Fraternities and sororities

Social organizations at colleges and universities

This article is about the student social organizations. For other types, see Professional fraternities and sororities and Honor society. For other uses, see Fraternity (disambiguation). For other uses, see Sisterhood (disambiguation).

In North America, fraternities and sororities (Latin: fraternitas and sororitas, 'brotherhood' and 'sisterhood') are social organizations at colleges and universities. They are sometimes collectively referred to as Greek life. Generally, membership in a fraternity or sorority is obtained as an undergraduate student but continues thereafter for life. Some accept graduate students as well.[1][2] Individual fraternities and sororities vary in organization and purpose, but most share five common elements:

1. Secrecy
2. Single-sex membership
3. Selection of new members based on a two-part vetting and probationary process known as rushing and pledging
4. Ownership and occupancy of a residential property where undergraduate members live
5. A set of complex identification symbols that may include Greek letters, armorial achievements, ciphers, badges, grips, hand signs, passwords, flowers, and colors

Fraternities and sororities engage in philanthropic activities, host parties, provide "finishing" training for new members such as instruction on etiquette, dress, and manners, and create networking opportunities for their newly graduated members.

Fraternities and sororities can be tax-exempt 501(c)(7) organizations in the United States.

Fraternities and sororities have been criticized for practicing elitism and favoritism, discriminating against non white students and other marginalized groups, conducting dangerous hazing rituals, and facilitating alcohol abuse. Many colleges and universities have sought to reform or eliminate them due to these concerns, but these efforts have typically been met with intense controversy.[3][4][5][6]

## History

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Further information: Fraternity § History, and Philhellenism

### Establishment and early history

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The fraternity system in North America began at the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg, Virginia, where Phi Beta Kappa was founded in 1776. The Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity house at Syracuse University in Syracuse, New York

The first fraternity in North America to incorporate most of the elements of modern fraternities was Phi Beta Kappa, founded at the College of William and Mary in 1775. The founding of Phi Beta Kappa followed the earlier establishment of two other secret student societies that had existed on that campus as early as 1750. In 1779 Phi Beta Kappa expanded to include chapters at Harvard and Yale. By the early 19th century, the organization transformed itself into a scholastic honor society and abandoned secrecy.[7]

In 1825, Kappa Alpha Society, the first fraternity to retain its social characteristic, was established at Union College in Schenectady, New York. In 1827, Sigma Phi and Delta Phi were also founded at the same institution,[8] creating the Union Triad. The further birthing of Psi Upsilon (1833), Omicron Kappa Epsilon (1834), Chi Psi (1841), and Theta Delta Chi (1847) collectively established Union College as the Mother of Fraternities.

The social fraternity Chi Phi, officially formed in 1854, traces its roots to a short-lived organization founded at Princeton University in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1824 bearing the same name.[9]

Fraternities represented the intersection between dining clubs, literary societies, and secret initiatory orders such as Freemasonry. Their early growth was widely opposed by university administrators, though the increasing influence of fraternity alumni, as well as several high-profile court cases, succeeded in largely muting opposition by the 1880s.[8] The first fraternity meeting hall, or lodge, seems to have been that of the Alpha Epsilon chapter of Chi Psi at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor, Michigan, in 1845, leading to a tradition in that fraternity to name its buildings "lodges". As fraternity membership was punishable by expulsion at many colleges at this time, the house was located deep in the woods.[10]

The first residential chapter home, built by a fraternity, is believed to have been Alpha Delta Phi's chapter at Cornell University, with groundbreaking dated to 1878.[11] Alpha Tau Omega became the first fraternity to own a residential house in the South when, in 1880, its chapter at the University of the South acquired one.[12] Chapters of many fraternities followed suit, purchasing and, less often, building them with support of alumni. Phi Sigma Kappa's chapter home at Cornell, completed in 1902, is the oldest such house still occupied by its fraternal builders.[13]

### Sororities

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The Kappa Kappa Gamma house at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign Wesleyan College in Macon, Georgia, pictured c. 1877, was the birthplace of Alpha Delta Pi and Phi Mu sororities

Sororities, originally called women's fraternities, began to develop in 1851 with the formation of the Adelphean Society Alpha Delta Pi,[14] though fraternity-like organizations for women didn't take their current form until the establishment of Pi Beta Phi in 1867 and Kappa Alpha Theta and Kappa Kappa Gamma in 1870. The term sorority was used by a professor of Latin at Syracuse University, Frank Smalley, who felt the word "fraternity" was inappropriate for a group of ladies.[15] The word comes from Latin soror, meaning "sister," "cousin, daughter of a father's brother," or "female friend."[16] The first organization to use the term "sorority" was Gamma Phi Beta, established in 1874.[17]

The development of fraternities for women during this time was a major accomplishment in the way of women's rights and equality. By mere existence, these organizations were defying the odds; the founding women were able to advance their organizations despite many factors working against them. The first "Women's Fraternities" not only had to overcome "restrictive social customs, unequal status under the law and the underlying presumption that they were less able than men,"[18] but at the same time had to deal with the same challenges as fraternities with college administrations.

