Claude Shannon

American mathematician and information theorist (1916–2001)

Claude Shannon

Shannon c. 1950s

Born|

Claude Elwood Shannon

(1916-04-30)April 30, 1916

Petoskey, Michigan, U.S.

Died| February 24, 2001(2001-02-24) (aged 84)

Medford, Massachusetts, U.S.

Alma mater| University of Michigan (AB, BS)
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MS, PhD)
Known for|

* Information theory
"A Mathematical Theory of Communication"
A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits
"Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems"
Artificial intelligence
Beta distribution
Binary code
Block cipher
Boolean algebra
Channel capacity
Computer chess
Data compression
Digital electronics
Digital Revolution
Digital subscriber line
Edge coloring
Entropy in information theory
Entropy (information theory)
Entropy power inequality
Error-correcting codes with feedback
Evaluation function
Financial signal processing
Information processing
Information-theoretic security
Innovation (signal processing)
Key size
Logic gate
Logic synthesis
Minivac 601
Models of communication
n-gram
Noisy channel coding theorem
Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem
One-time pad
Product cipher
Pulse-code modulation
Rate–distortion theory
Sampling
Shannon–Fano coding
Shannon–Hartley law
Shannon capacity
Shannon entropy
Shannon's expansion
Shannon index
Shannon's Maxim
Shannon multigraph
Shannon number
Shannon security
Shannon's source coding theorem
Shannon switching game
Shannon-Weaver model of communication
Stream cipher
Switching circuit theory
Symbolic dynamics
Uncertainty coefficient
Units of information
Useless machine
Wearable computer
Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula

Spouse(s)| Norma Levor (1940–41)
Betty Shannon (1949–2001)
Awards|

* Stuart Ballantine Medal (1955)
* IEEE Medal of Honor (1966)
* National Medal of Science (1966)
* Harvey Prize (1972)
* Claude E. Shannon Award (1972)
* Harold Pender Award (1978)
* John Fritz Medal (1983)
* Kyoto Prize (1985)
* Marconi Society Lifetime Achievement Award (2000)
* National Inventors Hall of Fame (2004)

Scientific career
Fields| Mathematics, computer science, electronic engineering
Institutions|

* Bell Labs
* MIT
* Institute for Advanced Study

Theses|

* A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits (1937)
* An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics (1940)

Doctoral advisor| Frank Lauren Hitchcock
Doctoral students|

* Danny Hillis
* Leonard Kleinrock
* Ivan Sutherland
* Bert Sutherland

Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) was an American mathematician, electrical engineer, computer scientist and cryptographer known as the "father of information theory". He was the first to describe the Boolean gates (electronic circuits) that are essential to all digital electronic circuits, and he built the first machine learning device, thus founding the field of artificial intelligence.[1][2][3][4] He is credited alongside George Boole for laying the foundations of the Information Age.[5][6][7][4]

As a 21-year-old master's degree student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), he wrote his thesis demonstrating that electrical applications of Boolean algebra could construct any logical numerical relationship,[8] thereby establishing the theory behind digital computing and digital circuits.[9][10] In 1987, Howard Gardner called his thesis "possibly the most important, and also the most famous, master's thesis of the century",[11] and Herman Goldstine described it as "surely ... one of the most important master's theses ever written ... It helped to change digital circuit design from an art to a science."[12]

Shannon also contributed to the field of cryptanalysis for national defense of the United States during World War II, including his fundamental work on codebreaking and secure telecommunications, writing a paper which is considered one of the foundational pieces of modern cryptography,[13] and whose work "was a turning point, and marked the closure of classical cryptography and the beginning of modern cryptography."[14]

His mathematical theory of communication laid the foundations for the field of information theory,[15] with his famous paper being called the "Magna Carta of the Information Age" by Scientific American,[7][16] along with his work being described as being at "the heart of today's digital information technology".[17]

His Theseus machine was the first electrical device to learn by trial and error. It is thus the first example of artificial intelligence.[18][19]

Rodney Brooks declared that Shannon was the 20th century engineer who contributed the most to 21st century technologies.[18] His achievements are said to be on par with those of Albert Einstein and Sir Isaac Newton in their fields.[5][2][20][21]

## Biography[edit]

### Childhood[edit]

The Shannon family lived in Gaylord, Michigan, and Claude was born in a hospital in nearby Petoskey.[1] His father, Claude Sr. (1862–1934), was a businessman and, for a while, a judge of probate in Gaylord. His mother, Mabel Wolf Shannon (1890–1945), was a language teacher, who also served as the principal of Gaylord High School.[22] Claude Sr. was a descendant of New Jersey settlers, while Mabel was a child of German immigrants.[1] Shannon's family was active in their Methodist Church during his youth.[23]

Most of the first 16 years of Shannon's life were spent in Gaylord, where he attended public school, graduating from Gaylord High School in 1932. Shannon showed an inclination towards mechanical and electrical things. His best subjects were science and mathematics. At home, he constructed such devices as models of planes, a radio-controlled model boat and a barbed-wire telegraph system to a friend's house a half-mile away.[24] While growing up, he also worked as a messenger for the Western Union company.

Shannon's childhood hero was Thomas Edison, whom he later learned was a distant cousin. Both Shannon and Edison were descendants of John Ogden (1609–1682), a colonial leader and an ancestor of many distinguished people.[25][26]

### Logic circuits[edit]

In 1932, Shannon entered the University of Michigan, where he was introduced to the work of George Boole. He graduated in 1936 with two bachelor's degrees: one in electrical engineering and the other in mathematics.

