Forestry in the United Kingdom

Epping Forest in 2008 Electricity wires cut through the forest at Coed Plas-y-Nant (Clwydian Range AONB), Ruthin, Wales

The United Kingdom,[Notes 1] being in the British Isles, is ideal for tree growth, thanks to its mild winters, plentiful rainfall, fertile soil and hill-sheltered topography. In the absence of people, much of Great Britain would be covered with mature oaks as well as savannah-type of plains, except for Scotland.[citation needed] Although conditions for forestry are good, trees face threats from fungi, parasites and pests.[1] Nowadays, about 13% of Britain's land surface is wooded. European countries average 39%, but this varies widely from 1% (Malta) to 66% (Finland).[2][3][4][5][6] As of 2021, government plans call for 30,000 hectares to be reforested each year.[needs update] Efforts to reach these targets have attracted criticism for planting non-native trees, or trees that are out of place for their surroundings, leading to ecological changes.[7]

The UK's supply of timber was depleted during the First and Second World Wars, when imports were difficult, and the forested area bottomed out at under 5% of Britain's land surface in 1919. That year, the Forestry Commission was established to produce a strategic reserve of timber.

Of the 31,380 square kilometres (12,120 sq mi) of forest in Britain, around 30% is publicly owned and 70% is in the private sector.[Notes 2] More than 40,000 people work on this land. Conifers account for around one half (51%) of the UK woodland area, although this proportion varies from around one quarter (26%) in England to around three quarters (74%) in Scotland.[8] Britain's native tree flora comprises 32 species, of which 29 are broadleaves.

The UK's industry and populace uses at least 50 million tonnes of timber a year. More than 75% of this is softwood, and British forests cannot supply the demand; in fact, less than 10% of the timber used in Britain is home-grown. Paper and paper products make up more than half the wood consumed in Britain by volume.[3][9][10]

## History

[edit]

A member of the Women's Timber Corps in the Second World War

For most of British history, people cleared forest to make farmland. Changes in the Holocene climate changed the ranges of many species. This makes it complex to estimate the likely extent of natural forest cover. For example, in Scotland four main areas have been identified: oak dominated forest south of the Highland Line, Scots Pine in the Central Highlands, hazel/oak or pine/birch/oak assemblages in the north-east and south-west Highlands, and birch in the Outer Hebrides, Northern Isles and far north of the mainland. Furthermore, fire, human clearance, and grazing probably limited forest cover to about 50% of the land area of Scotland even at its peak. The stock of woodland declined sharply during the First World War[11] and "a Forestry Subcommittee was added to the Reconstruction Committee to advise on policy when the war was over. The Subcommittee, better known as the Acland Committee after its chairman Sir A. H. D. Acland, came to the conclusion that, in order to secure the double purpose of being able to be independent from foreign supplies for three years and a reasonable insurance against a timber famine, the woods of Great Britain should be gradually increased from three million acres to four and three quarter millions at the end of the war".[12] After the Acland Report of 1918, the Forestry Commission was formed in 1919 to meet this need. State forest parks were established in 1935.[13][5]

Detail of a certificate awarded by the Home-Grown Timber Committee, September 1916

Emergency felling controls had been brought in during the World Wars, and these were made permanent in the Forestry Act 1951. Landowners were also given financial incentives to devote land to forests under the Dedication Scheme, which in 1981 became the Forestry Grant Scheme. By the early 1970s, the annual rate of planting exceeded 40,000 hectares (99,000 acres) per annum. Most of this planting comprised fast-growing conifers. Later in the century the balance shifted, with fewer than 20,000 hectares (49,000 acres) per annum being planted during the 1990s, but broadleaf planting actually increased, exceeding 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) per year in 1987. By the mid-1990s, more than half of new planting was broadleaf.[9][14]