Today, both social and multicultural sororities are present on more than 650 college campuses across the United States and Canada. The National Panhellenic Conference (NPC) serves as the umbrella organization for 26 international sororities. Founded in 1902, NPC is one of the oldest and largest women's membership organizations, representing more than four million women at 655 college and university campuses and 4,500 local alumni chapters in the U.S. and Canada.[19]

### Internationalization

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In 1867, the Chi Phi fraternity established its Theta chapter at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, marking the first foray of the American social fraternity outside the borders of the United States. At the time, many students from the American South were moving to Europe to study because of the disrepair southern universities fell into during the American Civil War. One such group of Americans organized Chi Phi at Edinburgh; however, during the Theta chapter's existence, it initiated no non-American members. With declining American enrollment at European universities, Chi Phi at Edinburgh closed in 1870.[17]

Nine years following Chi Phi's abortive colonization of the University of Edinburgh, a second attempt was made to transplant the fraternity system outside the United States. In 1879, Zeta Psi established a chapter at the University of Toronto. Zeta Psi's success in Toronto prompted it to open a second Canadian chapter at McGill University, which it chartered in 1883. Other early foundations were Kappa Alpha Society at Toronto in 1892 and at McGill in 1899, and Alpha Delta Phi at Toronto in 1893 and at McGill in 1897.[20]

The first sorority [outside the United States], Kappa Alpha Theta, was established in Toronto in 1887. By 1927 there were 42 fraternity and sorority chapters at the University of Toronto and 23 at McGill University. A few chapters were also reported at the University of British Columbia, Carleton University, Dalhousie University, University of Manitoba, Queen's University, University of Western Ontario, Wilfrid Laurier University, University of Waterloo and Brock University.[20]

The arrival of the fraternity system in Asia accompanied the introduction of the American educational system in the Philippines. The first fraternities were established in the University of the Philippines. The now-defunct Patriotic and Progressive Rizal Center Academic Brotherhood (Rizal Center Fraternity), a brotherhood of Jose Rizal followers, was founded in 1913.[21] This was followed by the Rizal Center Sorority. The first Greek-letter organization and fraternity in Asia, the Upsilon Sigma Phi, was founded in 1918.[22] The first Greek-letter sorority, UP Sigma Beta Sorority, was recognized in 1932.[22]

### Religion

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Main articles: Christian fraternity (fraternities and sororities), Christian sorority, and List of Jewish fraternities and sororities

Alpha Phi Alpha fraternity members assist the Georgia Air National Guard during a George Floyd protest in Atlanta in June 2020

Many early fraternities referred to Christian principles or to a Supreme Being in general, as is characteristic of fraternal orders.[23] Some, such as Alpha Chi Rho (1895) and Alpha Kappa Lambda (1907), only admitted Christians,[23] while others, such as Beta Sigma Psi (1925) and Phi Kappa Theta (1959), catered to students belonging with certain denominations of Christianity, such as Lutheranism and Catholicism.[23]

Due to their exclusion from Christian fraternities in the United States, Jewish students began to establish their own fraternities in 1895 and 1920, with the first one being Zeta Beta Tau, founded in 1898.[23]

Although many of the religion-specific requirements for many fraternities and sororities have been relaxed or removed, there are some today that continue to rally around their faith as a focal point, such as Beta Upsilon Chi (1985) and Sigma Alpha Omega (1998).[23][24]

### Multiculturalism

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See also: Cultural interest fraternities and sororities, List of Latino Greek-letter organizations], and List of LGBT and LGBT-friendly fraternities and sororities

Numerous Greek organizations in the past have enacted formal and informal prohibitions on pledging individuals of different races and cultural backgrounds. This began with historically White fraternities and sororities excluding African Americans due to racism. Historically Black fraternities and sororities were spearheaded thereafter in response.

Racist policies have since been abolished by the North American Interfraternity Conference, and students of various ethnicities have come together to form a council of multicultural Greek organizations. The National Multicultural Greek Council, officially formed in 1998, is a coordinating body of 19 Greek organizations, including nine fraternities, and ten sororities with cultural affiliations.[25]

The first multicultural sorority, Mu Sigma Upsilon, was established in November 1981 at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey.[26] The formation of this Greek organization allowed for the emergence of a multicultural fraternity and sorority movement, giving birth to a multicultural movement.

## Structure and organization

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### Gender exclusivity

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Fraternities and sororities traditionally have been single-sex organizations, with fraternities consisting exclusively of men and sororities consisting exclusively of women. In the United States, fraternities and sororities have a statutory exemption from Title IX legislation prohibiting this type of gender exclusion within student groups, and organizations such as the Fraternity and Sorority Political Action Committee lobby to maintain it.[27][28]

Since the mid-20th century, a small number of fraternities, such as Alpha Theta, Lambda Lambda Lambda, and Alpha Phi Omega have opted to become co-educational and admit female members; however, these generally represent a minority of Greek-letter organizations and no such fraternity is currently a member of the North American Interfraternity Conference, the largest international association of fraternities.[27][28] The first coed fraternity was Pi Alpha Tau (1963–1991) at the University of Illinois at Chicago.[29]

Much more commonly, coed fraternities exist in the form of service fraternities, such as Alpha Phi Omega, Epsilon Sigma Alpha, Alpha Tau Mu and others. These organizations are similar to social fraternities and sororities, except they are coed and non-residential. Similarly, in the United States, professional fraternities, such as Alpha Kappa Psi, Delta Sigma Pi, and Phi Gamma Nu are required to be co-ed under the Title IX amendments, as are any fraternities that are not social fraternities.