In 1936, Shannon began his graduate studies in electrical engineering at MIT, where he worked on Vannevar Bush's differential analyzer, an early analog computer.[27] While studying the complicated ad hoc circuits of this analyzer, Shannon designed switching circuits based on Boole's concepts. In 1937, he wrote his master's degree thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits.[28] A paper from this thesis was published in 1938.[29] In this work, Shannon diagramed switching circuits that could implement the essential operators of Boolean algebra. Then he proved that his switching circuits could be used to simplify the arrangement of the electromechanical relays that were used during that time in telephone call routing switches. Next, he expanded this concept, proving that these circuits could solve all problems that Boolean algebra could solve. In the last chapter, he presented diagrams of several circuits, including a digital 4-bit full adder.[28]

Using this property of electrical switches to implement logic is the fundamental concept that underlies all electronic digital computers. Shannon's work became the foundation of digital circuit design, as it became widely known in the electrical engineering community during and after World War II. The theoretical rigor of Shannon's work superseded the ad hoc methods that had prevailed previously. Howard Gardner called Shannon's thesis "possibly the most important, and also the most noted, master's thesis of the century."[30]

Shannon received his PhD in mathematics from MIT in 1940.[25] Vannevar Bush had suggested that Shannon should work on his dissertation at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, in order to develop a mathematical formulation for Mendelian genetics. This research resulted in Shannon's PhD thesis, called An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics.[31]

In 1940, Shannon became a National Research Fellow at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey. In Princeton, Shannon had the opportunity to discuss his ideas with influential scientists and mathematicians such as Hermann Weyl and John von Neumann, and he also had occasional encounters with Albert Einstein and Kurt Gödel. Shannon worked freely across disciplines, and this ability may have contributed to his later development of mathematical information theory.[32]

### Wartime research[edit]

Shannon then joined Bell Labs to work on fire-control systems and cryptography during World War II, under a contract with section D-2 (Control Systems section) of the National Defense Research Committee (NDRC).

Shannon is credited with the invention of signal-flow graphs, in 1942. He discovered the topological gain formula while investigating the functional operation of an analog computer.[33]

For two months early in 1943, Shannon came into contact with the leading British mathematician Alan Turing. Turing had been posted to Washington to share with the U.S. Navy's cryptanalytic service the methods used by the British Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park to break the cyphers used by the Kriegsmarine U-boats in the north Atlantic Ocean.[34] He was also interested in the encipherment of speech and to this end spent time at Bell Labs. Shannon and Turing met at teatime in the cafeteria.[34] Turing showed Shannon his 1936 paper that defined what is now known as the "universal Turing machine".[35][36] This impressed Shannon, as many of its ideas complemented his own.

In 1945, as the war was coming to an end, the NDRC was issuing a summary of technical reports as a last step prior to its eventual closing down. Inside the volume on fire control, a special essay titled Data Smoothing and Prediction in Fire-Control Systems, coauthored by Shannon, Ralph Beebe Blackman, and Hendrik Wade Bode, formally treated the problem of smoothing the data in fire-control by analogy with "the problem of separating a signal from interfering noise in communications systems."[37] In other words, it modeled the problem in terms of data and signal processing and thus heralded the coming of the Information Age.

Shannon's work on cryptography was even more closely related to his later publications on communication theory.[38] At the close of the war, he prepared a classified memorandum for Bell Telephone Labs entitled "A Mathematical Theory of Cryptography", dated September 1945. A declassified version of this paper was published in 1949 as "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems" in the Bell System Technical Journal. This paper incorporated many of the concepts and mathematical formulations that also appeared in his A Mathematical Theory of Communication. Shannon said that his wartime insights into communication theory and cryptography developed simultaneously, and that "they were so close together you couldn't separate them".[39] In a footnote near the beginning of the classified report, Shannon announced his intention to "develop these results … in a forthcoming memorandum on the transmission of information."[40]

While he was at Bell Labs, Shannon proved that the cryptographic one-time pad is unbreakable in his classified research that was later published in 1949. The same article also proved that any unbreakable system must have essentially the same characteristics as the one-time pad: the key must be truly random, as large as the plaintext, never reused in whole or part, and kept secret.[41]

### Information theory[edit]

Main article: information theory

In 1948, the promised memorandum appeared as "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", an article in two parts in the July and October issues of the Bell System Technical Journal. This work focuses on the problem of how best to encode the message a sender wants to transmit. Shannon developed information entropy as a measure of the information content in a message, which is a measure of uncertainty reduced by the message. In so doing, he essentially invented the field of information theory.

The book The Mathematical Theory of Communication reprints Shannon's 1948 article and Warren Weaver's popularization of it, which is accessible to the non-specialist. Weaver pointed out that the word "information" in communication theory is not related to what you do say, but to what you could say. That is, information is a measure of one's freedom of choice when one selects a message. Shannon's concepts were also popularized, subject to his own proofreading, in John Robinson Pierce's Symbols, Signals, and Noise.

Information theory's fundamental contribution to natural language processing and computational linguistics was further established in 1951, in his article "Prediction and Entropy of Printed English", showing upper and lower bounds of entropy on the statistics of English – giving a statistical foundation to language analysis. In addition, he proved that treating space as the 27th letter of the alphabet actually lowers uncertainty in written language, providing a clear quantifiable link between cultural practice and probabilistic cognition.

Another notable paper published in 1949 is "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems", a declassified version of his wartime work on the mathematical theory of cryptography, in which he proved that all theoretically unbreakable cyphers must have the same requirements as the one-time pad. He is also credited with the introduction of sampling theory, which is concerned with representing a continuous-time signal from a (uniform) discrete set of samples. This theory was essential in enabling telecommunications to move from analog to digital transmissions systems in the 1960s and later.

### Artificial Intelligence[edit]

In 1950, Shannon, designed, and built with the help of his wife, a machine learning device, Theseus. It consisted of a maze on a surface, below which were sensors that followed the path of a mechanical mouse through the maze. After much trial and error, this device would learn the shortest path through the maze, and direct the mechanical mouse through the maze. The pattern of the maze could be changed at will.[19]

Mazin Gilbert says Theseus "inspired the whole field of AI. This random trial and error is the foundation of artificial intelligence."[19]

### Teaching at MIT[edit]

In 1956 Shannon joined the MIT faculty, holding an endowed chair. He worked in the Research Laboratory of Electronics (RLE). He continued to serve on the MIT faculty until 1978.

### Later life[edit]

Shannon developed Alzheimer's disease and spent the last few years of his life in a nursing home; he died in 2001, survived by his wife, a son and daughter, and two granddaughters.[42][43]

### Hobbies and inventions[edit]

The Minivac 601, a digital computer trainer designed by Shannon

Outside of Shannon's academic pursuits, he was interested in juggling, unicycling, and chess. He also invented many devices, including a Roman numeral computer called THROBAC, and juggling machines.[44][45] He built a device that could solve the Rubik's Cube puzzle.[25]

Shannon designed the Minivac 601, a digital computer trainer to teach business people about how computers functioned. It was sold by the Scientific Development Corp starting in 1961.[46]

He is also considered the co-inventor of the first wearable computer along with Edward O. Thorp.[47] The device was used to improve the odds when playing roulette.

