Climate of Europe

Overview of the climate of Europe

A Köppen-Geiger climate classification map of Europe[1]

Europe is generally characterized by a temperate climate. Most of Western Europe has an Oceanic climate, in the Köppen climate classification, featuring cool to warm summers and cool winters with frequent overcast skies. Southern Europe has a distinctively Mediterranean climate, which features warm to hot, dry summers and cool to mild winters and frequent sunny skies. Central-eastern Europe is classified as having a humid continental climate, which features warm to hot summers and cold winters.

The coastal lowlands of the Mediterranean Basin have more of a wet winter and dry summer season pattern, the winter season extends from October to February while the summer season is mainly noticeable in the dry months where precipitation can, in some years, become extremely scarce. A very small area in the continent features the desert climate which exists in the south-eastern coasts of Spain making them the only places in Europe that have an arid climate.

## Gulf Stream[edit]

Main article: Gulf Stream

See also: North Atlantic Drift

An image of the Gulf Stream's path and its related branches The average number of days per year with precipitation The average amount of sunshine yearly (hours)

The climate of western Europe is strongly conditioned by the Gulf Stream, which keeps mild air (for the latitude) over Northwestern Europe in the winter months, especially in Ireland, the United Kingdom and coastal Norway. In terms of monthly sunshine averages, much of temperate Europe sees considerably less than the northern United States and eastern Asia.

The climate of Western Europe is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the Gulf Stream. Western Europe is at the same latitude as parts of Canada and Russia, thus solar insulation is weak much of the year. Mediterranean waters are not as deep as the large oceans, allowing it to become a heat storage tempering winters along its coastlines, but because the Atlantic Ocean is largely influenced by the gulf stream, this effect is reduced when compared to that of the Atlantic waters.[2] The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be.

Compared to areas located in the higher middle latitudes, parts of western Europe have mild winters and higher annual temperatures (though summers are cooler than locations at the same latitude). Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in the Asian part of Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around 8 °C (15 °F) higher than those in Calgary (although Calgary sits 1200m higher in altitude), and they are almost 22 °C (40 °F) higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.[2]

This difference is even larger on the northern part of the continent. The January average in Brønnøysund, Norway,[3] is almost 15 °C warmer than the January average in Nome, Alaska,[4] both towns are situated upwind on the west coast of the continents at 65°N, and as much as 42 °C warmer than the January average in Yakutsk which is actually slightly further south.

Within mainland Spain, the arid climate appears predominantly in Almería.[5] This climate extends to the Andarax and Almanzora river valleys, Alicante and the Cabo de Gata-Níjar Natural Park, which are also known for having also a hot desert climate (Köppen: BWh) and a hot semi-desert climate (Köppen: BSh), with a precipitation amount of 156 mm (6.1 in) and an average temperature of 19.1 °C (66 °F)[6] which is reportedly the driest place in Europe.

## Temperature[edit]

Difference between high and low temperature records

Most of Europe sees seasonal temperatures consistent with temperate climates in other parts of the world, though summers north of the Mediterranean Sea are cooler than most temperate climates experience in summer (for example summers in the temperate sector of the northern United States are much hotter in summer than Europe).[citation needed] Among the cities with a population over 100,000 people in Europe, the coldest winters are mostly found in Russia, with daily highs in winter averaging 0 °C (32 °F),[7] while the mildest winters in the continent are in southern Portugal, southern Spain, in Sicily (Italy) and southern Greek islands such as Crete, Rhodes, Karpathos and Kasos.[citation needed]

The hottest summers of the continent occur in cities and towns of the hinterland of southern Spain[8], and southern Greece.[citation needed] July average highs in Spain are 36.9 °C (98.4 °F) in Cordoba and 36.0 °C (96.8 °F) in Seville. July average high in Greece is 36.0 °C (96.8 °F) in Sparta located in the interior of the Evrotas Valley.

The highest extreme temperatures have been recorded in Syracuse, Italy, with 48.8 °C (119.8 °F),[9] Athens and Elefsina, Greece, with 48.0 °C (118.4 °F)[10] and inside the southern valleys of the Iberian Peninsula, with towns such as La Rambla, Cordoba (Spain) and Amareleja (Portugal) recording temperatures of 47.6 °C (117.7 °F)[11] and 47.4 °C (117.3 °F)[12] respectively.

### Heat waves[edit]

Heat waves across the continent can be deadly and consequential events, capable of contracting the European economy by 0.3-0.5%.[13] In the summer of 2003, there was a severe heatwave across Europe, considered the warmest summer on the continent since 1540. The heat and drought killed 72,210 people across 15 countries, making it the sixth deadliest disaster worldwide in the first two decades of the 21st century. Most of the deaths occurred in Italy and France. Several nationwide temperature records were broken during the heatwave, with a peak temperature of 44.1 °C (111.4 °F) recorded in France on August 12.[14][15][16]

## Climate change[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Climate change in Europe.[edit]

Increase of average yearly temperature in selected cities in Europe (1900–2017)[17]Climate change has resulted in an increase in temperature of 2.3 °C (2022) in Europe compared to pre-industrial levels. Europe is the fastest warming continent in the world.[18] Europe's climate is getting warmer due to anthropogenic activity. According to international climate experts, global temperature rise should not exceed 2 °C to prevent the most dangerous consequences of climate change; without reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, this could happen before 2050.[19][20] Climate change has implications for all regions of Europe, with the extent and nature of impacts varying across the continent.