Historical woodland cover of England. The Domesday Book of 1086 indicated cover of 15%, "but significant loss of woodland started over four thousand years ago in prehistory". By the beginning of the 20th century this had dropped to 5%. The government believes 12% can be reached again by 2060.[15]

In 1988, the Woodland Grant Scheme replaced the Forestry Grant Scheme, paying nearly twice as much for broadleaf woodland as conifers. (In England, the Woodland Grant Scheme was subsequently replaced by the English Woodland Grant Scheme, which operates six separate kinds of grant for forestry projects.)[16] That year, the Farm Woodlands Scheme was also introduced, and replaced by the Farm Woodland Premium Scheme in 1992. Also in the 1990s, a programme of afforestation led to the establishment of Community Forests and the National Forest, which celebrated the planting of its seven millionth tree in 2006.[17] As a result of these initiatives, the stock of forested land is increasing, though the rate of increase has slowed since the turn of the millennium.[18]

Woodland creation is still an important role of the Forestry Commission. It still works closely with government to achieve afforestation, championing initiatives such as The Big Tree Plant and Woodland Carbon Code. Originally, the commission operated across Great Britain, but in 2013 Natural Resources Wales took over responsibility for Forestry in Wales,[19] whilst two new bodies (Forestry and Land Scotland and Scottish Forestry) were established in Scotland on 1 April 2019.[20]

In October 2010, the new coalition government of the UK suggested it might sell off around half the Forestry Commission-owned woodland in the UK. A wide variety of groups were vocal about their disapproval, and by February 2011, the government abandoned the idea. Instead, it set up the Independent Panel on Forestry led by Rt Rev James Jones, then the Bishop of Liverpool. This body published its report in July 2012. Among other suggestions, it recommended that the forested portion of England should rise to 15% of the country's land area by 2060.[6]

## Ancient woodland

[edit]

Main article: Ancient woodland

Ancient woodland is defined as any woodland that has been continuously forested since 1600. It is recorded on either the Register of Ancient Semi-Natural Woodland or the Register of Planted Woodland Sites. There is no woodland in Britain that has not been profoundly affected by human intervention. Apart from certain native pinewoods in Scotland, it is predominantly broadleaf. Such woodland is less productive, in terms of timber yield, but ecologically rich, typically containing a number of "indicator species" of indigenous wildlife. It comprises roughly 20% of the forested area.[21][22]

## Native and historic tree species

[edit]

Britain is relatively impoverished in terms of native species. For example, only thirty-one species of deciduous tree and shrub are native to Scotland, including ten willows, four whitebeams and three birch and cherry.[23][Notes 3] This is a list of tree species that existed in Britain before 1900. The sheer number of tree species planted subsequently precludes a complete list.[Notes 4]