In 2014, Sigma Phi Epsilon became the first fraternity in the North American Interfraternity Conference to accept transgender members, or those identifying as male, to join the social fraternity.[30] Several sororities have adjusted their policies to confirm that transgender prospective members are allowable.

Importantly, all these variants have stemmed from a process of self-determination, without challenge by other Greeks. In a bellwether case in 2016, Harvard University changed its student conduct code to bar members of single-sex groups from leading campus groups, serving as captains of sports teams, or participating in valuable academic fellowships. This is being contested vigorously in U.S. federal court by several affected fraternities and sororities.[31][32]

### Governance

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Individual chapters of fraternities and sororities are largely self-governed by their active (student) members; however, alumni members may retain legal ownership of the fraternity or sorority's property through an alumni chapter or alumni corporation. All of a single fraternity or sorority's chapters are generally grouped in a national or international organization that sets standards, regulates insignia and ritual, publishes a journal or magazine for all of the chapters of the organization, and has the power to grant and revoke charters to chapters. These federal structures are largely governed by alumni members of the fraternity, though with some input from the active (student) members.[33][34][35]

### Rushing and pledging

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"Rush week" redirects here. For other uses, see Rush week (disambiguation).

See also: Sorority recruitment

The Alpha Delta Phi house at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York The Alpha Sigma Phi house at the University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign

Before 1900, the expansion of fraternal housing and competition among fraternities led to increasingly aggressive recruitment among the social fraternities, which had hitherto followed the methodical process of tapping and individualized invitations that are still present among honorary and professional fraternities. In an introductory article about the nature and history of Fraternal life, Baird's Manual [a] indicates that the term "Rushing" and later, "Rush week" hearken to the effort to rush to meet incoming trains filled with new classmates and delegations of freshmen students, where bids were offered and lapel pins then "spiked" the new fellow to mark him as a new member of the fraternity which he opted to join. Baird's further indicates that the tradition was adopted from English boarding schools, similarly jostling to recruit incoming prospects, which the aggressive fraternities found to be "handy to imitate". Variations of Rush Week continued to evolve, some offering immediate recruitment and some deferred until the second half of freshman year, or even into the second year. Formal recruitment on all, or virtually all campuses continues as a defined Rush week, while many campuses and most chapters offer ongoing "informal rush" to welcome potential members, amounting to hundreds of thousands of new members every year.[36]

Today, most Greek letter organizations select potential members through a two-part process of vetting and probation, called rushing and pledging, respectively. During rush (recruitment), students attend designated social events, and sometimes formal interviews, hosted by the chapters of fraternities and sororities in which they have particular interests. Usually, after a potential new member has attended several such events, officers or current members meet privately to vote on whether or not to extend an invitation, known as a "bid", to the prospective applicant.

Those applicants who receive a bid, and choose to accept it, are considered to have "pledged" the fraternity or sorority, thus beginning the pledge period (new member period). Students participating in rush are known as "rushees", Potential New Members "PNMs", while students who have accepted a bid to a specific fraternity or sorority are known as "new members" or in some cases "pledges".[37]

A new member period may last anywhere from one weekend to several months. During this time, new members might participate in almost all aspects of the life of the fraternity or sorority, but most likely not be permitted to hold office in the organization. After the new member period, a second vote of members may sometimes be taken, often, but not always, using a blackball system. New members who pass this second vote are invited to a formal and secret ritual of initiation into the organization, advancing them to full membership.[8]

Many Greek-letter organizations give preferential consideration for pledging to candidates whose parent or sibling was a member of the same fraternity or sorority. Such prospective candidates are known as "legacies".[38][39]

Membership in more than one fraternity or sorority is acceptable, but only in accordance within specific Greek councils. Recently, some Greek-letter organizations have replaced the term "pledge" with that of "associate member" or "new member". Sigma Alpha Epsilon, in 2014, abolished pledging altogether. Potential members are now immediately initiated into the fraternity upon accepting a bid.[37][40]

### Residency

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Main article: North American fraternity and sorority housing

Unique among most campus organizations, members of social Greek letter organizations usually congregate and sometimes live together in large houses generally privately owned by the organization itself, or by the organization's alumni association. Often fraternities and sorority houses, called lodges or chapter houses, are located on the same street or in close quarters within the same neighborhood, which may be colloquially known as "Greek row", "frat row", or "sorority row". Often, chapter houses are uniquely designed, highly elaborate, and very expensive to operate and maintain.[41]

Usually, the more expensive the house the higher the annual organization dues. The features and size of Greek houses play a major role in chapters remaining competitive in recruiting and retaining members on many campuses.[41] At some, often small colleges, fraternities and sororities occupy a specific section of university-owned housing provided to them. Some fraternities and sororities are un-housed, with members providing their accommodations. In many of these cases, the fraternity or sorority owns or rents a non-residential clubhouse on or off campus to use for meetings and other activities.