Impacts on European countries include warmer weather and increasing frequency and intensity of extreme weather such as heat waves, bringing health risks and impacts on ecosystems. European countries are major contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions, although the European Union and governments of several countries have outlined plans to implement climate change mitigation and an energy transition in the 21st century, the European Green Deal being one of these. The European Union commissioner of climate action is Frans Timmermans since 1 December 2019.[21]

Public opinion in Europe shows concern about climate change; in the European Investment Bank's Climate Survey of 2020, 90% of Europeans believe their children will experience the effects of climate change in their daily lives.[22] Climate change activism and businesses shifting their practices has taken place in Europe.

## Severe weather[edit]

### Tornadoes[edit]

Main article: List of European tornadoes and tornado outbreaks

The Netherlands has the highest average number of recorded tornadoes per area of any country in the world (more than 20, or 0.0005 per km2), annually), followed by the UK (around 33, or 0.0001 per km2), per year),[23][24] but most are small and cause minor damage. In absolute number of events, ignoring area, the UK experiences more tornadoes than any other European country, excluding waterspouts.[25] Europe uses its own tornado scale, known as the TORRO scale, which ranges from a T0 for extremely weak tornadoes to T11 for the most powerful known tornadoes.[26]

### Tropical cyclones[edit]

Subtropical Storm Alpha (left) and Cyclone Ianos (right) both affecting Europe in September 2020

Main article: List of Europe tropical cyclones

Atlantic hurricanes regularly effect Europe after they enter the midlatitudes and transition into an extratropical cyclone. As Post-tropical cyclones, they are typically more intense than other European windstorms that affect the continent. In September 1961, former Hurricane Debbie produced wind gusts of 181 km/h (113 mph) at Malin Head in Ireland, which was the highest-ever wind gust on the island.[27][28] On two occasions, a tropical or subtropical cyclone made landfall on the European mainland. In October 2005, Tropical Depression Vince hit southern Spain, producing wind gusts as strong as 77 km/h (48 mph) in Rota, Cádiz, while rainfall reached 84 mm (3.3 in) in Córdoba Province.[29] In September 2020, Subtropical Storm Alpha struck Portugal, causing one death, and damage estimated at €20 million (US$24.2 million).[30][31] Occasionally, tropical-like cyclones in the Mediterranean affect southern Europe. In September 2020 while Alpha was approaching Portugal, Cyclone Ianos struck Greece, producing wind gusts of 195 km/h (121 mph), and damage estimated at €85 million (U$100 million).[32][33] In September 2023, rains from Storm Daniel caused severe flooding across Greece, killing 17 people and leaving severe damage estimated at €2 billion (US$2.17 billion).[34][35]

## See also[edit]

* Arctic oscillation
* North Atlantic oscillation
* Climate change in Europe
* 2003 European heat wave
* 2018 European heat wave
* List of European cities by average temperature
* List of cities in Europe by precipitation
* List of cities in Europe by sunshine duration