Common name | Scientific name | Period | Type | Notes

|
|
|
|

Ash | Fraxinus excelsior | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Aspen | Populus tremula | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Atlas cedar | Cedrus atlantica | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Austrian pine | Pinus nigra | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Bay willow | Salix pentandra | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Beech | Fagus sylvatica | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Bird cherry | Prunus padus | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Black cottonwood | Populus trichocarpa | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
Black poplar | Populus nigra | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Black walnut | Juglans nigra | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Box | Buxus sempervirens | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Caucasian fir | Abies nordmanniana | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Cedar of Lebanon | Cedrus libani | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Coast redwood | Sequoia sempervirens | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Common alder | Alnus glutinosa | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Common juniper | Juniperus communis | Native | Conifer | \-
Common lime | Tilia × europaea | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Common silver fir | Abies alba | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Common walnut | Juglans regia | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Corsican pine | Pinus nigra | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Crab apple | Malus sylvestris | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Crack willow | Salix fragilis | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Cricket-bat willow | Salix alba 'Caerulea' | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Deodar cedar | Cedrus deodara | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Douglas-fir | Pseudotsuga menziesii | 1800–1900 | Conifer | Tallest tree in the UK
Downy birch | Betula pubescens | Native | Broadleaf | May have been the first tree to grow in Britain after the ice age
English elm | Ulmus minor 'Atinia' | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | Despite the name, not a native species
Eucalypts | Eucalyptus species | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
European larch | Larix decidua | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Field maple | Acer campestre | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Giant fir | Abies grandis | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Giant sequoia | Sequoiadendron giganteum | 1850s– Present | Conifer | Found in botanical gardens and private estates
Goat willow (Sallow) | Salix caprea | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Grey alder | Alnus incana | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Grey poplar | Populus × canescens | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Hawthorn | Crataegus monogyna | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Hazel | Corylus avellana | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Holly | Ilex aquifolium | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Holm oak | Quercus ilex | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Hornbeam | Carpinus betulus | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Horse-chestnut | Aesculus hippocastanum | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Italian alder | Alnus cordata | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
Japanese larch | Larix kaempferi | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Large-leaved lime | Tilia platyphyllos | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Lawson's cypress | Chamaecyparis lawsoniana | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Lodgepole pine | Pinus contorta | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Lombardy poplar | Populus nigra 'Italica' | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
London plane | Platanus × hispanica | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf |
Maritime pine | Pinus pinaster | pre-1600 | Conifer | \-
Midland hawthorn | Crataegus laevigata | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Monkey-puzzle | Araucaria araucana | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Monterey cypress | Cupressus macrocarpa | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Monterey pine | Pinus radiata | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Noble fir | Abies procera | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Norway maple | Acer platanoides | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Norway spruce | Picea abies | pre-1600 | Conifer | Supplanted as most common forestry species by Sitka spruce
Oriental plane | Platanus orientalis | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Pedunculate oak | Quercus robur | Native | Broadleaf | Also called the English Oak
Red alder | Alnus rubra | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
Red oak | Quercus rubra | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Robusta poplar | Populus × robusta | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
Rowan | Sorbus aucuparia | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Scots pine | Pinus sylvestris | Native | Conifer | \-
Serotina poplar | Populus × canadensis 'Serotina' | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Sessile oak | Quercus petraea | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Silver birch | Betula pendula | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Sitka spruce | Picea sitchensis | 1800–1900 | Conifer | Most common forestry species
Small-leaved lime | Tilia cordata | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Smooth-leaved elm | Ulmus minor | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Southern beech | Nothofagus antarctica | 1800–1900 | Broadleaf | \-
Baldcypress | Taxodium distichum | 1600–1800 | Conifer | \-
Swedish whitebeam | Sorbus intermedia | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Sweet chestnut | Castanea sativa | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Sycamore | Acer pseudoplatanus | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
Turkey oak | Quercus cerris | 1600–1800 | Broadleaf | \-
Western hemlock | Tsuga heterophylla | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
Western redcedar | Thuja plicata | 1800–1900 | Conifer | \-
White poplar | Populus alba | pre-1600 | Broadleaf | \-
White willow | Salix alba | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Whitebeam | Sorbus aria | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Wild cherry (Gean) | Prunus avium | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Wild service tree | Sorbus torminalis | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Wych elm | Ulmus glabra | Native | Broadleaf | \-
Yew | Taxus baccata | Native | Conifer | \-

## Purpose

[edit]

The Forestry Commission states their aims as:

“more trees, more diverse species, growing & thriving

better managed woods and forests that are protected and improving

bigger benefits for nature, climate, people and the economy”[24]

## Threats

[edit]

White Rot Fungus, Heterobasidion annosum

In 2021, a report by Woodland Trust assessed that only 7% of the UK's native woodlands are in good condition.[25]

Most serious disease threats to British woodland involve fungus. For conifers, the greatest threat is white rot fungus (Heterobasidion annosum). Dutch elm disease arises from two related species of fungi in the genus Ophiostoma, spread by elm bark beetles. Another fungus, Nectria coccinea, causes Beech bark disease, as does Bulgaria polymorpha. Ash canker results from Nectria galligena or Pseudomonas savastanoi, and most trees are vulnerable to Honey Fungus (Armillaria mellea). The oomycete Phytophthora ramorum (responsible for "Sudden oak death" in the USA) has killed large numbers of Japanese Larch trees in the UK.[26][27][28][29][30]

