
* Richardson, Joanna (1969). The Bohemians: La Vie de Boheme in Paris 1830–1914. London: Macmillan
* Siegel, Jerrold (1999). Bohemian Paris: Culture, Politics, and the Boundaries of Bourgeois Life, 1830–1930. The Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-6063-8.
* Smith, Lemuel Douglas (1961). The Real Bohemia: A Sociological and Psychological Study of the Beats. Literary Licensing, LLC. ISBN 978-1258382728. A study of the beat lifestyle of the 1950s and 1960s
* Tarnoff, Benjamin (2014) The Bohemians: Mark Twain and the San Francisco Writers Who Reinvented American Literature. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-1594204739.

## External links[edit]

* Bohemianism and Counter-Culture (Archived from the original)
* Bohemianism, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Hermione Lee, Virginia Nicholson and Graham Robb (In Our Time, Oct. 9, 2003)

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* Agrarianism
* Amateurism
* Anarcho-primitivism
* Anti-consumerism
* Appropriate technology
* Bohemianism
* Consumerism
* Critique of work
* Deep ecology
* Degrowth
* Ecological footprint
* Food miles
* Front Porch Republic
* Green anarchism
* The good life
* Global warming
* Hedonophobia
* Intentional living
* commune
* Rainbow Gathering
* Itinerant
* Low-technology
* Nonviolence
* Peak oil
* Sustainability
* Work–life interface

* v
* t
* e

Hippies

History of the
hippie movement|

* Etymology
* Beat Generation/Beatniks
* Central Park be-ins
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Red Dog Experience
* San Francisco sound
* Drop City
* Sunset Strip curfew riots
* Love Pageant Rally
* Haight-Ashbury
* Human Be-In
* Mantra-Rock Dance
* Summer of Love
* Fantasy Fair
* Monterey Pop Festival
* Newport Pop Festival
* Sky River Rock Festival
* People's Park
* Woodstock
* Glastonbury Festival
* The Farm
* Piedra Roja
* Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro
* Nambassa

People and groups|

* Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
* Acid Tests
* Furthur bus
* Electrohippies
* Diggers
* San Francisco Oracle
* Haight Ashbury Free Clinics
* Haight-Ashbury Switchboard
* Yippies
* Wavy Gravy
* Hog Farm
* The Brotherhood of Eternal Love
* Rainbow Family

Politics and ethics|

* Back-to-the-land movement
* Free love
* Anti-authoritarianism
* Simple living
* Environmentalism
* Pacifism
* Communalism
* Counterculture
* Bohemianism
* Make love, not war
* Turn on, tune in, drop out
* Vegetarianism
* Veganism

Culture and fashion|

* Psychedelia
* Flower power
* Hippie trail
* Hippie exploitation films
* Happening
* Peace symbols
* Bell-bottoms
* Love beads
* Long hair
* Tie-dye
* Intentional community
* communal living
* Free festival
* Music festival
* Flower child

Music|

* Folk music
* Folk rock
* Protest song
* Psychedelic music
* Psychedelic folk
* Psychedelic rock
* Psychedelic soul
* Psychedelic pop
* Psychedelic trance
* Acid rock
* Space rock
* Progressive rock
* Raga rock
* World music
* New-age music
* Jam bands
* List of jam band music festivals
* List of historic rock festivals

Psychedelics
and other drugs|

* Cannabis
* DMT
* LSD
* Psilocybin mushroom
* Mescaline
* Peyote

Hippie related
subcultures|

* Deadhead
* Feral
* Flower child
* Freak scene
* Housetrucker
* Jesus freak
* Jipitecas
* La Onda
* Lebensreform
* Mánička
* New Age
* New Age travellers
* Radical Faeries
* Rave
* UK underground
* Woodstock Nation
* Zippie

Related|

* List of films
* List of books and other publications
* Subculture
* Cannabis culture
* Cyberdelic
* Head shop
* Underground press
* press syndicate
* list
* Legend of the Rainbow Warriors
* Free Speech Movement
* Anti-war movement
* Civil rights movement
* Protests of 1968
* Chicago Seven
* New Left
* New social movements
* Postmaterialism
* Neotribalism
* Hungry generation
* Sexual revolution
* Second Summer of Love
* Neo-psychedelia
* Baby boomers

* v
* t
* e

* Social class

* Status
* Stratum
* Economic classes

| Theories|

* Elite theory
* Gilbert model
* Marxian
* Mudsill theory
* New class
* Spoon class theory
* Weberian (three-component)

|

Related​ topics|

* Caste
* Chattering classes
* Class conflict
* Class discrimination
* Class society
* Class traitor
* Classicide
* Classless society
* Euthenics
* Nouveau riche / Parvenu
* Poverty
* Ranked society
* Snobbery
* Social cleansing
* Social exclusion
* Social mobility
* Social orphan
* Social position
* Social stigma
* Subaltern

By demographic

| By status|

* Administrative detainee
* Alien
* illegal immigrant
* refugee
* Citizen
* dual or multiple
* native-born
* naturalized
* second-class
* Clique
* adolescent
* Convicted
* Migrant worker
* Political prisoner
* Stateless

|

By "collar"|

* Blue
* Green
* Grey
* New
* Pink
* White

By type|

| Ruling|

* Aristocracy
* Hanseaten
* Magnate
* Oligarchy
* Russian
* Patrician
* Ancient Rome
* Post-Roman
* Political
* Family
* List
* Hereditary
* Royal family

|

Intellectual|

* Clergy
* Priest
* Knowledge worker
* Professor
* Scholar

Warrior|

* Chhetri
* Cossacks
* Cuāuh
* Harii
* Hashashin
* Knight
* Kshatriya
* Nair
* Ocēlōtl
* Samurai
* Spartiate
* Vanniyar/Vanniar (Chieftain)

Upper|

* Business magnate
* Elite
* Gentry
* Lord
* Nobility
* Petty
* Old money
* Overclass
* Robber baron
* Seigneur
* Superclass

Creative|

* Bohemians

Middle|

* Bourgeoisie
* Petite
* Burgher
* Lower middle class
* Upper middle class

Working|

* Lazzaroni
* Lumpenproletariat
* Proletariat
* Working poor

Under|

* Ant tribe
* Commoner
* Outcast
* Outlaw / Prisoner
* Peasant / Serf
* Plebeian
* Rat tribe
* Slave / Freedman
* Untouchable

By country or region

| United States|

* Affluence
* American Dream
* History
* Mobility

Classes|

* Upper
* Black
* Donor
* Gentry
* Middle
* Black
* Mexican-American
* Upper Middle
* Underprivileged
* Lower
* Under

Income|

* Household
* Inequality
* Personal
* Poverty

Standard of living|

* Education
* Homelessness
* Home-ownership

Other regions​ or countries|

* Africa
* Belize
* Cambodia
* China
* Colombia
* France
* Haiti
* India
* Iran
* Italy
* Luxembourg
* Nepal
* New Zealand
* Nigeria
* Romania
* Sri Lanka
* Tibet
* United Kingdom
* United States

Historic|

* 18th-century Spain
* Ancient Greece
* Ancient Rome
* Aztec
* Ottoman Empire
* Pre-industrial East Asia
* Pre-industrial Europe
* Soviet Union

* Category

Authority control databases: National |

* Spain
* Japan
* Czech Republic

|

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