### Personal life[edit]

Shannon married Norma Levor, a wealthy, Jewish, left-wing intellectual in January 1940. The marriage ended in divorce after about a year. Levor later married Ben Barzman.[48]

Shannon met his second wife, Mary Elizabeth Moore (Betty), when she was a numerical analyst at Bell Labs. They were married in 1949.[42] Betty assisted Claude in building some of his most famous inventions.[49] They had three children.[50]

Shannon presented himself as apolitical and an atheist.[51]

### Tributes[edit]

Statue of Claude Shannon at AT&T Shannon Labs

There are six statues of Shannon sculpted by Eugene Daub: one at the University of Michigan; one at MIT in the Laboratory for Information and Decision Systems; one in Gaylord, Michigan; one at the University of California, San Diego; one at Bell Labs; and another at AT&T Shannon Labs.[52] The statue in Gaylord is located in the Claude Shannon Memorial Park.[53] After the breakup of the Bell System, the part of Bell Labs that remained with AT&T Corporation was named Shannon Labs in his honor.

According to Neil Sloane, an AT&T Fellow who co-edited Shannon's large collection of papers in 1993, the perspective introduced by Shannon's communication theory (now called information theory) is the foundation of the digital revolution, and every device containing a microprocessor or microcontroller is a conceptual descendant of Shannon's publication in 1948:[54] "He's one of the great men of the century. Without him, none of the things we know today would exist. The whole digital revolution started with him."[55] The cryptocurrency unit shannon (a synonym for gwei) is named after him.[56]

Shannon is credited by many as single-handedly creating information theory and for laying the foundations for the Digital Age.[57][58][59][17][60][4]

A Mind at Play, a biography of Shannon written by Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, was published in 2017.[61] They described Shannon as "the most important genius you’ve never heard of, a man whose intellect was on par with Albert Einstein and Isaac Newton".[62]

On April 30, 2016, Shannon was honored with a Google Doodle to celebrate his life on what would have been his 100th birthday.[63][64][65][66][67][68]

The Bit Player, a feature film about Shannon directed by Mark Levinson premiered at the World Science Festival in 2019.[69] Drawn from interviews conducted with Shannon in his house in the 1980s, the film was released on Amazon Prime in August 2020.

## The Mathematical Theory of Communication[edit]

### Weaver's Contribution[edit]

Shannon's The Mathematical Theory of Communication,[70] begins with an interpretation of his own work by Warren Weaver. Although Shannon's entire work is about communication itself, Warren Weaver communicated his ideas in such a way that those not acclimated to complex theory and mathematics could comprehend the fundamental laws he put forth. The coupling of their unique communicational abilities and ideas generated the Shannon-Weaver model, although the mathematical and theoretical underpinnings emanate entirely from Shannon's work after Weaver's introduction. For the layman, Weaver's introduction better communicates The Mathematical Theory of Communication,[70] but Shannon's subsequent logic, mathematics, and expressive precision was responsible for defining the problem itself.

## Other work[edit]

Shannon and his electromechanical mouse Theseus (named after Theseus from Greek mythology) which he tried to have solve the maze in one of the first experiments in artificial intelligence Theseus Maze in MIT Museum

### Shannon's mouse[edit]

"Theseus", created in 1950, was a mechanical mouse controlled by an electromechanical relay circuit that enabled it to move around a labyrinth of 25 squares.[71] The maze configuration was flexible and it could be modified arbitrarily by rearranging movable partitions.[71] The mouse was designed to search through the corridors until it found the target. Having travelled through the maze, the mouse could then be placed anywhere it had been before, and because of its prior experience it could go directly to the target. If placed in unfamiliar territory, it was programmed to search until it reached a known location and then it would proceed to the target, adding the new knowledge to its memory and learning new behavior.[71] Shannon's mouse appears to have been the first artificial learning device of its kind.[71]

### Shannon's estimate for the complexity of chess[edit]

Main article: Shannon number

In 1949 Shannon completed a paper (published in March 1950) which estimates the game-tree complexity of chess, which is approximately 10120. This number is now often referred to as the "Shannon number", and is still regarded today as an accurate estimate of the game's complexity. The number is often cited as one of the barriers to solving the game of chess using an exhaustive analysis (i.e. brute force analysis).[72][73]

### Shannon's computer chess program[edit]

On March 9, 1949, Shannon presented a paper called "Programming a Computer for playing Chess". The paper was presented at the National Institute for Radio Engineers Convention in New York. He described how to program a computer to play chess based on position scoring and move selection. He proposed basic strategies for restricting the number of possibilities to be considered in a game of chess. In March 1950 it was published in Philosophical Magazine, and is considered one of the first articles published on the topic of programming a computer for playing chess, and using a computer to solve the game.[72][74]

His process for having the computer decide on which move to make was a minimax procedure, based on an evaluation function of a given chess position. Shannon gave a rough example of an evaluation function in which the value of the black position was subtracted from that of the white position. Material was counted according to the usual chess piece relative value (1 point for a pawn, 3 points for a knight or bishop, 5 points for a rook, and 9 points for a queen).[75] He considered some positional factors, subtracting ½ point for each doubled pawn, backward pawn, and isolated pawn; mobility was incorporated by adding 0.1 point for each legal move available.

### Shannon's maxim[edit]

Shannon formulated a version of Kerckhoffs' principle as "The enemy knows the system". In this form it is known as "Shannon's maxim".