Acute oak decline has a bacterial cause. Beetles, moths and weevils can also damage trees, but the majority do not cause serious harm. Notable exceptions include the Large Pine Weevil (Hylobius abietis), which can kill young conifers, the Spruce Bark Beetle (Ips typographus) which can kill spruces, and the Cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha) which eats young tree roots and can kill in a dry season. Rabbits, squirrels, voles, field mice, deer, and farm animals can pose a significant threat to trees. Air pollution, climate change, acid rain, and wildfire represent the main environmental hazards.[31] In 2021, winter storms destroyed about 12,000 hectares of forest in Britain.[32]

In November 2023, a study conducted by 42 researchers, with 1,200 experts consulted, warned that UK forests are heading for "catastrophic ecosystem collapse" within the next 50 years due to multiple threats including disease, extreme weather and wildfires. The study suggested action plans to save the forests including increasing the diversity of tree species, planting trees of different ages, promoting natural regeneration, managing deer populations and more.[32]

## Timber industry

[edit]

In 2022, the UK produced 3,145,000 cubic metres of sawn wood, 3,466,000 cubic metres of wood-based panels and 3,462,000 tonnes of paper and paperboard. The UK does not produce enough timber to satisfy domestic demand, and the country imports 80% of its timber and paper from abroad, as the world's second largest timber importer after China.[33] Most sawn softwood imports come from the Baltic, in particular Sweden (42%), Latvia (16%) and Finland (14%).[34] Most of the domestically produced construction timber is spruce graded to the strength class C16.[35]

### Nations

[edit]

Forestry is a devolved matter in the UK, administered by separate agencies in each nation. They are: in England, the Forestry Commission; in Scotland, Scottish Forestry; in Wales, Natural Resources Wales; and in Northern Ireland, the Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Affairs (DAERA).[36] Each of these agencies is tasked with delivering the UK Forestry Standard.[37]

### Planting

[edit]

Successful forestry requires healthy, well-formed trees that are resistant to diseases and parasites. The best wood has a straight, circular stem without a spiral grain or fluting, and small, evenly spaced branches. The chances of achieving these are maximised by planting good-quality seed in the best possible growing environment.[38]

Tree breeding programmes, to ensure the best seed, are hampered by the trees' long life-cycles. However, particularly since the 1950s, the Forestry Commission among other organisations has been running a programme of breeding, propagation, induced flowering and controlled pollination with the aim of producing healthy, disease-resistant, fast-growing stock.[39]

### Transportation

[edit]

A timber train at Greenholme, near Kendal

Currently, the vast majority of Britain's timber uses road haulage. As forests are located in rural areas, the heavy timber vehicles have severely damaged many single lane tracks, especially in the Highlands. In order to combat this, companies are being forced to provide funding for repairs, as well as using alternative transport systems such as rail and coastal shipping. Despite the number of forest railways plummeting after the Beeching Axe, rail's share of timber transport has risen from 3% in 2002[to what percentage when?] with the opening of new lines in Devon, the Pennines, Scotland and South Wales by Colas Rail.[40][41][42][43]

## Land values

[edit]

The price of woodland has risen out of proportion to its timber yield, and in 2022 reached £28,000 per hectare (£11,000 per acre).[This looks rather precise: what specific example does this refer to?] Woodland prices are affected by its very favourable tax treatment and its high amenity value.[6][44][45]

## See also

[edit]

* List of forests in the United Kingdom
* List of Great British Trees
* List of renewable resources produced and traded by the United Kingdom
* English Lowlands beech forests
* Woodland Carbon Code
* Natural Forest Standard
* Forestry in Scotland