### Secrecy and ritual

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Members of Phi Kappa Sigma at Washington & Jefferson College in Washington, Pennsylvania in 1872 A model chapter room of Kappa Sigma

With a few exceptions, most fraternities and sororities are secret societies. While the identity of members or officers is rarely concealed, fraternities and sororities initiate members following the pledge period through sometimes elaborate private rituals, frequently drawn or adopted from Masonic ritual practice or that of the Greek mysteries.[8]

After an initiation ritual, the organization's secret motto, secret purpose, and secret identification signs, such as handshakes and passwords, are usually revealed to its new members. Some fraternities also teach initiates an identity search device used to confirm fellow fraternity members.[42]

Julian Hawthorne, the son of Nathaniel Hawthorne, wrote in his posthumously published Memoirs[43] of his initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon:[44]

> I was initiated into a college secret society—a couple of hours of grotesque and good-humored rodomontade and horseplay, in which I cooperated as in a kind of pleasant nightmare, confident, even when branded with a red-hot iron or doused head-over-heels in boiling oil,[45] that it would come out all right. The neophyte is effectively blindfolded during the proceedings, and at last, still sightless, I was led down flights of steps into a silent crypt and helped into a coffin, where I was to stay until the Resurrection...Thus it was that just as my father passed from this earth, I was lying in a coffin during my initiation into Delta Kappa Epsilon.

Meetings and rituals are sometimes conducted in what is known as a chapter room located inside the fraternity's house. Entry into chapter rooms is often prohibited to all but the initiated. In one extreme case, the response of firefighters to a blaze signaled by an automated alarm at the Sigma Phi chapter house at the University of Wisconsin in 2003 was hampered in part because fraternity members refused to disclose to emergency responders the location of the hidden chapter room, where the conflagration had erupted.[46]

### Symbols and naming conventions

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The fraternity or sorority badge is an enduring symbol of membership in a Greek letter organization. Most fraternities also have assumed heraldic achievements. Members of fraternities and sororities address members of the same organization as "brother" (in the case of fraternities) or "sister" (in the case of sororities). The names of almost all fraternities and sororities consist of a sequence of two or three Greek letters, for instance, Delta Delta Delta, Sigma Chi, Chi Omega, or Psi Upsilon. There are a few exceptions to this general rule, as in the case of the fraternities Triangle, Acacia, and Seal and Serpent.[8]

## Membership profile

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### Demographics

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Former President of the United States Ronald Reagan was initiated into Tau Kappa Epsilon at Eureka College in Eureka, Illinois and his successor, George H. W. Bush, was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon at Yale University.

There are approximately nine million student and alumni members of fraternities and sororities in North America, or about three percent of the total population.[47][48] Roughly 750,000 of the current fraternity and sorority members are students who belong to an undergraduate chapter.[citation needed]

A 2007 survey conducted by Princeton University found that white and higher-income Princeton students are much more likely than other Princeton students to be in fraternities and sororities.[49] Senior surveys from the classes of 2009 and 2010 showed that 77 percent of sorority members and 73 percent of fraternity members were white.[49]

### Notable fraternity and sorority members

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Since 1900, 63 percent of members of the United States cabinet have been members of fraternities and sororities, and the current chief executive officers of five of the ten largest Fortune 500 companies are members of fraternities and sororities. In addition, 85 percent of all justices of the U.S. Supreme Court since 1910 have been members of fraternities. U.S. presidents since World War II who have been initiated into fraternities are George W. Bush, George H. W. Bush, Bill Clinton, Ronald Reagan, Gerald Ford, and Franklin Roosevelt. Three Prime Ministers of Canada have been members of fraternities.[50][51][52][53][54]

In 2013, about 25 percent of members of the U.S. House of Representatives and 40 percent of members of the U.S. Senate were members of fraternities or sororities.[55]

### Academic performance

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Studies have found that university graduation rates are 20 percent higher among members of Greek-letter organizations than among non-members, and students who are members of fraternities and sororities typically have higher-than-average grade point averages. One reason for this may be that many chapters require their members to maintain a certain academic standard,[56] [dubious - discuss] while a more well-supported reason is that Greek-letter organizations often maintain test and homework banks filled with test and homework answers from past members.

Each organization requires its members to maintain a minimum GPA to continue their membership. Greek members who maintain high GPAs are invited to join notable Greek honor societies. The two most notable Greek honor societies are: Gamma Sigma Alpha and Order of Omega. Gamma Sigma Alpha acknowledges Greek members who hold a 3.5 GPA in upper-division classes.[57] Order of Omega recognizes the top 3% of Greek members who exemplify leadership qualities.[57] Greek honor societies provide lifetime membership with opportunities such as scholarships and networking.

### Professional advancement

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There is a high representation of former Greek life members among certain elites in the United States. Greek members "are more likely to be thriving in their well-being and engaged at work than college graduates who did not go Greek," according to a study done by Gallup and Purdue University.[58] Not only that, but researchers at Union College studied the effects of Greek life membership on the incomes of those who participated when attending university versus those who did not. Researchers found that those that had participated had incomes higher than their non-Greek peers by as much as 36%.[59]

### Personal fulfillment

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A 2014 Gallup survey of 30,000 university alumni found that persons who said they had been members of Greek-letter organizations while undergraduates reported having a greater sense of purpose, as well as better social and physical well-being, than those who had not.[60]

## Criticism

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### Homogeneous membership and elitism

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Greek letter organizations have often been characterized as elitist or exclusionary associations, organized for the benefit of a largely white, upper-class membership base. Members of fraternities and sororities disproportionately come from certain socio-economic demographics.[49] Fraternities specifically have been criticized for what is perceived as their promotion of an excessively alcohol-fueled, party-focused lifestyle.

