George H. W. Bush

President of the United States from 1989 to 1993

This article is about the 41st president of the United States. For his son, the 43rd president, see George W. Bush.

George H. W. Bush

Official portrait, 1989

41st President of the United States
In office
January 20, 1989 – January 20, 1993
Vice President| Dan Quayle
Preceded by| Ronald Reagan
Succeeded by| Bill Clinton
43rd Vice President of the United States
In office
January 20, 1981 – January 20, 1989
President| Ronald Reagan
Preceded by| Walter Mondale
Succeeded by| Dan Quayle
11th Director of Central Intelligence
In office
January 30, 1976 – January 20, 1977
President| Gerald Ford
Deputy|

* Vernon A. Walters
* E. Henry Knoche

Preceded by| William Colby
Succeeded by| Stansfield Turner
2nd Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China
In office
September 26, 1974 – December 7, 1975
President| Gerald Ford
Preceded by| David K. E. Bruce
Succeeded by| Thomas S. Gates Jr.
Chair of the Republican National Committee
In office
January 19, 1973 – September 16, 1974
Preceded by| Bob Dole
Succeeded by| Mary Smith
10th United States Ambassador to the United Nations
In office
March 1, 1971 – January 18, 1973
President| Richard Nixon
Preceded by| Charles Yost
Succeeded by| John A. Scali
Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Texas's 7th district
In office
January 3, 1967 – January 3, 1971
Preceded by| John Dowdy
Succeeded by| Bill Archer
Personal details
Born|

George Herbert Walker Bush

(1924-06-12)June 12, 1924
Milton, Massachusetts, U.S.
Died| November 30, 2018(2018-11-30) (aged 94)
Houston, Texas, U.S.
Resting place| George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum
Political party| Republican
Spouse(s)|

Barbara Pierce

(m. 1945; died 2018)​

Children|

* George
* Robin
* Jeb
* Neil
* Marvin
* Dorothy

Parents|

* Prescott Bush (father)
* Dorothy Walker (mother)

Relatives| Bush family
Education| Yale University (BA)
Occupation|

* Politician
* diplomat
* businessman

Civilian awards| List of awards and honors
Signature|
Website| Presidential Library
Nickname(s)| "Skin"
Military service
Branch/service| United States Navy
Years of service| 1942–1945
Rank| Lieutenant (junior grade)
Unit| Fast Carrier Task Force
Battles/wars|

* World War II
* Pacific War

Military awards|

* Distinguished Flying Cross

* Air Medal (3)[1]
* Presidential Unit Citation

George H. W. Bush's voice (1:27)

George H. W. Bush speaking on February 17, 2011.

George Herbert Walker Bush[a] (June 12, 1924 – November 30, 2018) was an American politician, diplomat,[2] and businessman who served as the 41st president of the United States from 1989 to 1993. A member of the Republican Party, he previously served as the 43rd vice president from 1981 to 1989 under Ronald Reagan, in the U.S. House of Representatives, as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations, and as Director of Central Intelligence.

Bush was raised in Greenwich, Connecticut, and attended Phillips Academy before serving in the United States Navy Reserve during World War II. After the war, he graduated from Yale and moved to West Texas, where he established a successful oil company. After an unsuccessful run for the United States Senate, he won the election to the 7th congressional district of Texas in 1966. President Richard Nixon appointed Bush to the position of Ambassador to the United Nations in 1971 and to the position of chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1973. In 1974, President Gerald Ford appointed him as the Chief of the Liaison Office to the People's Republic of China, and in 1976 Bush became the Director of Central Intelligence. Bush ran for president in 1980, but was defeated in the Republican presidential primaries by Ronald Reagan, who then selected Bush as his vice presidential running mate.

In the 1988 presidential election, Bush defeated Democrat Michael Dukakis, becoming the first incumbent vice president to be elected president since Martin Van Buren in 1836. Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency, as he navigated the final years of the Cold War and played a key role in the reunification of Germany. Bush presided over the invasion of Panama and the Gulf War, ending the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait in the latter conflict. Though the agreement was not ratified until after he left office, Bush negotiated and signed the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), which created a trade bloc consisting of the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Domestically, Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise by enacting legislation to raise taxes with the justification of reducing the budget deficit. He also championed and signed three pieces of bipartisan legislation, the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Immigration Act of 1990 and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. He also successfully appointed David Souter and Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court. Bush lost the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton following an economic recession, his turnaround on his tax promise, and the decreased emphasis of foreign policy in a post–Cold War political climate.[3]

After leaving office in 1993, Bush was active in humanitarian activities, often working alongside Bill Clinton, his former opponent. With the victory of his son, George W. Bush, in the 2000 presidential election, the two became the second father–son pair to serve as the nation's president, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams. Another son, Jeb Bush, unsuccessfully sought the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 Republican primaries. Historians generally rank Bush as an above-average president.