## References[edit]

1. ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. ISSN 2052-4463. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
2. ^ a b "European Climate". World Book. World Book, Inc. Archived from the original on 2011-07-23. Retrieved 2011-02-15.
3. ^ Brønnøysund
4. ^ Nome
5. ^ Meteorología, Agencia Estatal de. "Almería Aeropuerto: Almería Aeropuerto - Agencia Estatal de Meteorología - AEMET. Gobierno de España". www.aemet.es.
6. ^ "LOS CLIMAS SECOS DE ESPAÑA SEGUN EL SISTEMA DE KOPPEN" (PDF). digitum.um.es. 1987. Retrieved 2020-08-17.
7. ^ "Pogoda.ru.net (In Russian)". Weather and Climate (Погода и климат). Retrieved 2024-01-09.
8. ^ "Why is the Guadalquivir valley one of the hottest inhabited places on the planet? (In Spanish)". elDiario.es. Retrieved 2024-01-09.
9. ^ "WMO confirms verification of new continental European temperature record". wmo.int. Retrieved 2024-04-03.
10. ^ "WMO Region VI (Europe, Continent only): Highest Temperature". World Meteorological Organisation. Retrieved 8 November 2020.
11. ^ "14 de agosto de 2021,se batió el récord de temperatura más alta registrada en España" (in Spanish). Agencia Estatal de Meteorología. 2 August 2022. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
12. ^ Extremes Archived 21 June 2017 at the Wayback Machine Instituto Português do Mar e da Atmosfera, IPMA
13. ^ David García-León; Ana Casanueva; Gabriele Standardi; Annkatrin Burgstall; Andreas D. Flouris; Lars Nybo (October 4, 2021). "Current and projected regional economic impacts of heatwaves in Europe". Journal Communications.
14. ^ Rene Orth, Martha M Vogel, Jürg Luterbacher, Christian Pfister, and Sonia I Seneviratne (November 15, 2016). "Did European temperatures in 1540 exceed present-day records?". Environmental Research Letters. 11 (11).`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
15. ^ Human Cost of Disasters: An Overview of the Last 20 Years 2000-2019 (PDF) (Report). United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs. Retrieved November 6, 2023.
16. ^ Bob Henson (June 20, 2019). "Europe Awaits Record-Smashing June Heat Wave". Weather Underground. Retrieved November 6, 2023.
17. ^ Kayser-Bril, Nicolas (24 September 2018). "Europe is getting warmer, and it's not looking like it's going to cool down anytime soon". EDJNet. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
18. ^ "Climate change impacts scar Europe, but increase in renewables signals hope for future". public.wmo.int. 2023-06-14. Retrieved 2023-07-09.
19. ^ "Global and European temperatures — Climate-ADAPT". climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 2021-09-12.
20. ^ Carter, J.G. 2011, "Climate change adaptation in European cities", Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 193-198
21. ^ Abnett, Kate (2020-04-21). "EU climate chief sees green strings for car scrappage schemes". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-10-06.
22. ^ "EU/China/US climate survey shows public optimism about reversing climate change". European Investment Bank. Retrieved 2021-07-15.
23. ^ J Holden, A Wright (2003-03-13). "UK tornado climatology and the development of simple prediction tools" (PDF). Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society. 130 (598): 1009–1021. Bibcode:2004QJRMS.130.1009H. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.147.4293. doi:10.1256/qj.03.45. S2CID 18365306. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-08-24. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
24. ^ Staff (2002-03-28). "Natural Disasters: Tornadoes". BBC Science and Nature. BBC. Archived from the original on 2002-10-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
25. ^ Nikolai Dotzek (2003-03-20). "An updated estimate of tornado occurrence in Europe" (PDF). Atmospheric Research. 67: 153–161. Bibcode:2003AtmRe..67..153D. doi:10.1016/S0169-8095(03)00049-8. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-06-14. Retrieved 2009-12-13.
26. ^ Meaden, Terrance (2004). "Wind Scales: Beaufort, T — Scale, and Fujita's Scale". Tornado and Storm Research Organisation. Archived from the original on 2010-04-30. Retrieved 2009-09-11.
27. ^ Elliott M. Sainsbury; Reinhard K. H. Schiemann; Kevin I. Hodges; Alexander J. Baker; Len C. Shaffrey; Kieran T. Bhatia (September 26, 2022). "Why Do Some Post-Tropical Cyclones Impact Europe?". Monthly Weather Review. 150 (10).
28. ^ Graham, Edward; Smart, David (September 2021). "'Hurricane' Debbie – 60 years on: a fresh analysis". Weather. 76 (9): 284–292. doi:10.1002/wea.4051. ISSN 0043-1656.
29. ^ James L. Franklin (2006-02-22). Hurricane Vince Tropical Cyclone Report (PDF) (Report). National Hurricane Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2015-10-02. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
30. ^ Daniel P. Brown (January 28, 2021). "Subtropical Storm Alpha" (PDF). Tropical Cyclone Report. National Hurricane Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 24, 2021. Retrieved February 2, 2021.
31. ^ "Catástrofes naturais custaram a Portugal mais de 50 milhões de euros em 2020". www.tsf.pt (in Portuguese). TSF. 11 February 2021. Retrieved 14 May 2021.
32. ^ Lagouvardos, K.; Karagiannidis, A.; Dafis, S.; Kalimeris, A.; Kotroni, V. (28 September 2021). "Ianos - A hurricane in the Mediterranean". Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. 102 (9). American Meteorological Society: E1621–E1636. doi:10.1175/BAMS-D-20-0274.1. S2CID 244187015.
33. ^ "Global Catastrophe Recap - September 2020". Aon Benfield. 8 October 2020. p. 6. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
34. ^ Maltezou, Renee (16 September 2023). "Greek PM to call for reforms, fiscal prudence after deadly storm". Reuters. Archived from the original on 16 September 2023. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
35. ^ "Extreme flooding caused by Storm Daniel devastates Greece". Financial Times. 8 September 2023. Archived from the original on 9 September 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.

## Further reading[edit]

* Seager, Richard (July–August 2006). "The Source of Europe's Mild Climate". American Scientist. Vol. 94, no. 4\. p. 334\. doi:10.1511/2006.60.334. Subhead: "The notion that the Gulf Stream is responsible for keeping Europe anomalously warm turns out to be a myth".`{{cite magazine}}`: CS1 maint: postscript (link)

* v
* t
* e

Climate of Europe

Sovereign states|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Georgia
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
*   * Italy
* Kazakhstan
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Turkey
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Vatican City

States with limited
recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Kosovo
* Northern Cyprus
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria

Dependencies and
other entities|

* Åland
* Faroe Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Svalbard

Other entities|

* European Union

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template