New York Times columnist Frank Bruni questioned the existence of exclusive clubs on campuses that are meant to facilitate independence, writing "Colleges should be cultivating the kind of sensibility that makes you a better citizen of a diverse and distressingly fractious society. How is that served by retreating into an exclusionary clique of people just like you?"[61]

Some colleges and universities have banned Greek letter organizations, with the reasoning that they are, by their nature and structure, elitist and exclusionary. The oldest ban was at Princeton University, though Princeton has now had fraternities since the 1980s.[62] Oberlin College banned "secret societies" (fraternities and sororities) in 1847,[63] and the prohibition continues to the present.[64] Quaker universities, such as Guilford College and Earlham College, often ban fraternities and sororities because they are seen as a violation of the Quaker principle of equality.[65][66] Brandeis University has never permitted fraternities or sororities as it maintains a policy that all student organizations have membership open to all.[67] Hamilton College did not prohibit fraternities, but to improve campus social conditions, in 1995 mandated that all students would be required to live and eat on campus; the college also bought the fraternity houses.[68]

### Alcohol use

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One Harvard University study found that "4 out of 5 fraternity and sorority members are binge drinkers. In comparison, other research suggests 2 out of 5 college students overall are regular binge drinkers."[69] There is also a higher rate of alcohol-related deaths and injuries among fraternities, which has resulted in many lawsuits and suspensions.[70][71][72]

### Drug use

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Studies have shown that fraternity and sorority members are more likely than the average college student to use or abuse drugs. Since the 1990s, fraternity members have experienced an increase of over 400% in the recreational use of prescription benzodiazepines like Xanax and Valium. Amphetamine use with drugs like Ritalin and Adderall is more common among fraternity members than other college students. Fraternity members also abuse amphetamines at double the rate than their non-college peers. Marijuana use is also more prevalent among fraternity and sorority members compared to college men and women not in fraternities or sororities.[73][74]

### Hazing

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See also: Hazing in Greek letter organizations

An illustration depicting fraternity hazing from the early 20th century

Fraternities, and to a lesser extent sororities, have been criticized for hazing, sometimes committed by active undergraduate members against their chapter's pledges. Hazing during the pledge period can sometimes culminate in an event commonly known as "Hell Week" in which a week-long series of physical and mental torments are inflicted on pledges.

Common hazing practices include sleep deprivation, sensory deprivation, paddling and other types of spanking, use of stress positions, forced runs, busy work, forced drinking, and mind games. Rarer incidents involving branding, enemas, urination on pledges, and the forced consumption of spoiled food have been reported. Hazing, in many cases, has been reported and has led to the permanent disposal of particular chapters of fraternities and sororities across the country.

Supporters of fraternities note that national fraternity organizations almost universally prohibit hazing, and the occurrence of hazing in undergraduate fraternity chapters goes against official policy. Others say that hazing is not unique to Greek-letter organizations and is often reported in other student organizations, such as athletic teams.

In 2007, an anti-hazing hotline was set up to report incidents of hazing on college campuses. Currently, 46 national fraternity and sorority organizations support the toll-free number, which generates automatic email messages regarding hazing and sends them to the national headquarters directly from the National Anti-Hazing Hotline.[75] Every year, the last week of September is considered to be National Hazing Prevention Week (NHPW).[76]

Several hazing incidents resulted in deaths in 2017 including the death of Tim Piazza in which three members of Beta Theta Pi were sentenced to prison after pleading guilty to charges related to the hazing. Other incidents included the death of Maxwell Gruver, Andrew Coffey, and Matthew Ellis.[77]

### Nepotism and networking

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Critics of Greek-letter organizations assert that they create a culture of nepotism in later life, while supporters have applauded them for creating networking opportunities for members after graduation. A 2013 report by Bloomberg found that fraternity connections are influential in obtaining lucrative employment positions at top Wall Street brokerages. According to the report, recent graduates have been known to exchange the secret handshakes of their fraternities with executives whom they know are also members to obtain access to competitive appointments.[78][79]

### Sexism and sexual violence

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Studies show that fraternity men are three times more likely to commit rape than other men on college campuses.[80][81][82] Fraternity pledges are at a higher likelihood to commit rape or sexual assault because of the pressure to meet the hyper-masculine standards that fraternities expect of their members.[83] Overall, fraternity men are shown to have more rape-supportive attitudes than non-fraternity men.[84]

Fraternities have often been accused of fostering rape-supportive attitudes by promoting male dominance and brotherhood, and fraternity affiliation has been found to be a significant predictor of sexually predatory behavior in retrospective research.[82][85] Sexual assault is such a common occurrence among fraternity organizations that one fraternity, Sigma Alpha Epsilon, is commonly referred to by the nickname, "Sexual Assault Expected".[86]

Attitudes towards women learned in fraternity life can perpetuate fraternity men's lifelong attitudes, leading to the potential to commit sexual assault and rape after college life.[87] Studies show that women in sororities are almost twice as likely to experience rape than other college women.[88][89] A research article studied campus demographics and reported rapes and found that campuses that report more rapes have more fraternity men, athletes and liquor violations.[90]