## Contents

* 1 Early life and education (1924–1948)
* 1.1 World War II
* 1.2 Marriage
* 1.3 College years
* 2 Business career (1948–1963)
* 3 Early political career (1963–1971)
* 3.1 Entry into politics
* 3.2 U.S. House of Representatives
* 4 Nixon and Ford administrations (1971–1977)
* 4.1 Ambassador to the United Nations
* 4.2 Chairman of the Republican National Committee
* 4.3 Head of U.S. Liaison Office in China
* 4.4 Director of Central Intelligence
* 5 1980 presidential election
* 6 Vice presidency (1981–1989)
* 6.1 First term
* 6.2 Second term
* 6.3 1988 presidential election
* 7 Presidency (1989–1993)
* 7.1 Foreign affairs
* 7.1.1 End of the Cold War
* 7.1.2 Invasion of Panama
* 7.1.3 Gulf War
* 7.1.4 NAFTA
* 7.2 Domestic affairs
* 7.2.1 Economy and fiscal issues
* 7.2.2 Discrimination
* 7.2.3 Environment
* 7.2.4 Points of Light
* 7.2.5 Judicial appointments
* 7.2.6 Other issues
* 7.3 Public image
* 7.4 1992 presidential campaign
* 8 Post-presidency (1993–2018)
* 8.1 Appearances
* 8.2 Final years
* 8.3 Death and funeral
* 9 Personal life
* 10 Legacy
* 10.1 Historical reputation
* 10.2 Memorials, awards, and honors
* 11 See also
* 12 Notes
* 13 References
* 13.1 Works cited
* 14 Further reading
* 14.1 Secondary sources
* 14.2 Primary sources
* 15 External links

## Early life and education (1924–1948)[edit]

See also: Bush family

George H. W. Bush at his grandfather's house in Kennebunkport, c. 1925

George Herbert Walker Bush was born in Milton, Massachusetts,[4] on June 12, 1924. He was the second son of Prescott Bush and Dorothy (Walker) Bush.[5] His paternal grandfather, Samuel P. Bush, worked as an executive for a railroad parts company in Columbus, Ohio,[6] while his maternal grandfather and namesake, George Herbert Walker, led Wall Street investment bank W. A. Harriman & Co.[7] Walker was known as "Pop", and young Bush was called "Poppy" as a tribute to him.[8] The Bush family moved to Greenwich, Connecticut, in 1925, and Prescott took a position with W. A. Harriman & Co. (which later merged into Brown Brothers Harriman & Co.) the following year.[9]

Bush spent most of his childhood in Greenwich, at the family vacation home in Kennebunkport, Maine,[b] or at his maternal grandparents' plantation in South Carolina.[11] Because of the family's wealth, Bush was largely unaffected by the Great Depression.[12] He attended Greenwich Country Day School from 1929 to 1937 and Phillips Academy, an elite private academy in Massachusetts, from 1937 to 1942.[13] While at Phillips Academy, he served as president of the senior class, secretary of the student council, president of the community fund-raising group, a member of the editorial board of the school newspaper, and captain of the varsity baseball and soccer teams.[14]

### World War II[edit]

Bush in his Grumman TBF Avenger aboard USS San Jacinto in 1944

On his 18th birthday, immediately after graduating from Phillips Academy, he enlisted in the United States Navy as a naval aviator.[15] After a period of training, he was commissioned as an ensign in the Naval Reserve at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on June 9, 1943, becoming one of the youngest aviators in the Navy.[16][c] Beginning in 1944, Bush served in the Pacific theater, where he flew a Grumman TBF Avenger, a torpedo bomber capable of taking off from aircraft carriers.[21] His squadron was assigned to the USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51, where his lanky physique earned him the nickname "Skin".[22]

Bush flew his first combat mission in May 1944, bombing Japanese-held Wake Island,[23] and was promoted to lieutenant (junior grade) on August 1, 1944. During an attack on a Japanese installation in Chichijima, Bush's aircraft successfully attacked several targets, but was downed by enemy fire.[20] Though both of Bush's fellow crew members died, Bush successfully bailed out from the aircraft and was rescued by the USS Finback.[24][d] Several of the aviators shot down during the attack were captured and executed, and their livers were eaten by their captors.[25] Bush's survival after such a close brush with death shaped him profoundly, leading him to ask, "Why had I been spared and what did God have for me?"[26] He was later awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his role in the mission.[27]