## References

[edit]

Footnotes

1. ^ The United Kingdom (sometimes abbreviated to UK) is a political unit (specifically a country), the British Isles is a geographical unit (the archipelago lying off the northwest coast of Europe), and Great Britain is the name of the largest of those islands. In this article "Great Britain" is sometimes abbreviated to "Britain". The adjective "British" can mean either the political or the geographical entity.
2. ^ In fact, this is not easy to establish. There is no complete register of who owns land in the United Kingdom. HM Land Registry records purchases by way of conveyance, but where land has not changed hands since the Land Registry was established in 1862, no records exist. Two attempts have been made to take a complete census of ownership (the Domesday Book in 1086 and a census in 1873) but both contain significant omissions and are extremely dated besides; and much of the forested land is on long-established estates where ownership is not recorded on any register that can be examined. Often-quoted figures for England come from the Forestry Commission, National Inventory of Woodland and Trees (1998), which claims the breakdown is as follows: Private: Personal: 47.1% Business (including pension funds) 14.3% Public: Forestry Commission 21.8% Other central government: 2.7% Local authority 6% Charity 6.7% Forestry or timber business 0.7%
3. ^ This source includes the following shrubs and small trees that do not appear in Hart 1994 or Sterry Press 1995: Betula nana, Prunus spinosa, Rosa canina, Salix cinerea, Salix aurita, Salix lanata, Salix lapponum (Downy willow), Salix phylicifolia, Salix arbuscala (Mountain willow), Salix myrsinites (Whortle-leaved willow), Salix myrsinifolia, Salix reticulata, Sambucus nigra, Viburnum opulus. Smout et al. 2007 also lists the Arran Whitebeams: Sorbus rupicola (Rock Whitebeam), Sorbus pseudofennica and Sorbus arranensis although not the very rare and recently discovered Sorbus pseudomeinichii
4. ^ All the information in the table that follows is adapted from Hart 1994, pp. 12–13 and Sterry Press 1995