Researchers have found that in predominantly male environments, such as fraternities, athletics, and military groups, men feel pressure to meet the group's standard of masculinity, which may contribute to men being more accepting of sexual violence.[91] Nicholas Syrett, a professor of history at the University of Northern Colorado, has been a vocal critic of the evolution of fraternities in the 20th century. In 2011, Syrett stated that "fraternal masculinity has, for at least 80 years, valorized athletics, alcohol abuse, and sex with women."[92]

Time magazine columnist Jessica Bennett has denounced fraternities as breeding "sexism and misogyny that lasts long after college". In her column, Bennett recounts that, while she was an undergraduate student at the University of Southern California, doormen at fraternity parties "often ranked women on a scale of 1 to 10, with only 'sixes' and up granted entry to a party".[79]

To protect their fraternity's brotherhood, fraternity men and athletes may not confront or report sexual assault when it happens.[90] Perpetrators have often received little to no consequences for their actions.[93]

### Test and homework banks

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It is common for members of Greek-letter organizations to have higher-than-average GPAs due to test and homework banks filled over the years by members of their organization. There is much backlash condemning the test and homework banks as academic dishonesty.[94][95][96][97][98][99][100][101]

### Racism and minority discrimination

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Further information: Racism in United States college fraternities and sororities

Researchers, such as Matthew W. Hughey, have linked racism in Greek life to persons experiencing microaggressions, fewer opportunities to use the networking system built into Greek life, and the use of harmful stereotypes.[102] In response to experiencing racism and exclusion from solely or predominantly white GLOs, black and multicultural GLOs were founded.[102]

Additionally, homophobia, transphobia, antisemitism, and xenophobia are issues with many college Greek systems across the US.[103][104][105][106][107][108][109][110][111][112]

## Glossary

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Members of Sigma Chi at Miami University in Oxford, Ohio, including founders Benjamin Piatt Runkle and Daniel William Cooper and an unidentified woman at a 1909 reunion

* Active – an initiated, undergraduate student member of a fraternity or sorority.[113]
* Alumni/Alumna/Alumnus – a member of a sorority or fraternity who is no longer an undergraduate student and no longer resides in the house.[114]
* An auxiliary group (also "sweetheart" or "little brother/sister" group) is an unofficial, unsanctioned partner organization to a fraternity or sorority, usually for members of the opposite sex. The two largest Greek umbrella organizations for social fraternities and sororities, the North American Interfraternity Conference and the National Panhellenic Conference, ban the formation of or discourage membership in auxiliary groups.[115][116] Some fraternities and sororities outside of these conferences also ban auxiliaries, including Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia[117] and Sigma Alpha Iota.[118] Part of the rationale behind banning auxiliary groups is that such groups could jeopardize the host organizations' Title IX exemptions, citing the United States Supreme Court's ruling in Roberts v. United States Jaycees.[116][118]
* Badge – a pin worn by an initiated member of a fraternity or sorority. In the 19th and early 20th century, badges were also worn as a watch fob. See also pledge pin.
* Bid – an offer to become a pledge (see below) of a fraternity or sorority.[113]
* Blacklist – an official or unofficial list of people not allowed inside the house or to any events of the fraternity or sorority.
* Blackballed – in this context used as a definition of expelling from a community or group. This means that a person may not be accepted by any fraternity or sorority because of the negative reputation they gained at a particular group. This is usually an informal discussion made by the presidents or rush chairs of the fraternities or sororities.
* Chapter room – a room inside a fraternity house, often secret or hidden, where meetings or actives occur and where rituals are performed.[114]
* Colony – a newly established chapter of a national/international fraternity or sorority in the process of organization.[114]
* Fracket – a disposable coat wore to a fraternity party, coined from the words "fraternity" and "jacket".[119][120]
* Frat Boy – a member of a fraternity characterized by a way of dressing[121] and a homogeneous behavior as other members of that fraternity.
* Legacy – a rushee who is related to a member of the same fraternity or sorority they are rushing is almost always offered a bid. Traditionally a legacy has a parent or sibling that is a member, but some organizations have expanded on their definition of a legacy's relation to members.[122][123]
* Local – a fraternity or sorority with only one chapter.[114]
* National/international – a fraternity or sorority with two or more chapters, both of which are in the same nation (in the case of a national), or at least one of which is in a different nation from the others (in the case of an international).[114]
* Pledge – a probationary member of a fraternity or sorority, sometimes also called "associate member."[113]
* Pledge pin – a pin worn by pledges for the duration of the pledging period. It is usually given to a pledge following a ceremony when they are first offered membership in the organization and can be worn until their initiation. With some organizations, especially those that no longer have a pledge process, it may be called a new member pin. See also badge.
* Potential new member – Abbreviated PNM, one who is in the process of seeking a bid.[113]
* Rush – the process of recruitment to a fraternity or sorority.[113]
* Rushee – one who is in the process of seeking a bid.[113]

## See also

[edit]

* Alumni association
* Collegiate secret societies in North America
* Defunct North American collegiate sororities
* High school secret societies
* Honor society
* List of social fraternities and sororities
* Old boy network
* Professional fraternities and sororities
* Secret society
* Service fraternities and sororities
* Students' union

## Further reading

[edit]

* Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities," The Atlantic, March 2014, pp. 72–91.
* John Hechinger (2017). True Gentlemen: The Broken Pledge of America's Fraternities. PublicAffairs. ISBN 978-1610396820.