Bush returned to San Jacinto in November 1944, participating in operations in the Philippines. In early 1945, he was assigned to a new combat squadron, VT-153, where he trained to take part in an invasion of mainland Japan. Between March and May 1945 he trained in Auburn, Maine where he and Barbara lived in a small apartment.[28] On September 2, 1945, before any invasion took place, Japan formally surrendered following the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki.[29] Bush was released from active duty that same month, but was not formally discharged from the Navy until October 1955, at which point he had reached the rank of lieutenant.[20] By the end of his period of active service, Bush had flown 58 missions, completed 128 carrier landings, and recorded 1228 hours of flight time.[30]

### Marriage[edit]

Bush in Phillips Academy's 1942 yearbook

Bush met Barbara Pierce at a Christmas dance in Greenwich in December 1941,[31] and, after a period of courtship, they became engaged in December 1943.[32] While Bush was on leave from the Navy, they married in Rye, New York, on January 6, 1945.[33] The Bushes enjoyed a strong marriage, and Barbara would later be a popular First Lady, seen by many as "a kind of national grandmother".[34][e] They had six children: George W. (b. 1946), Robin (1949–1953), Jeb (b. 1953), Neil (b. 1955), Marvin (b. 1956), and Doro (b. 1959).[15] Their oldest daughter, Robin, died of leukemia in 1953.[37][38]

### College years[edit]

Bush enrolled at Yale College, where he took part in an accelerated program that enabled him to graduate in two and a half years rather than the usual four.[15] He was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and was elected its president.[39] He also captained the Yale baseball team and played in the first two College World Series as a left-handed first baseman.[40] Like his father, he was a member of the Yale cheerleading squad[41] and was initiated into the Skull and Bones secret society. He graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics.[42]

## Business career (1948–1963)[edit]

Bush, top right, stood with his wife and children, mid-1960s

After graduating from Yale, Bush moved his young family to West Texas. Biographer Jon Meacham writes that Bush's relocation to Texas allowed him to move out of the "daily shadow of his Wall Street father and Grandfather Walker, two dominant figures in the financial world", but would still allow Bush to "call on their connections if he needed to raise capital."[43] His first position in Texas was an oil field equipment salesman[44] for Dresser Industries, which was led by family friend Neil Mallon.[45] While working for Dresser, Bush lived in various places with his family: Odessa, Texas; Ventura, Bakersfield and Compton, California; and Midland, Texas.[46] In 1952, he volunteered for the successful presidential campaign of Republican candidate Dwight D. Eisenhower. That same year, his father won election to represent Connecticut in the United States Senate as a member of the Republican Party.[47]

With support from Mallon and Bush's uncle, George Herbert Walker Jr., Bush and John Overbey launched the Bush-Overbey Oil Development Company in 1951.[48] In 1953 he co-founded the Zapata Petroleum Corporation, an oil company that drilled in the Permian Basin in Texas.[49] In 1954, he was named president of the Zapata Offshore Company, a subsidiary which specialized in offshore drilling.[50] Shortly after the subsidiary became independent in 1959, Bush moved the company and his family from Midland to Houston.[51] There, he befriended James Baker, a prominent attorney who later became an important political ally.[52] Bush remained involved with Zapata until the mid-1960s, when he sold his stock in the company for approximately $1 million.[53]

In 1988, The Nation published an article alleging that Bush worked as an operative of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) during the 1960s; Bush denied this claim.[54]

## Early political career (1963–1971)[edit]

### Entry into politics[edit]

Former president Dwight D. Eisenhower with Bush

By the early 1960s, Bush was widely regarded as an appealing political candidate, and some leading Democrats attempted to convince Bush to become a Democrat. He declined to leave the Republican Party, later citing his belief that the national Democratic Party favored "big, centralized government". The Democratic Party had historically dominated Texas, but Republicans scored their first major victory in the state with John G. Tower's victory in a 1961 special election to the United States Senate. Motivated by Tower's victory, and hoping to prevent the far-right John Birch Society from coming to power, Bush ran for the chairmanship of the Harris County Republican Party, winning election in February 1963.[55] Like most other Texas Republicans, Bush supported conservative Senator Barry Goldwater over the more centrist Nelson Rockefeller in the 1964 Republican Party presidential primaries.[56]