## Commemorations[edit]

### Shannon centenary[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2016)

|

Claude Shannon centenary

The Shannon centenary, 2016, marked the life and influence of Claude Elwood Shannon on the hundredth anniversary of his birth on April 30, 1916. It was inspired in part by the Alan Turing Year. An ad hoc committee of the IEEE Information Theory Society including Christina Fragouli, Rüdiger Urbanke, Michelle Effros, Lav Varshney and Sergio Verdú,[76] coordinated worldwide events. The initiative was announced in the History Panel at the 2015 IEEE Information Theory Workshop Jerusalem[77][78] and the IEEE Information Theory Society newsletter.[79]

A detailed listing of confirmed events was available on the website of the IEEE Information Theory Society.[80]

Some of the planned activities included:

* Bell Labs hosted the First Shannon Conference on the Future of the Information Age on April 28–29, 2016, in Murray Hill, New Jersey, to celebrate Claude Shannon and the continued impact of his legacy on society. The event includes keynote speeches by global luminaries and visionaries of the information age who will explore the impact of information theory on society and our digital future, informal recollections, and leading technical presentations on subsequent related work in other areas such as bioinformatics, economic systems, and social networks. There is also a student competition
* Bell Labs launched a Web exhibit on April 30, 2016, chronicling Shannon's hiring at Bell Labs (under an NDRC contract with US Government), his subsequent work there from 1942 through 1957, and details of Mathematics Department. The exhibit also displayed bios of colleagues and managers during his tenure, as well as original versions of some of the technical memoranda which subsequently became well known in published form.
* The Republic of Macedonia is planning a commemorative stamp. A USPS commemorative stamp is being proposed, with an active petition.[81]
* A documentary on Claude Shannon and on the impact of information theory, The Bit Player, is being produced by Sergio Verdú and Mark Levinson.
* A trans-Atlantic celebration of both George Boole's bicentenary and Claude Shannon's centenary that is being led by University College Cork and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. A first event was a workshop in Cork, When Boole Meets Shannon,[82] and will continue with exhibits at the Boston Museum of Science and at the MIT Museum.[83]
* Many organizations around the world are holding observance events, including the Boston Museum of Science, the Heinz-Nixdorf Museum, the Institute for Advanced Study, Technische Universität Berlin, University of South Australia (UniSA), Unicamp (Universidade Estadual de Campinas), University of Toronto, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Cairo University, Telecom ParisTech, National Technical University of Athens, Indian Institute of Science, Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Nanyang Technological University of Singapore, University of Maryland, University of Illinois at Chicago, École Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne, The Pennsylvania State University (Penn State), University of California Los Angeles, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications, and University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
* A logo that appears on this page was crowdsourced on Crowdspring.[84]
* The Math Encounters presentation of May 4, 2016, at the National Museum of Mathematics in New York, titled Saving Face: Information Tricks for Love and Life, focused on Shannon's work in information theory. A video recording and other material are available.[85]

## Awards and honors list[edit]

The Claude E. Shannon Award was established in his honor; he was also its first recipient, in 1972.[86][87]

* Stuart Ballantine Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1955[88]
* Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1957[89]
* Harvey Prize, the Technion of Haifa, Israel, 1972[90]
* Alfred Noble Prize, 1939 (award of civil engineering societies in the US)[91]
* National Medal of Science, 1966, presented by President Lyndon B. Johnson[92]
* Kyoto Prize, 1985[93]
* Morris Liebmann Memorial Prize of the Institute of Radio Engineers, 1949[94]
* United States National Academy of Sciences, 1956[95]
* Medal of Honor of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, 1966[96]
* Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement, 1967[97]
* Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), foreign member, 1975[98]
* Member of the American Philosophical Society, 1983[99]
* Basic Research Award, Eduard Rhein Foundation, Germany, 1991[100]
* Marconi Society Lifetime Achievement Award, 2000[101]
* Donnor Professor of Science, MIT, 1958–1979[102]

## Selected works[edit]

* Claude E. Shannon: A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits, master's thesis, MIT, 1937.
* Claude E. Shannon: "A Mathematical Theory of Communication", Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623–656, 1948 (abstract).
* Claude E. Shannon and Warren Weaver: The Mathematical Theory of Communication. The University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois, 1949. ISBN 0-252-72548-4

## See also[edit]

* Biography portal
* Mathematics portal

* Entropy power inequality
* Error-correcting codes with feedback
* List of pioneers in computer science
* Models of communication
* n-gram
* Noisy channel coding theorem
* Nyquist–Shannon sampling theorem
* One-time pad
* Product cipher
* Pulse-code modulation
* Rate distortion theory
* Sampling
* Shannon capacity
* Shannon entropy
* Shannon index
* Shannon multigraph
* Shannon security
* Shannon switching game
* Shannon–Fano coding
* Shannon–Hartley law
* Shannon–Hartley theorem
* Shannon's expansion
* Shannon's source coding theorem
* Shannon-Weaver model of communication
* Whittaker–Shannon interpolation formula