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Baird Manual is the name of the seminal reference for the Greek Letter Organization world, published in twenty successive volumes over 140 years. It lists national organizations and their chapters, American and Canadian schools and their chapters, and provides extensive introductory material and appendices to list, for example, politicians, entertainers, and sports leaders who have a Greek Letter affiliation. Today the Manual has been replaced by an online Archive maintained by the University of Illinois.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ For example, Phi Kappa Tau and Alpha Xi Delta both have provisions in their respective Constitutions that they can accept graduate students as well as undergraduates. 2016. ISBN 978-0-306-13192-9. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved November 16, 2015.
2. ^ "Alpha Xi Delta" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 3, 2017. Retrieved November 16, 2015.
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6. ^ "How Queen's rejected the rise of fraternities". June 3, 2019.
7. ^ Anson, Jack L.; Marchenasi, Robert F., eds. (1991) [1879]. Baird's Manual of American Fraternities (20th ed.). Indianapolis, IN: Baird's Manual Foundation, Inc. p. I-10, I-13, I-20, VI-128–132. ISBN 978-0963715906.. Baird's Manual is also available online here: The Baird's Manual Online Archive homepage.
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11. ^ Chapter History Archived August 26, 2016, at the Wayback Machine, accessed October 16, 2015. The chapter has since moved to larger quarters.
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13. ^ Gamma Chapter history, accessed October 16, 2015.
14. ^ Wesleyan Female College, originally Georgia Female College and now simply Wesleyan College, was the origin of the first two sororities, both the Adelphean Society and the Philomathean Society. The Adelphean, founded in 1851, eventually became Alpha Delta Pi, while The Philomathean, founded in 1852, eventually became Phi Mu. Together, these sororities are known as the Macon Magnolias. Several other unrelated Philomathean Societies emerged during the 19th century, including literary societies at the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia and at New York University in Manhattan.
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73. ^ "The Connection Between College Greek Life and Substance Abuse".
74. ^ "Are Fraternities and Substance Abuse Creating Addicts?". March 23, 2018.
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76. ^ "National Hazing Prevention Week | Hazing Prevention". hazingprevention.org. Archived from the original on September 23, 2018. Retrieved October 4, 2015.
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78. ^ Abelson, Max; Faux, Zeke (December 22, 2013). "Secret Handshakes Greet Frat Brothers on Wall Street". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on February 2, 2015. Retrieved December 28, 2014.
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80. ^ Foubert, John (October 9, 2013). "'Rapebait' e-mail reveals dark side of frat culture". CNN.com. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
81. ^ Foubert, John; Newberry, Johnathan; Tatum, Jerry (2007). "Behavior differences seven months later: Effects of a rape prevention program on first-year men who join fraternities". NASPA Journal. 44 (4): 728–749. doi:10.2202/1949-6605.1866. S2CID 219289954. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
82. ^ a b Loh, Catherine; Gidycz, Christine; Lobo, Tracy; Luthra, Rohini (2005). "A Prospective Analysis of Sexual Assault Perpetration: Risk Factors Related to Perpetrator Characteristics" (PDF). Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 20 (10): 1325–1348. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.208.7187. doi:10.1177/0886260505278528. PMID 16162492. S2CID 30121860. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 9, 2017. Retrieved July 23, 2016.
83. ^ Bohmer, Carol; Parrot, Andrea (1993). Sexual assault on campus: The problem and the solution. New York: Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0029037157.
84. ^ Bleecker, Timothy E.; Murnen, Sarah K. (October 2005). "Fraternity Membership, the Display of Degrading Sexual Images of Women, and Rape Myth Acceptance". Sex Roles. 53 (7–8): 487–493. doi:10.1007/s11199-005-7136-6. S2CID 144874772.
85. ^ Lackie, Leandra; de Man, Anton (1997). "Correlates of Sexual Aggression Among Male University Students". Sex Roles. 37 (5/6): 451–457. doi:10.1023/A:1025613725757. S2CID 142047025.
86. ^ "Legal view with Ashleigh Banfield". CNN. March 10, 2015.
87. ^ Auster, Carol J; Leone, Janel M (2001). "Late adolescents' perspectives on marital rape: The impact of gender and fraternity/sorority membership". Adolescence. 36 (141): 141–152. PMID 11407630.
88. ^ Minow, Jacqueline; Einolf, Christopher (2009). "Sorority Participation and Sexual Assault Risk". Violence Against Women. 15 (7): 835–851. doi:10.1177/1077801209334472. PMID 19458092. S2CID 21877160. Retrieved August 13, 2016.
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## External links

[edit]

* Caitlin Flanagan, "The Dark Power of Fraternities," The Atlantic, March 2014, pp. 72–91.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Fraternities and sororities.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Fraternities and sororities.