In 1964, Bush sought to unseat liberal Democrat Ralph W. Yarborough in Texas's U.S. Senate election.[57] Bolstered by superior fundraising, Bush won the Republican primary by defeating former gubernatorial nominee Jack Cox in a run-off election. In the general election, Bush attacked Yarborough's vote for the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which banned racial and gender discrimination in public institutions and in many privately owned businesses. Bush argued that the act unconstitutionally expanded the powers of the federal government, but he was privately uncomfortable with the racial politics of opposing the act.[58] He lost the election 56 percent to 44 percent, though he did run well ahead of Barry Goldwater, the Republican presidential nominee.[57] Despite the loss, the New York Times reported that Bush was "rated by political friend and foe alike as the Republicans' best prospect in Texas because of his attractive personal qualities and the strong campaign he put up for the Senate".[59]

### U.S. House of Representatives[edit]

Bush in 1969

Bush greeting then California Governor Ronald Reagan in 1967

In 1966, Bush ran for the United States House of Representatives in Texas's 7th congressional district, a newly redistricted seat in the Greater Houston area. Initial polling showed him trailing his Democratic opponent, Harris County District Attorney Frank Briscoe, but he ultimately won the race with 57 percent of the vote.[60] In an effort to woo potential candidates in the South and Southwest, House Republicans secured Bush an appointment to the powerful United States House Committee on Ways and Means, making Bush the first freshman to serve on the committee since 1904.[61] His voting record in the House was generally conservative. He supported the Nixon administration's Vietnam policies, but broke with Republicans on the issue of birth control, which he supported. He also voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1968, although it was generally unpopular in his district.[62][63] In 1968, Bush joined several other Republicans in issuing the party's Response to the State of the Union address; Bush's part of the address focused on a call for fiscal responsibility.[64]

Though most other Texas Republicans supported Ronald Reagan in the 1968 Republican Party presidential primaries, Bush endorsed Richard Nixon, who went on to win the party's nomination. Nixon considered selecting Bush as his running mate in the 1968 presidential election, but he ultimately chose Spiro Agnew instead. Bush won re-election to the House unopposed, while Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey in the presidential election.[65] In 1970, with President Nixon's support, Bush gave up his seat in the House to run for the Senate against Yarborough. Bush easily won the Republican primary, but Yarborough was defeated by the more conservative Lloyd Bentsen in the Democratic primary.[66] Ultimately, Bentsen defeated Bush, taking 53.5 percent of the vote.[67]

## Nixon and Ford administrations (1971–1977)[edit]

See also: Presidency of Richard Nixon and Presidency of Gerald Ford

### Ambassador to the United Nations[edit]

Bush as ambassador to the United Nations, 1971

After the 1970 Senate election, Bush accepted a position as a senior adviser to the president, but he convinced Nixon to instead appoint him as the U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations.[68] The position represented Bush's first foray into foreign policy, as well as his first major experiences with the Soviet Union and China, the two major U.S. rivals in the Cold War.[69] During Bush's tenure, the Nixon administration pursued a policy of détente, seeking to ease tensions with both the Soviet Union and China.[70] Bush's ambassadorship was marked by a defeat on the China question, as the United Nations General Assembly voted, in Resolution 2758, to expel the Republic of China and replace it with the People's Republic of China in October 1971.[71] In the 1971 crisis in Pakistan, Bush supported an Indian motion at the UN General Assembly to condemn the Pakistani government of Yahya Khan for waging genocide in East Pakistan (modern Bangladesh), referring to the "tradition which we have supported that the human rights question transcended domestic jurisdiction and should be freely debated".[72] Bush's support for India at the UN put him into conflict with Nixon who was supporting Pakistan, partly because Yahya Khan was a useful intermediary in his attempts to reach out to China and partly because the president was fond of Yahya Khan.[73]

### Chairman of the Republican National Committee[edit]

After Nixon won a landslide victory in the 1972 presidential election, he appointed Bush as chair of the Republican National Committee (RNC).[74][75] In that position, he was charged with fundraising, candidate recruitment, and making appearances on behalf of the party in the media.