## References[edit]

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2. ^ a b Horgan, John (April 27, 2016). "Claude Shannon: Tinkerer, Prankster, and Father of Information Theory". spectrum.ieee.org. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
3. ^ Roberts, Siobhan (April 30, 2016). "The Forgotten Father of the Information Age". The New Yorker. ISSN 0028-792X. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
4. ^ a b c Tse, David (December 22, 2020). "How Claude Shannon Invented the Future". Quanta Magazine. Retrieved September 28, 2023.
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36. ^ Turing, A.M. (1938), "On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem: A correction", Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 2, vol. 43, no. 6 (published 1937), pp. 544–6, doi:10.1112/plms/s2-43.6.544
37. ^ Mindell, David A. (October 15, 2004). Between Human and Machine: Feedback, Control, and Computing Before Cybernetics. JHU Press. pp. 319–320. ISBN 0801880572.
38. ^ Kahn, David (1966). The Codebreakers: The Comprehensive History of Secret Communication from Ancient Times to the Internet. Macmillan and Sons. pp. 743–751. ISBN 0684831309.
39. ^ quoted in Kahn, The Codebreakers, p. 744.
40. ^ Quoted in Erico Marui Guizzo, "The Essential Message: Claude Shannon and the Making of Information Theory", Archived May 28, 2008, at the Wayback Machine unpublished MS thesis, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2003, p. 21.
41. ^ Shannon, C. E. (1949). "Communication Theory of Secrecy Systems". Bell System Technical Journal. 28 (4): 656–715. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb00928.x.
42. ^ a b Weisstein, Eric. "Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001)". World of Scientific Biography. Wolfram Research.
43. ^ "Claude Shannon – computer science theory". www.thocp.net. The History of Computing Project. Retrieved December 9, 2016.
44. ^ "People: Shannon, Claude Elwood". MIT Museum. Retrieved December 9, 2016.
45. ^ Boehm, George A. W. (March 1, 1953). "GYPSY, MODEL VI, CLAUDE SHANNON, NIMWIT, AND THE MOUSE". Computers and Automation 1953-03: Vol 2 Iss 2. Internet Archive. Berkeley Enterprises. pp. 1–4.
46. ^ Advertisement: Minivac 601. October 1961. p. 33.
47. ^ Thorp, Edward (October 1998). "The invention of the first wearable computer". Digest of Papers. Second International Symposium on Wearable Computers (Cat. No.98EX215). pp. 4–8. doi:10.1109/iswc.1998.729523. ISBN 0-8186-9074-7. S2CID 1526.
48. ^ Jimmy Soni; Rob Goodman (2017). A Mind At Play: How Claude Shannon Invented the Information Age. Simon and Schuster. pp. 63, 80.
49. ^ "Betty Shannon, Unsung Mathematical Genius". Scientific American Blog Network. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
50. ^ Horgan, John (April 27, 2016). "Claude Shannon: Tinkerer, Prankster, and Father of Information Theory". IEEE Spectrum. Retrieved June 19, 2020.
51. ^ William Poundstone (2010). Fortune's Formula: The Untold Story of the Scientific Betting System. Macmillan. p. 18\. ISBN 978-0-374-70708-8. "Shannon described himself as an atheist and was outwardly apolitical."
52. ^ "Claude Shannon Statue Dedications". Archived from the original on July 31, 2010.
53. ^ "Michigan Roadside Attractions: Claude Shannon Park, Gaylord". Travel the Mitten. TravelTheMitten.com. August 11, 2018. Retrieved September 8, 2022. "Gaylord, Michigan is home to a small park honoring Claude Shannon…"
54. ^ Shannon, C. E. (1948). "A mathematical theory of communication". Bell System Technical Journal. 27 (3): 379–423, 623–656. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1948.tb01338.x.
55. ^ Coughlin, Kevin (February 27, 2001). "Bell Labs digital guru dead at 84— Pioneer scientist led high-tech revolution". The Star-Ledger.
56. ^ "Gwei". Investopedia.
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59. ^ Gallager, Robert G. (2001). "Claude E. Shannon: A Retrospective on His Life, Work, and Impact" (PDF). IEEE Transactions on Information Theory. 47 (7).
60. ^ Collins, Graham P. (October 14, 2002). "Claude E. Shannon: Founder of Information Theory". Scientific American. Retrieved January 11, 2024.
61. ^ George Dyson (July 21, 2017). "The Elegance of Ones and Zeroes". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved August 15, 2017.
62. ^ Soni, Jimmy; Goodman, Rob (August 1, 2017). "10,000 Hours With Claude Shannon: How a Genius Thinks, Works and Lives". Observer. Retrieved October 31, 2023.
63. ^ Claude Shannon’s 100th birthday Google, 2016
64. ^ Katie Reilly (April 30, 2016). "Google Doodle Honors Mathematician-Juggler Claude Shannon". Time.
65. ^ Menchie Mendoza (May 2, 2016). "Google Doodle Celebrates 100th Birthday Of Claude Shannon, Father Of Information Theory". Tech Times.
66. ^ "Google Doodle commemorates 'father of information theory' Claude Shannon on his 100th birthday". Firstpost. May 3, 2016.
67. ^ Jonathan Gibbs (April 29, 2016). "Claude Shannon: Three things you'll wish you owned that the mathematician invented". The Independent.
68. ^ David Z. Morris (April 30, 2016). "Google Celebrates 100th Birthday of Claude Shannon, the Inventor of the Bit". Fortune.
69. ^ Feder, Toni (July 19, 2019). "Review: The Bit Player, an homage to Claude Shannon". Physics Today. doi:10.1063/PT.6.3.20190719a. S2CID 243548904. Retrieved August 3, 2019.
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71. ^ a b c d "Bell Labs Advances Intelligent Networks". Archived from the original on July 22, 2012.
72. ^ a b Claude Shannon (1950). "Programming a Computer for Playing Chess" (PDF). Philosophical Magazine. 41 (314). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 6, 2010. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
73. ^ Grime, James (July 24, 2015). How many chess games are possible?. Numberphile.
74. ^ "Early Computer Chess Programs by Bill Wall". billwall.phpwebhosting.com.
75. ^ Hamid Reza Ekbia (2008), Artificial Dreams: The Quest for Non-biological Intelligence, Cambridge University Press, p. 46, ISBN 978-0-521-87867-8
76. ^ "Newsletter". IEEE Information Theory Society. IEEE. June 2015. Archived from the original on July 9, 2015.
77. ^ "Videos". Israel: Technion. Archived from the original on July 6, 2015. Retrieved July 5, 2015.
78. ^ "Sergio Verdú". Twitter.
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80. ^ "Shannon Centenary". IEEE Information Theory Society. IEEE.
81. ^ "Shannon's centenary US postal stamp — Information Theory Society". www.itsoc.org.
82. ^ "George Boole 200-Conferences". Archived from the original on September 6, 2015. Retrieved September 21, 2015.
83. ^ "Compute and Communicate | A Boole/Shannon Celebration".
84. ^ "Claude Shannon centennial logo, a Logo & Identity project by cfrag1". www.crowdspring.com.
85. ^ "Saving Face: Information Tricks for Love and Life (Math Encounters Presentation at the National Museum of Mathematics". ).
86. ^ "Claude E. Shannon Award | Information Theory Society". www.itsoc.org.
87. ^ Roberts, Siobhan (April 30, 2016). "Claude Shannon, the Father of the Information Age, Turns 1100100". The New Yorker. Retrieved April 30, 2016.
88. ^ "Claude Elwood Shannon". The Franklin Institute. January 11, 2014.
89. ^ "Claude Elwood Shannon". February 9, 2023.
90. ^ "Harvey Prize". Technion — Israel Institute of Technology. Haifa, Israel.
91. ^ "American Society of Civil Engineers Alfred Noble Prize". American Society of Civil Engineers. Retrieved April 27, 2020.
92. ^ "The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient Details | NSF – National Science Foundation". www.nsf.gov.
93. ^ "Claude Elwood Shannon | Kyoto Prize". 京都賞.
94. ^ "IEEE Morris N. Liebmann Memorial Award Recipients" (PDF). IEEE. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 3, 2016. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
95. ^ "Claude Shannon". National Academy of Sciences. July 2, 2015. Retrieved March 25, 2019.
96. ^ "IEEE Medal of Honor Recipients" (PDF). IEEE. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 22, 2015. Retrieved February 27, 2011.
97. ^ "Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement". www.achievement.org. American Academy of Achievement.
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99. ^ "APS Member History".
100. ^ "Award Winners (chronological)". Eduard Rhein Foundation. Archived from the original on July 18, 2011. Retrieved February 20, 2011.
101. ^ "Marconi Lifetime Achievement Award". marconisociety.org.
102. ^ Staff (February 27, 2001). "MIT Professor Claude Shannon dies; was founder of digital communications". MIT News. Retrieved April 4, 2023.