* v
* t
* e

Fraternities and sororities

Academic fraternities originating from North America

General|

* Colony
* North American fraternity and sorority housing
* Stepping
* U.S. racism
* Hazing in Greek letter organizations
* U.S. deaths
* Philippines deaths
* Mother of Fraternities

History|

* Fraternities and sororities
* North America
* High school
* Professional
* Service
* Canada
* Lists by country/territory
* France
* Philippines
* Puerto Rico

Historically
African-American|

* ΑΚΑ
* ΑΦΑ
* ΔΣΘ
* ΖΦΒ
* ΙΦΘ
* ΚΑΨ
* ΣΓΡ
* ΦΒΣ
* ΦΡΗ
* ΩΨΦ
* WΨΦ

Historically
Asian/Pacific Islander-American|

* αΚΔΦ
* ΑΦΓ
* ΒΧΘ
* ΔΕΨ
* ΔΚΔ
* ΔΦΩ
* ΙΝΔ
* ΚΦΛ
* ΛΦΕ
* ΠΑΦ
* ΠΔΨ
* ΣΒΡ
* ΣΟΠ
* ΣΨΖ
* ΣΦΩ
* XPO

Christian
fraternities and sororities|

* ΑΔΓ
* ΑΔΧ
* ΑΓΩ
* ΑΛΩ
* ΒΕΓΓΑΡΣ
* ΒΣΨ
* ΒΥΧ
* ΣΑΩ
* ΣΘΕ
* ΣΦΛ
* ΦΒΧ
* ΧΑΩ

Historically Jewish|

* ΑΕΠ
* ΑΕΦ
* ΖΒΤ
* ΣΑΕΠ
* ΣΑΜ
* ΣΔΤ
* ΤΔΦ
* ΤΕΦ

Multicultural|

* ΔΞΝ
* ΔΞΦ
* ΓΗ
* ΖΣΧ
* ΖΦΡ
* ΖΧΦ
* ΘΝΞ
* ΛΤΩ
* ΛΨΔ
* ΜΣΥ
* ΣΛΓ
* ΣΘΨ
* ΤΦΣ
* ΨΣΦ
* ΩΔΦ
* ΩΦΧ
* Delphic

Historically Scout-affiliated|

* ΑΦΩ
* ΕΤΠ
* ΓΣΣ
* ΩΦΑ

LGBTQ|

* ΑΛΖ
* ΑΠΔ
* ΔΛΦ
* ΓΡΛ
* ΘΠΣ
* ΚΑΛ
* ΚΘΕ
* ΟΕΠ
* ΣΦΒ

Native American|

* ΑΠΩ
* ΦΣΝ
* ΣΟΕ

Latino and Puerto Rican|

* ΑΨΛ
* ΑΟΣ
* ΔΤΛ
* ΓΑΩ
* ΓΖΑ
* ΗΓΔ
* ΚΔΧ
* ΛΑΥ
* ΛΠΥ
* ΛΠΧ
* ΛΣΥ
* ΛΘΑ
* ΛΘΝ
* ΛΘΦ
* ΛΥΛ
* ΜΑΦ
* ΝΑΚ
* ΝΣΒ
* ΣΔΑ
* ΣΙΑ
* ΣΛΑ
* ΣΛΒ
* ΣΛΥ
* ΣΠΑ
* ΦΔΓ
* ΦΗΜ
* ΦΙΑ
* ΦΣΑ
* ΧΥΣ
* ΩΦΒ

Major specific|

* ΑΓΡ
* ΑΓΣ
* ΑΚΨ
* ΑΣΚ
* ΑΩΕ
* ΔΣΠ
* ΚΚΨ
* ΣΑΙ
* ΤΒΣ
* ΦΣΓ
* ΦΣΡ
* Ceres
* FarmHouse
* Triangle

Social sororities|

* ΑΓΔ
* ΑΔΠ
* ΑΕΦ
* ΑΞΔ
* ΑΟΠ
* ΑΣΑ
* ΑΣΤ
* ΑΦ
* ΑΧΩ
* ΓΦΒ
* ΔΔΔ
* ΔΓ
* ΔΖ
* ΔΦΕ
* ΖΤΑ
* ΘΦΑ
* ΚΑΘ
* ΚΒΓ
* ΚΔ
* ΚΚΓ
* ΠΒΦ
* ΣΔΤ
* ΣΚ
* ΣΣΣ
* ΣΨ
* ΦΜ
* ΦΣΣ
* ΧΩ
* Clovia

Social fraternities|

* ΑΔΦ
* ΑΚΛ
* ΑΣΦ
* ΑΤΩ
* ΑΦΔ
* ΑΧΑ
* ΑΧΡ
* ΒΘΠ
* ΔΚΕ
* ΔΣΦ
* ΔΤΔ
* ΔΥ
* ΔΦ
* ΔΧ
* ΖΨ
* ΘΔΧ
* ΘΞ
* ΘΧ
* ΚΑ Order
* ΚΑ Society
* ΚΔΡ
* ΚΔΦ
* ΚΛΨ
* ΚΣ
* ΛΧΑ
* OΚΕ
* ΠΚΑ
* ΠΚΦ
* ΠΛΦ
* ΣΑΕ
* ΣΔΑ
* ΣΘΠ
* ΣΝ
* ΣΠ
* ΣΤΓ
* ΣΦ
* ΣΦΔ
* ΣΦΕ
* ΣΧ
* ΤΚΕ
* ΦΓΔ
* ΦΔΘ
* ΦΔΨ
* ΦΚΘ
* ΦΚΣ
* ΦΚΤ
* ΦΚΨ
* ΦΛΧ
* ΦΜΑ Sinfonia
* ΦΜΔ
* ΦΣΚ
* ΦΣΦ
* ΧΓΕ
* ΧΦ
* ΧΨ
* ΨΥ
* Acacia

See also|

* Freemasonry
* Odd Fellows
* Gentlemen's club
* Secret society

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* United States
* Israel

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