Citations

1. ^ Hart 1994, p.68
2. ^ "39% of the EU is covered with forests". Eurostat. Retrieved 4 January 2023.
3. ^ a b Forestry Facts and Figures 2014: A Summary of Statistics about Woodland and Forestry in the UK (PDF). Forestry Commission. 2014-01-01. ISBN 9780855389147. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-10-08. Retrieved 2015-07-27.
4. ^ Nix et al. 1999, p. 2
5. ^ a b Nix et al. 1999, p. 93
6. ^ a b c Rural Focus: Forestry Policy, Estates Gazette, 28 July 2012, pages 56-57.
7. ^ "Row over UK tree-planting drive: 'We want the right trees in the right place'". TheGuardian.com. 23 February 2021.
8. ^ "Forestry Statistics 2019, Chapter 1 - Woodland area and planting". Retrieved 22 October 2019.
9. ^ a b Nix et al. 1999, p. 94
10. ^ Hart 1994, p. 1
11. ^ see e.g. The Brecon & Radnor Express June 13, 1918 for local concerns
12. ^ Jan Willem Oesthook, The Logic of British Forest Policy, 1919-1970
13. ^ Tivy, Joy "The Bio-climate" in Clapperton 1983, pp 90–91
14. ^ Nix et al. 1999, p. 95
15. ^ Government Forestry and Woodlands Policy Statement, January 2013.http://www.defra.gov.uk/publications/2013/01/31/pb13871-forestry-policy-statement/
16. ^ "English Woodland Grant Scheme". Forestry Commission. Retrieved 17 July 2010.[permanent dead link]
17. ^ "Surprise, surprise! It's the National Forest's seven millionth tree!". WebArchive.org. National Forest. 24 November 2006. Archived from the original on 13 February 2008. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
18. ^ Milmo, Cahal (11 June 2010). "'Worrying' slump in tree planting prompts fears of deforestation". The Independent. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
19. ^ "Welsh Government-Natural Resources Wales". 9 April 2013. Archived from the original on 31 May 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2015.
20. ^ "Forestry Commission Scotland and Forest Enterprise Scotland no longer exist". Scottish Government. 4 April 2019. Archived from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 1 April 2019.
21. ^ Angus (27 June 2008). "What is Ancient Woodland?". woodlands.co.uk. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
22. ^ Hart 1994, p. 146
23. ^ Smout et al. 2007, p.2.
24. ^ "Forestry Commission Strategy 2023-2028". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2024-08-03.
25. ^ Carrington, Damian; editor, Damian Carrington Environment (2021-04-14). "UK's native woodlands reaching crisis point, report warns". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-11-08. `{{cite news}}`: `|last2=` has generic name (help)
26. ^ "Phytophthora ramorum". Forestry Commission. Archived from the original on 1 January 2015. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
27. ^ Kinver, Mark (28 April 2010). "Oak disease 'threatens landscape'". BBC News. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
28. ^ "Dutch elm disease in Britain". forestresearch.gov.uk. Forestry Commission. 24 November 2006. Retrieved 18 July 2010.
29. ^ Hart 1994, p. 230
30. ^ James 1966, p. 142.
31. ^ James 1966, p. 158
32. ^ a b Weston, Phoebe (2023-11-08). "UK forests face catastrophic ecosystem collapse within 50 years, study says". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-11-08.
33. ^ "Forestry Facts & Figures 2023" (PDF). www.forestresearch.gov.uk. Forest Research. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
34. ^ "MOrigin of wood imports". forestresearch.gov.uk. Forest Research. Retrieved May 21, 2021.
35. ^ Ridley-Ellis, Dan; Gil-Moreno, David; Harte, Annette M. (19 March 2022). "Strength grading of timber in the UK and Ireland in 2021". International Wood Products Journal. 13 (2): 127–136. doi:10.1080/20426445.2022.2050549. ISSN 2042-6445. S2CID 247578984.
36. ^ The UK Forestry Standard, 5th Edition, published 2023, retrieved 4 February 2024
37. ^ The UK Forestry Standard, gov.uk, published 2024, retrieved 4 February 2024
38. ^ Hart 1994, p. 57
39. ^ "The first 50 years of tree breeding in Britain - the beginnings of tree improvement in Britain".
40. ^ Choreley, Stephen (6 Jun 2000). "EXTRAORDINARY DAMAGE TO THE ROAD NETWORK CAUSED BY TIMBER VEHICLES" (PDF). east-ayrshire.gov.uk. EAST AYRSHIRE COUNCIL DEVELOPMENT SERVICES COMMITTEE. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 January 2020. Retrieved 27 Jul 2015.
41. ^ Högnäs, Tore; Spaven, David (23 Aug 2002). "MORE TIMBER BY RAIL – A CASE FROM FINLAND" (PDF). www.timbertransportforum.org.uk. The Timber Transport Forum. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2019. Retrieved 2015-07-27.
42. ^ "Traffic". Railfan's Traffic Guide. North Wales Coast Railway. 11 February 2013. Retrieved 23 May 2013.
43. ^ "Crianlarich timber railhead: feasibility study Final Report to Forestry Commission Scotland" (PDF). timbertransportforum.org.uk/. January 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 22 Jul 2015.
44. ^ Farmer's Weekly
45. ^ A Guide to Buying Woodland, Arbtech. "Income from timber sales is tax-free; increases in the value of timber as it grows are free from capital gains tax, though the value of the land itself isn't; and woodland is 100% exempt from inheritance tax, both the value of the trees and the land, if you've owned it for more than two years."