## Further reading[edit]

* Rethnakaran Pulikkoonattu — Eric W. Weisstein: Mathworld biography of Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001) Shannon, Claude Elwood (1916–2001) – from Eric Weisstein's World of Scientific Biography
* Claude E. Shannon: Programming a Computer for Playing Chess, Philosophical Magazine, Ser.7, Vol. 41, No. 314, March 1950. (Available online under External links below)
* David Levy: Computer Gamesmanship: Elements of Intelligent Game Design, Simon & Schuster, 1983. ISBN 0-671-49532-1
* Mindell, David A., "Automation's Finest Hour: Bell Labs and Automatic Control in World War II", IEEE Control Systems, December 1995, pp. 72–80.
* Poundstone, William, Fortune's Formula, Hill & Wang, 2005, ISBN 978-0-8090-4599-0
* Gleick, James, The Information: A History, A Theory, A Flood, Pantheon, 2011, ISBN 978-0-375-42372-7
* Jimmy Soni and Rob Goodman, A Mind at Play: How Claude Shannon Invented the Information Age, Simon and Schuster, 2017, ISBN 978-1476766683
* Nahin, Paul J., The Logician and the Engineer: How George Boole and Claude Shannon Create the Information Age, Princeton University Press, 2013, ISBN 978-0691151007
* Everett M. Rogers,  Claude Shannon's Cryptography Research During World War II and the Mathematical Theory of Communication, 1994 Proceedings of IEEE International Carnahan Conference on Security Technology, pp. 1–5, 1994. Claude Shannon's cryptography research during World War II and the mathematical theory of communication

## External links[edit]

* Media related to Claude Shannon at Wikimedia Commons

Wikiquote has quotations related to Claude Elwood Shannon.

* Guide to the Claude Elwood Shannon papers at the Library of Congress
* A Public Lecture Celebrating Claude E. Shannon – Sergio Verdu, Institute for Advanced Study on YouTube
* Claude Elwood Shannon (1916–2001) at the Notices of the American Mathematical Society

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1951–1975|

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Claude E. Shannon Award

1972–1989|

* 1972 Claude E. Shannon
* 1973
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1990–1999|

* 1990 Thomas M. Cover
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2000–2009|

* 2000 Thomas Kailath
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2010–2019|

* 2010 Te Sun Han
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2020–present|

* 2020 Charles Bennett
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United States National Medal of Science laureates

Behavioral and social science

| 1960s|

1964
Neal Elgar Miller

|

1980s|

1986
Herbert A. Simon
1987
Anne Anastasi
George J. Stigler
1988
Milton Friedman

1990s|

1990
Leonid Hurwicz
Patrick Suppes
1991
George A. Miller
1992
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1994
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1995
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1996
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1997
William K. Estes
1998
William Julius Wilson
1999
Robert M. Solow

2000s|

2000
Gary Becker
2003
R. Duncan Luce
2004
Kenneth Arrow
2005
Gordon H. Bower
2008
Michael I. Posner
2009
Mortimer Mishkin

2010s|

2011
Anne Treisman
2014
Robert Axelrod
2015
Albert Bandura

Biological sciences

| 1960s|

1963
C. B. van Niel
1964
Theodosius Dobzhansky
Marshall W. Nirenberg
1965
Francis P. Rous
George G. Simpson
Donald D. Van Slyke
1966
Edward F. Knipling
Fritz Albert Lipmann
William C. Rose
Sewall Wright
1967
Kenneth S. Cole
Harry F. Harlow
Michael Heidelberger
Alfred H. Sturtevant
1968
Horace Barker
Bernard B. Brodie
Detlev W. Bronk
Jay Lush
Burrhus Frederic Skinner
1969
Robert Huebner
Ernst Mayr

|

1970s|

1970
Barbara McClintock
Albert B. Sabin
1973
Daniel I. Arnon
Earl W. Sutherland Jr.
1974
Britton Chance
Erwin Chargaff
James V. Neel
James Augustine Shannon
1975
Hallowell Davis
Paul Gyorgy
Sterling B. Hendricks
Orville Alvin Vogel
1976
Roger Guillemin
Keith Roberts Porter
Efraim Racker
E. O. Wilson
1979
Robert H. Burris
Elizabeth C. Crosby
Arthur Kornberg
Severo Ochoa
Earl Reece Stadtman
George Ledyard Stebbins
Paul Alfred Weiss

1980s|

1981
Philip Handler
1982
Seymour Benzer
Glenn W. Burton
Mildred Cohn
1983
Howard L. Bachrach
Paul Berg
Wendell L. Roelofs
Berta Scharrer
1986
Stanley Cohen
Donald A. Henderson
Vernon B. Mountcastle
George Emil Palade
Joan A. Steitz
1987
Michael E. DeBakey
Theodor O. Diener
Harry Eagle
Har Gobind Khorana
Rita Levi-Montalcini
1988
Michael S. Brown
Stanley Norman Cohen
Joseph L. Goldstein
Maurice R. Hilleman
Eric R. Kandel
Rosalyn Sussman Yalow
1989
Katherine Esau
Viktor Hamburger
Philip Leder
Joshua Lederberg
Roger W. Sperry
Harland G. Wood

1990s|

1990
Baruj Benacerraf
Herbert W. Boyer
Daniel E. Koshland Jr.
Edward B. Lewis
David G. Nathan
E. Donnall Thomas
1991
Mary Ellen Avery
G. Evelyn Hutchinson
Elvin A. Kabat
Robert W. Kates
Salvador Luria
Paul A. Marks
Folke K. Skoog
Paul C. Zamecnik
1992
Maxine Singer
Howard Martin Temin
1993
Daniel Nathans
Salome G. Waelsch
1994
Thomas Eisner
Elizabeth F. Neufeld
1995
Alexander Rich
1996
Ruth Patrick
1997
James Watson
Robert A. Weinberg
1998
Bruce Ames
Janet Rowley
1999
David Baltimore
Jared Diamond
Lynn Margulis