When Agnew was being investigated for corruption, Bush assisted, at the request of Nixon and Agnew, in pressuring John Glenn Beall Jr., the U.S. Senator from Maryland, to force his brother, George Beall the U.S. Attorney in Maryland, to shutdown the investigation into Agnew. Attorney Beall ignored the pressure.[76]

During Bush's tenure at the RNC, the Watergate scandal emerged into public view; the scandal originated from the June 1972 break-in of the Democratic National Committee, but also involved later efforts to cover up the break-in by Nixon and other members of the White House.[77] Bush initially defended Nixon steadfastly, but as Nixon's complicity became clear he focused more on defending the Republican Party.[62]

Following the resignation of Vice President Agnew in 1973 for a scandal unrelated to Watergate, Bush was considered for the position of vice president, but the appointment instead went to Gerald Ford.[78] After the public release of an audio recording that confirmed that Nixon had plotted to use the CIA to cover up the Watergate break-in, Bush joined other party leaders in urging Nixon to resign.[79] When Nixon resigned on August 9, 1974, Bush noted in his diary that "There was an aura of sadness, like somebody died... The [resignation] speech was vintage Nixon—a kick or two at the press—enormous strains. One couldn't help but look at the family and the whole thing and think of his accomplishments and then think of the shame... [President Gerald Ford's swearing-in offered] indeed a new spirit, a new lift."[80]

### Head of U.S. Liaison Office in China[edit]

Bush as U.S. Liaison to China, c. 1975

Upon his ascension to the presidency, Ford strongly considered Bush, Donald Rumsfeld, and Nelson Rockefeller for the vacant position of vice president. Ford ultimately chose Nelson Rockefeller, partly because of the publication of a news report claiming that Bush's 1970 campaign had benefited from a secret fund set up by Nixon; Bush was later cleared of any suspicion by a special prosecutor.[81] Bush accepted appointment as Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People's Republic of China, making him the de facto ambassador to China.[82] According to biographer Jon Meacham, Bush's time in China convinced him that American engagement abroad was needed to ensure global stability, and that the United States "needed to be visible but not pushy, muscular but not domineering."[83]

### Director of Central Intelligence[edit]

Bush, as CIA Director, listens at a meeting following the assassinations in Beirut of Francis E. Meloy Jr. and Robert O. Waring, 1976

In January 1976, Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI), placing him in charge of the CIA.[84] In the aftermath of the Watergate scandal and the Vietnam War, the CIA's reputation had been damaged for its role in various covert operations, and Bush was tasked with restoring the agency's morale and public reputation.[85][f] During Bush's year in charge of the CIA, the U.S. national security apparatus actively supported Operation Condor operations and right-wing military dictatorships in Latin America.[86][87] Meanwhile, Ford decided to drop Rockefeller from the ticket for the 1976 presidential election; he considered Bush as his running mate, but ultimately chose Bob Dole.[88] In his capacity as DCI, Bush gave national security briefings to Jimmy Carter both as a presidential candidate and as president-elect.[89]

## 1980 presidential election[edit]

1980 campaign logo

Further information: Ronald Reagan 1980 presidential campaign and 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries

Bush's tenure at the CIA ended after Carter narrowly defeated Ford in the 1976 presidential election. Out of public office for the first time since the 1960s, Bush became chairman on the executive committee of the First International Bank in Houston.[90] He also spent a year as a part-time professor of Administrative Science at Rice University's Jones School of Business,[91] continued his membership in the Council on Foreign Relations, and joined the Trilateral Commission. Meanwhile, he began to lay the groundwork for his candidacy in the 1980 Republican Party presidential primaries.[92] In the 1980 Republican primary campaign, Bush faced Ronald Reagan, who was widely regarded as the front-runner, as well as other contenders like Senator Bob Dole, Senator Howard Baker, Texas Governor John Connally, Congressman Phil Crane, and Congressman John B. Anderson.[93]

Ronald Reagan, moderator Jon Breen, and Bush participate in the Nashua, New Hampshire, presidential debate, 1980

Bush's campaign cast him as a youthful, "thinking man's candidate" who would emulate the pragmatic conservatism of President Eisenhower.[94] In the midst of the Soviet–Afghan War, which brought an end to a period of détente, and the Iran hostage crisis, in which 52 Americans were taken hostage, the campaign highlighted Bush's foreign policy experience.[95] At the outset of the race, Bush focused heavily on winning the January 21 Iowa caucuses, making 31 visits to the state.[96] He won a close victory in Iowa with 31.5% to Reagan's 29.4%. After the win, Bush stated that his campaign was full of momentum, or "the Big Mo",[97] and Reagan reorganized his campaign.[98] Partly in response to the Bush campaign's frequent questioning of Reagan's age (Reagan turned 69 in 1980), the Reagan campaign stepped up attacks on Bush, painting him as an elitist who was not truly committed to conservatism.[99] Prior to the New Hampshire primary, Bush and Reagan agreed to a two-person debate, organized by The Nashua Telegraph but paid for by the Reagan campaign.[98]