Bibliography

* Clapperton, Chalmers M. (1983). Scotland: A New Study. Newton Abbott: David & Charles. ISBN 0-7153-8084-2.
* Fitter, A. (2002) [1980]. Trees. HarperCollins. ISBN 0-00-711074-X.
* Forestry Commission (2009). Forestry Facts and Figures 2009 (PDF). Forestry Commission. ISBN 978-0-85538-790-7.[permanent dead link]
* Hart, C (1994) [1991]. Practical Forestry for the Agent and Surveyor. Sutton Publishing. ISBN 0-86299-962-6.
* Hibberd, B. G. (1991). Forestry Practice (11th ed.). Forestry Commission. ISBN 0-11-710281-4.
* James, N. D. G. (1966) [1955]. The Forester's Companion (2nd ed.). Oxford: Basil Blackwood.
* Nix; Hill; Williams; Bough (1999) [1987]. Land and Estate Management (3rd ed.). Packard Publishing. ISBN 1-85341-111-6.
* Smout, T. C.; MacDonald, R.; Watson, Fiona (2007). A History of the Native Woodlands of Scotland 1500-1920. Edinburgh University Press. ISBN 978-0-7486-3294-7.
* Sterry, P.; Press, B. (1995). A Photographic Guide to Trees of Britain and Europe. New Holland Publishers. ISBN 1-85368-416-3.

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* transition
* Trillion Tree Campaign
* Forest certification
* ATFS
* CFS
* FSC
* PEFC
* SFI
* SmartWood
* Woodland Carbon Code
* Forestation
* afforestation
* reforestation
* Formally designated
* Growth and yield modelling
* Horticulture
* GM trees
* i-Tree
* urban
* Silviculture
* Sustainable management
* Tree
* allometry
* breeding
* Tree measurement
* crown
* girth
* height
* volume

Environmental
topics|

* Acid rain
* Carbon sequestration
* Clearcutting
* Deforestation
* Ecosystem services
* Forest degradation
* Forest dieback
* Forest fragmentation
* Ghost forest
* Great Green Wall (Africa)
* Great Green Wall (China)
* High grading
* Illegal logging
* timber mafia
* Invasive species
* wilding
* Million Tree Initiative
* REDD
* Shifting cultivation
* chitemene
* slash-and-burn
* slash-and-char
* svedjebruk
* Timber recycling
* Tree hugging
* Urban forest inequity
* Wildfire

Industries|

* Coppicing
* Forest farming
* Forest gardening
* Logging
* Manufacturing
* lumber
* plywood
* pulp and paper
* sawmilling
* Products
* biochar
* biomass
* charcoal
* non-timber
* palm oil
* rayon
* rubber
* tanbark
* Rail transport
* Tree farm
* Christmas trees
* Wood
* engineered
* fuel
* mahogany
* spruce-pine-fir
* teak
* Woodworking
* green woodworking

Occupations|

* Forester
* Arborist
* Bucker
* Choker setter
* Ecologist
* Feller
* Firefighter
* handcrew
* hotshot
* lookout
* smokejumper
* River driver
* Truck driver
* Log scaler
* Lumberjack
* Ranger
* Resin tapper
* Rubber tapper
* Shingle weaver
* Timber cruiser
* Tree planter
* Wood process engineer

* WikiProject
* Climate change portal
* Earth sciences portal
* Ecology portal
* Environment portal
* Plants portal
* Trees portal
* Category
* Outline

* v
* t
* e

Economy of the United Kingdom

Companies|

* Co-operatives
* Employee-owned companies
* FTSE 100 Index
* FTSE 250 Index
* FTSE Fledgling Index
* FTSE SmallCap Index
* Government-owned companies

Currency,
governance,
regulation|

* Bank of England
* Governor of the Bank of England
* Monetary Policy Committee
* Budget
* Company law
* Competition and Markets Authority
* Department for Business and Trade
* Financial Conduct Authority
* Gilts
* HM Revenue & Customs
* HM Treasury
* Chancellor of the Exchequer
* Debt Management Office
* Office for Budget Responsibility
* Pound sterling
* Banknotes
* Coinage
* Taxation
* UK Statistics Authority
* UK Trade & Investment