2000s|

2000
Nancy C. Andreasen
Peter H. Raven
Carl Woese
2001
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George F. Bass
Mario R. Capecchi
Ann Graybiel
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Victor A. McKusick
Harold Varmus
2002
James E. Darnell
Evelyn M. Witkin
2003
J. Michael Bishop
Solomon H. Snyder
Charles Yanofsky
2004
Norman E. Borlaug
Phillip A. Sharp
Thomas E. Starzl
2005
Anthony Fauci
Torsten N. Wiesel
2006
Rita R. Colwell
Nina Fedoroff
Lubert Stryer
2007
Robert J. Lefkowitz
Bert W. O'Malley
2008
Francis S. Collins
Elaine Fuchs
J. Craig Venter
2009
Susan L. Lindquist
Stanley B. Prusiner

2010s|

2010
Ralph L. Brinster
Rudolf Jaenisch
2011
Lucy Shapiro
Leroy Hood
Sallie Chisholm
2012
May Berenbaum
Bruce Alberts
2013
Rakesh K. Jain
2014
Stanley Falkow
Mary-Claire King
Simon Levin

Chemistry

| 1960s|

1964
Roger Adams

|

1980s|

1982
F. Albert Cotton
Gilbert Stork
1983
Roald Hoffmann
George C. Pimentel
Richard N. Zare
1986
Harry B. Gray
Yuan Tseh Lee
Carl S. Marvel
Frank H. Westheimer
1987
William S. Johnson
Walter H. Stockmayer
Max Tishler
1988
William O. Baker
Konrad E. Bloch
Elias J. Corey
1989
Richard B. Bernstein
Melvin Calvin
Rudolph A. Marcus
Harden M. McConnell

1990s|

1990
Elkan Blout
Karl Folkers
John D. Roberts
1991
Ronald Breslow
Gertrude B. Elion
Dudley R. Herschbach
Glenn T. Seaborg
1992
Howard E. Simmons Jr.
1993
Donald J. Cram
Norman Hackerman
1994
George S. Hammond
1995
Thomas Cech
Isabella L. Karle
1996
Norman Davidson
1997
Darleane C. Hoffman
Harold S. Johnston
1998
John W. Cahn
George M. Whitesides
1999
Stuart A. Rice
John Ross
Susan Solomon

2000s|

2000
John D. Baldeschwieler
Ralph F. Hirschmann
2001
Ernest R. Davidson
Gábor A. Somorjai
2002
John I. Brauman
2004
Stephen J. Lippard
2005
Tobin J. Marks
2006
Marvin H. Caruthers
Peter B. Dervan
2007
Mostafa A. El-Sayed
2008
Joanna Fowler
JoAnne Stubbe
2009
Stephen J. Benkovic
Marye Anne Fox

2010s|

2010
Jacqueline K. Barton
Peter J. Stang
2011
Allen J. Bard
M. Frederick Hawthorne
2012
Judith P. Klinman
Jerrold Meinwald
2013
Geraldine L. Richmond
2014
A. Paul Alivisatos

Engineering sciences

| 1960s|

1962
Theodore von Kármán
1963
Vannevar Bush
John Robinson Pierce
1964
Charles S. Draper
Othmar H. Ammann
1965
Hugh L. Dryden
Clarence L. Johnson
Warren K. Lewis
1966
Claude E. Shannon
1967
Edwin H. Land
Igor I. Sikorsky
1968
J. Presper Eckert
Nathan M. Newmark
1969
Jack St. Clair Kilby

|

1970s|

1970
George E. Mueller
1973
Harold E. Edgerton
Richard T. Whitcomb
1974
Rudolf Kompfner
Ralph Brazelton Peck
Abel Wolman
1975
Manson Benedict
William Hayward Pickering
Frederick E. Terman
Wernher von Braun
1976
Morris Cohen
Peter C. Goldmark
Erwin Wilhelm Müller
1979
Emmett N. Leith
Raymond D. Mindlin
Robert N. Noyce
Earl R. Parker
Simon Ramo

1980s|

1982
Edward H. Heinemann
Donald L. Katz
1983
Bill Hewlett
George Low
John G. Trump
1986
Hans Wolfgang Liepmann
Tung-Yen Lin
Bernard M. Oliver
1987
Robert Byron Bird
H. Bolton Seed
Ernst Weber
1988
Daniel C. Drucker
Willis M. Hawkins
George W. Housner
1989
Harry George Drickamer
Herbert E. Grier

1990s|

1990
Mildred Dresselhaus
Nick Holonyak Jr.
1991
George H. Heilmeier
Luna B. Leopold
H. Guyford Stever
1992
Calvin F. Quate
John Roy Whinnery
1993
Alfred Y. Cho
1994
Ray W. Clough
1995
Hermann A. Haus
1996
James L. Flanagan
C. Kumar N. Patel
1998
Eli Ruckenstein
1999
Kenneth N. Stevens

2000s|

2000
Yuan-Cheng B. Fung
2001
Andreas Acrivos
2002
Leo Beranek
2003
John M. Prausnitz
2004
Edwin N. Lightfoot
2005
Jan D. Achenbach
2006
Robert S. Langer
2007
David J. Wineland
2008
Rudolf E. Kálmán
2009
Amnon Yariv

2010s|

2010
Shu Chien
2011
John B. Goodenough
2012
Thomas Kailath

Mathematical, statistical, and computer sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Norbert Wiener
1964
Solomon Lefschetz
H. Marston Morse
1965
Oscar Zariski
1966
John Milnor
1967
Paul Cohen
1968
Jerzy Neyman
1969
William Feller

|

1970s|

1970
Richard Brauer
1973
John Tukey
1974
Kurt Gödel
1975
John W. Backus
Shiing-Shen Chern
George Dantzig
1976
Kurt Otto Friedrichs
Hassler Whitney
1979
Joseph L. Doob
Donald E. Knuth

1980s|

1982
Marshall H. Stone
1983
Herman Goldstine
Isadore Singer
1986
Peter Lax
Antoni Zygmund
1987
Raoul Bott
Michael Freedman
1988
Ralph E. Gomory
Joseph B. Keller
1989
Samuel Karlin
Saunders Mac Lane
Donald C. Spencer