Days before the debate, Reagan announced that he would invite four other candidates to the debate; Bush, who had hoped that the one-on-one debate would allow him to emerge as the main alternative to Reagan in the primaries, refused to debate the other candidates. All six candidates took the stage, but Bush refused to speak in the presence of the other candidates. Ultimately, the other four candidates left the stage and the debate continued, but Bush's refusal to debate anyone other than Reagan badly damaged his campaign in New Hampshire.[100] He ended up decisively losing New Hampshire's primary to Reagan, winning just 23 percent of the vote.[98] Bush revitalized his campaign with a victory in Massachusetts, but lost the next several primaries. As Reagan built up a commanding delegate lead, Bush refused to end his campaign, but the other candidates dropped out of the race.[101] Criticizing his more conservative rival's policy proposals, Bush famously labeled Reagan's supply side-influenced plans for massive tax cuts as "voodoo economics".[102] Though he favored lower taxes, Bush feared that dramatic reductions in taxation would lead to deficits and, in turn, cause inflation.[103]

The Reagan–Bush ticket won the 1980 presidential election with 50.7% of the popular vote and a large majority of the electoral vote

After Reagan clinched a majority of delegates in late May, Bush reluctantly dropped out of the race.[104] At the 1980 Republican National Convention, Reagan made the last-minute decision to select Bush as his vice presidential nominee after negotiations with Ford regarding a Reagan–Ford ticket collapsed.[105] Though Reagan had resented many of the Bush campaign's attacks during the primary campaign, and several conservative leaders had actively opposed Bush's nomination, Reagan ultimately decided that Bush's popularity with moderate Republicans made him the best and safest pick. Bush, who had believed his political career might be over following the primaries, eagerly accepted the position and threw himself into campaigning for the Reagan–Bush ticket.[106] The 1980 general election campaign between Reagan and Carter was conducted amid a multitude of domestic concerns and the ongoing Iran hostage crisis, and Reagan sought to focus the race on Carter's handling of the economy.[107] Though the race was widely regarded as a close contest for most of the campaign, Reagan ultimately won over the large majority of undecided voters.[108] Reagan took 50.7 percent of the popular vote and 489 of the 538 electoral votes, while Carter won 41% of the popular vote and John Anderson, running as an independent candidate, won 6.6% of the popular vote.[109]

## Vice presidency (1981–1989)[edit]

Further information: Presidency of Ronald Reagan and Reagan Era

Official portrait of Vice President Bush, 1981

As vice president, Bush generally maintained a low profile, recognizing the constitutional limits of the office; he avoided decision-making or criticizing Reagan in any way. This approach helped him earn Reagan's trust, easing tensions left over from their earlier rivalry.[98] Bush also generally enjoyed a good relationship with Reagan staffers, including Bush's close friend James Baker, who served as Reagan's initial chief of staff.[110] His understanding of the vice presidency was heavily influenced by Vice President Walter Mondale, who enjoyed a strong relationship with President Carter in part because of his ability to avoid confrontations with senior staff and Cabinet members, and by Vice President Nelson Rockefeller's difficult relationship with some members of the White House staff during the Ford administration.[111] The Bushes attended a large number of public and ceremonial events in their positions, including many state funerals, which became a common joke for comedians. As the President of the Senate, Bush also stayed in contact with members of Congress and kept the president informed on occurrences on Capitol Hill.[98]

### First term[edit]

President Ronald Reagan with Bush

Reagan and Bush in a meeting to discuss the United States' invasion of Grenada with a group of bipartisan members of Congress in October 1983

On March 30, 1981, while Bush was in Texas, Reagan was shot and seriously wounded by John Hinckley Jr. Bush immediately flew back to Washington D.C.; when his plane landed, his aides advised him to proceed directly to the White House by helicopter in order to show that the government was still functioning.[98] Bush rejected the idea, as he feared that such a dramatic scene risked giving the impression that he sought to usurp Reagan's powers and prerogatives.[112] During Reagan's short period of incapacity, Bush presided over Cabinet meetings, met with congressional leaders and foreign leaders, and briefed reporters, but he consistently rejected the possibility of invoking the Twenty-fifth Amendment.[113] Bush's handling of the attempted assassination and its aftermath made a positive impression on Reagan, who recovered and returned to work within two weeks of the shooting. From then on, the two men would have regular Thursday lunches in the Oval Office.[114]