History|

| Chronological|

* 1659–1849 Navigation Acts
* Agricultural Revolution
* Industrial Revolution
* Financial Revolution
* Panic of 1796–97
* 1815–46 Corn Laws
* New Imperialism 1830s–1945
* Second Industrial Revolution 1860s–1914
* 1873–79 Long Depression
* 1926 general strike
* 1929–39 Great Depression
* 1948–52 Marshall Plan
* 1974 Three-Day Week
* 1979 Winter of Discontent
* 1986 Big Bang
* 1992 Black Wednesday
* Late-2000s recession
* 2008 bank rescue package
* 2009 bank rescue package
* 2020 Withdrawal from the European Union (Growth deal)
* COVID-19 pandemic
* Impact
* Cost-of-living crisis

|

Recurrent|

* Economic geography
* Free trade
* Gold standard
* Recessions and recoveries
* National champions policy
* Economic liberalism
* Privatisation
* Nationalisation

Nations,
regions,
cities|

| England|

* Atlantic Gateway
* Birmingham
* Big City Plan
* Bristol
* Cornwall
* Croydon
* Devon
* Dorset
* Expansion plans for Milton Keynes
* Fishing
* Leeds
* List of counties by GVA
* Liverpool
* London
* East London Tech City
* London Plan
* M4 corridor
* M11 Corridor
* Manchester
* Reading
* Sheffield
* Silicon Fen
* Somerset
* Thames Gateway
* Tourism
* Transport
* Wiltshire

|

Northern
Ireland|

* Belfast
* Transport

Scotland|

* Aberdeen
* Agriculture
* Edinburgh
* Industrialisation
* Fishing
* History
* Oil and gas
* Renewable energy
* Silicon Glen
* Tourism
* Transport
* Whisky

Wales|

* Agriculture
* Cardiff (Cardiff Bay)
* Fishing
* History
* Industrialisation
* Renewable energy
* Swansea
* Tourism
* Transport

People
and labour|

* Billionaires
* Businesspeople
* Demography
* Income
* Poverty
* Labour law
* Equal opportunities
* Minimum wage
* Working Time Directive
* Pensions
* Trades unions
* Trades Union Congress
* Unemployment

Sectors|

| Resource and
production|

* Energy/Renewable energy
* Biodiesel
* Coal
* Geothermal
* Fracking
* Hydroelectricity
* Marine
* North Sea oil
* Solar
* Wind
* Food
* Agriculture
* Cider
* Wine
* Beer
* Fishing
* English
* Scottish
* Welsh
* Materials
* Forestry
* Mining

|

Financial
services|

* Baltic Exchange
* Banking
* List of banks
* List of UK building societies
* Canary Wharf
* The City
* Euronext.liffe
* Glasgow International Financial Services District
* Insurance
* Lloyd's of London
* LCH
* London Interbank Offered Rate
* London Metal Exchange
* London Platinum and Palladium Market
* London Stock Exchange
* Alternative Investment Market

Other|

* Education
* International students
* Entertainment & Media
* Cinema
* Gambling
* Newspapers
* Radio
* Television
* Theatre
* Healthcare
* Legal services
* Manufacturing
* Aerospace
* Automotive
* Pharmaceuticals
* Exports
* Property
* Architecture
* Construction
* Housing
* Real estate
* Science and technology
* Internet
* Telecommunications
* Supermarkets
* Tourism
* Transport
* Aviation
* Rail
* Inter-city
* High-speed

Trade and
business
organisations|

* Business organisations
* British Bankers' Association
* British Chambers of Commerce
* Confederation of British Industry
* Co-operatives UK
* Federation of Small Businesses
* Industry trade groups
* Institute of Directors
* Make UK
* UK Payments Administration

* Category
* Commons

Authority control databases: National |

* United States
* Israel

|

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