1990s|

1990
George F. Carrier
Stephen Cole Kleene
John McCarthy
1991
Alberto Calderón
1992
Allen Newell
1993
Martin David Kruskal
1994
John Cocke
1995
Louis Nirenberg
1996
Richard Karp
Stephen Smale
1997
Shing-Tung Yau
1998
Cathleen Synge Morawetz
1999
Felix Browder
Ronald R. Coifman

2000s|

2000
John Griggs Thompson
Karen Uhlenbeck
2001
Calyampudi R. Rao
Elias M. Stein
2002
James G. Glimm
2003
Carl R. de Boor
2004
Dennis P. Sullivan
2005
Bradley Efron
2006
Hyman Bass
2007
Leonard Kleinrock
Andrew J. Viterbi
2009
David B. Mumford

2010s|

2010
Richard A. Tapia
S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan
2011
Solomon W. Golomb
Barry Mazur
2012
Alexandre Chorin
David Blackwell
2013
Michael Artin

Physical sciences

| 1960s|

1963
Luis W. Alvarez
1964
Julian Schwinger
Harold Urey
Robert Burns Woodward
1965
John Bardeen
Peter Debye
Leon M. Lederman
William Rubey
1966
Jacob Bjerknes
Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
Henry Eyring
John H. Van Vleck
Vladimir K. Zworykin
1967
Jesse Beams
Francis Birch
Gregory Breit
Louis Hammett
George Kistiakowsky
1968
Paul Bartlett
Herbert Friedman
Lars Onsager
Eugene Wigner
1969
Herbert C. Brown
Wolfgang Panofsky

|

1970s|

1970
Robert H. Dicke
Allan R. Sandage
John C. Slater
John A. Wheeler
Saul Winstein
1973
Carl Djerassi
Maurice Ewing
Arie Jan Haagen-Smit
Vladimir Haensel
Frederick Seitz
Robert Rathbun Wilson
1974
Nicolaas Bloembergen
Paul Flory
William Alfred Fowler
Linus Carl Pauling
Kenneth Sanborn Pitzer
1975
Hans A. Bethe
Joseph O. Hirschfelder
Lewis Sarett
Edgar Bright Wilson
Chien-Shiung Wu
1976
Samuel Goudsmit
Herbert S. Gutowsky
Frederick Rossini
Verner Suomi
Henry Taube
George Uhlenbeck
1979
Richard P. Feynman
Herman Mark
Edward M. Purcell
John Sinfelt
Lyman Spitzer
Victor F. Weisskopf

1980s|

1982
Philip W. Anderson
Yoichiro Nambu
Edward Teller
Charles H. Townes
1983
E. Margaret Burbidge
Maurice Goldhaber
Helmut Landsberg
Walter Munk
Frederick Reines
Bruno B. Rossi
J. Robert Schrieffer
1986
Solomon J. Buchsbaum
H. Richard Crane
Herman Feshbach
Robert Hofstadter
Chen-Ning Yang
1987
Philip Abelson
Walter Elsasser
Paul C. Lauterbur
George Pake
James A. Van Allen
1988
D. Allan Bromley
Paul Ching-Wu Chu
Walter Kohn
Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
Jack Steinberger
1989
Arnold O. Beckman
Eugene Parker
Robert Sharp
Henry Stommel

1990s|

1990
Allan M. Cormack
Edwin M. McMillan
Robert Pound
Roger Revelle
1991
Arthur L. Schawlow
Ed Stone
Steven Weinberg
1992
Eugene M. Shoemaker
1993
Val Fitch
Vera Rubin
1994
Albert Overhauser
Frank Press
1995
Hans Dehmelt
Peter Goldreich
1996
Wallace S. Broecker
1997
Marshall Rosenbluth
Martin Schwarzschild
George Wetherill
1998
Don L. Anderson
John N. Bahcall
1999
James Cronin
Leo Kadanoff

2000s|

2000
Willis E. Lamb
Jeremiah P. Ostriker
Gilbert F. White
2001
Marvin L. Cohen
Raymond Davis Jr.
Charles Keeling
2002
Richard Garwin
W. Jason Morgan
Edward Witten
2003
G. Brent Dalrymple
Riccardo Giacconi
2004
Robert N. Clayton
2005
Ralph A. Alpher
Lonnie Thompson
2006
Daniel Kleppner
2007
Fay Ajzenberg-Selove
Charles P. Slichter
2008
Berni Alder
James E. Gunn
2009
Yakir Aharonov
Esther M. Conwell
Warren M. Washington

2010s|

2011
Sidney Drell
Sandra Faber
Sylvester James Gates
2012
Burton Richter
Sean C. Solomon
2014
Shirley Ann Jackson

* v
* t
* e

Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1991

Fellows|

* Paul Adams
* John Evan Baldwin
* Michael John Bevan
* Kenneth Bray
* Peter Elwood Bryant
* Robert Wolfgang Cahn
* John Cardy
* Brian Charlesworth
* Bryan Randell Coles
* Michael Dexter
* David Headley Green
* Frank Grosveld
* Nigel Hitchin
* Tim Hunt
* David Stewart Jenkinson
* Brian F. G. Johnson
* Philip Johnson-Laird
* David King
* Malcolm Douglas Lilly
* George Owen Mackie
* Allan Mackintosh
* Enid MacRobbie
* Michael May
* John Norman Murrell
* John Newsom-Davis
* Kenneth John Packer
* John Palmer
* Gerald Pattenden
* Graham Ross
* Charles Scriver
* Christopher Roland Somerville
* Andrew Soward
* Govind Swarup
* Stephen Thorpe
* Lap-Chee Tsui
* Leslie Valiant
* Martin Paterson Vessey
* Dick Walcott
* Kenneth Walters
* Michael Waterfield
* Colin Webb

Foreign|

* Duilio Arigoni
* Michael Stuart Brown
* Joseph L. Goldstein
* Hendrik C. van de Hulst
* Claude Shannon
* John Tukey

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST
* ISNI
* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* Norway
* Spain
* France
* BnF data
* Catalonia
* Germany
* Israel
* United States
* Latvia
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Australia
* Greece
* Korea
* Croatia
* Netherlands
* Poland

Academics|

* CiNii
* DBLP
* Google Scholar
* Leopoldina
* MathSciNet
* Mathematics Genealogy Project
* Scopus
* zbMATH

People|

* Deutsche Biographie
* Trove

Other|

* SNAC
* IdRef

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