Bush was assigned by Reagan to chair two special task forces, one on deregulation and one on international drug smuggling. Both were popular issues with conservatives, and Bush, largely a moderate, began courting them through his work. The deregulation task force reviewed hundreds of rules, making specific recommendations on which ones to amend or revise, in order to curb the size of the federal government.[98] The Reagan administration's deregulation push had a strong impact on broadcasting, finance, resource extraction, and other economic activities, and the administration eliminated numerous government positions.[115] Bush also oversaw the administration's national security crisis management organization, which had traditionally been the responsibility of the National Security Advisor.[116] In 1983, Bush toured Western Europe as part of the Reagan administration's ultimately successful efforts to convince skeptical NATO allies to support the deployment of Pershing II missiles.[117]

Reagan's approval ratings fell after his first year in office, but they bounced back when the United States began to emerge from recession in 1983.[118] Former Vice President Walter Mondale was nominated by the Democratic Party in the 1984 presidential election. Down in the polls, Mondale selected Congresswoman Geraldine Ferraro as his running mate in hopes of galvanizing support for his campaign, thus making Ferraro the first female major party vice presidential nominee in U.S. history.[119] She and Bush squared off in a single televised vice presidential debate.[98] Public opinion polling consistently showed a Reagan lead in the 1984 campaign, and Mondale was unable to shake up the race.[120] In the end, Reagan won re-election, winning 49 of 50 states and receiving 59% of the popular vote to Mondale's 41%.[121]

### Second term[edit]

Vice President Bush standing with President Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev on the New York City waterfront in 1988

Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in the Soviet Union in 1985. Rejecting the ideologically rigidity of his three elderly sick predecessors, Gorbachev insisted on urgently needed economic and political reforms called "glasnost" (openness) and "perestroika" (restructuring).[122] At the 1987 Washington Summit, Gorbachev and Reagan signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, which committed both signatories to the total abolition of their respective short-range and medium-range missile stockpiles.[123] The treaty marked the beginning of a new era of trade, openness, and cooperation between the two powers.[124] President Reagan and Secretary of State George Shultz took the lead in these negotiations, but Bush sat in on many meetings. Bush did not agree with many of the Reagan policies, but he did tell Gorbachev that he would seek to continue improving relations if he succeeded Reagan.[125][126] On July 13, 1985, Bush became the first vice president to serve as acting president when Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon; Bush served as the acting president for approximately eight hours.[127]

In 1986, the Reagan administration was shaken by a scandal when it was revealed that administration officials had secretly arranged weapon sales to Iran during the Iran–Iraq War. The officials had used the proceeds to fund the Contra rebels in their fight against the leftist Sandinista government in Nicaragua. Democrats had passed a law that appropriated funds could not be used to help the Contras. Instead the administration used non-appropriated funds from the sales.[98] When news of affair broke to the media, Bush stated that he had been "out of the loop" and unaware of the diversion of funds.[128] Biographer Jon Meacham writes that "no evidence was ever produced proving Bush was aware of the diversion to the contras," but he criticizes Bush's "out of the loop" characterization, writing that the "record is clear that Bush was aware that the United States, in contravention of its own stated policy, was trading arms for hostages".[129] The Iran–Contra scandal, as it became known, did serious damage to the Reagan presidency, raising questions about Reagan's competency.[130] Congress established the Tower Commission to investigate the scandal, and, at Reagan's request, a panel of federal judges appointed Lawrence Walsh as a special prosecutor charged with investigating the Iran–Contra scandal.[131] The investigations continued after Reagan left office and, though Bush was never charged with a crime, the Iran–Contra scandal would remain a political liability for him.[132]

On July 3, 1988, the guided missile cruiser USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655, killing 290 passengers.[133] Bush, then-vice president, defended his country at the UN by arguing that the U.S. attack had been a wartime incident and the crew of Vincennes had acted appropriately to the situation.[134]

### 1988 presidential election[edit]

Main article: George H. W. Bush 1988 presidential campaign

Further information: 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries and 1988 United States presidential election

1988 campaign logo

John Ashcroft and Vice President Bush campaign in St. Louis, Missouri, 1988

Bush began planning for a presidential run after the 1984 election, and he officially entered the 1988 Republican Party presidential primaries in October 1987.[98] He put together a campaign led by Reagan staffer Lee Atwater, and which also included his son, George W. Bush, and media consultant Roger Ailes.[135] Though he had moved to the right during his time as vice president, endorsing a Human Life Amendment and repudiating his earlier comments on "voodoo economics," Bush still faced opposition from many conservatives in the Republican Party.[136] His major rivals for the Republican nomination were Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole of Kansas, Congressman Jack Kemp of New York, and Christian televangelist Pat Robertson.[137] Reagan did not publicly endorse any candidate, but he privately expressed support for Bush.[138]

Though considered the early front-runner for the nomination, Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus, behind Dole and Robertson.[139] Much as Reagan had done in 1980, Bush reorganized his staff and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary.[98] With help from Governor John H. Sununu and an effective campaign attacking Dole for raising taxes, Bush overcame an initial polling deficit and won New Hampshire with 39 percent of the vote.[140] After Bush won South Carolina and 16 of the 17 states holding a primary on Super Tuesday, his competitors dropped out of the race.[141]

Bush, occasionally criticized for his lack of eloquence when compared to Reagan, delivered a well-received speech at the Republican convention. Known as the "thousand points of light" speech, it described Bush's vision of America: he endorsed the Pledge of Allegiance, prayer in schools, capital punishment, and gun rights.[142] Bush also pledged that he would not raise taxes, stating: "Congress will push me to raise taxes, and I'll say no, and they'll push, and I'll say no, and they'll push again. And all I can say to them is: read my lips. No new taxes."[143] Bush selected little-known Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana as his running mate. Though Quayle had compiled an unremarkable record in Congress, he was popular among many conservatives, and the campaign hoped that Quayle's youth would appeal to younger voters.[144]

Bush won the 1988 presidential election with 53.4% of the popular vote and a large majority of the electoral vote

Meanwhile, the Democratic Party nominated Governor Michael Dukakis, who was known for presiding over an economic turnaround in Massachusetts.[145] Leading in the general election polls against Bush, Dukakis ran an ineffective, low-risk campaign.[146] The Bush campaign attacked Dukakis as an unpatriotic liberal extremist and seized on the Willie Horton case, in which a convicted felon from Massachusetts raped a woman while on a prison furlough, a program Dukakis supported as governor. The Bush campaign charged that Dukakis presided over a "revolving door" that allowed dangerous convicted felons to leave prison.[147] Dukakis damaged his own campaign with a widely mocked ride in an M1 Abrams tank and a poor performance at the second presidential debate.[148] Bush also attacked Dukakis for opposing a law that would require all students to recite the Pledge of Allegiance.[142] The election is widely considered to have had a high level of negative campaigning, though political scientist John Geer has argued that the share of negative ads was in line with previous presidential elections.[149]

Bush defeated Dukakis by a margin of 426 to 111 in the Electoral College, and he took 53.4 percent of the national popular vote.[150] Bush ran well in all the major regions of the country, but especially in the South.[151] He became the fourth sitting vice president to be elected president and the first to do so since Martin Van Buren in 1836 and the first person to succeed a president from his own party via election since Herbert Hoover in 1929.[98][g] In the concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of both houses of Congress.[153]

## Presidency (1989–1993)[edit]

Main article: Presidency of George H. W. Bush

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the George H. W. Bush presidency.

Chief Justice William Rehnquist administers the Presidential Oath of Office to George H. W. Bush

Bush was inaugurated on January 20, 1989, succeeding Ronald Reagan. In his inaugural address, Bush said:

> I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise. We live in a peaceful, prosperous time, but we can make it better. For a new breeze is blowing, and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn; for in man's heart, if not in fact, the day of the dictator is over. The totalitarian era is passing, its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient, lifeless tree. A new breeze is blowing, and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on. There is new ground to be broken, and new action to be taken.[154]

Bush's first major appointment was that of James Baker as Secretary of State.[155] Leadership of the Department of Defense went to Dick Cheney, who had previously served as Gerald Ford's chief of staff and would later serve as vice president under his son George W. Bush.[156] Jack Kemp joined the administration as Secretary of Housing and Urban Development, while Elizabeth Dole, the wife of Bob Dole and a former Secretary of Transportation, became the Secretary of Labor under Bush.[157] Bush retained several Reagan officials, including Secretary of the Treasury Nicholas F. Brady, Attorney General Dick Thornburgh, and Secretary of Education Lauro Cavazos.[158] New Hampshire Governor John Sununu, a strong supporter of Bush during the 1988 campaign, became chief of staff.[155] Brent Scowcroft was appointed as the National Security Advisor, a role he had also held under Ford.[159]

### Foreign affairs[edit]

Main article: Foreign policy of the George H. W. Bush administration

#### End of the Cold War[edit]

Further information: Revolutions of 1989 and Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Map showing the division of East and West Germany until 1990, with Berlin in yellow

During the first year of his tenure, Bush put a pause on Reagan's détente policy toward the USSR.[160] Bush and his advisers were initially divided on Gorbachev; some administration officials saw him as a democratic reformer, but others suspected him of trying to make the minimum changes necessary to restore the Soviet Union to a competitive position with the United States.[161] In 1989, all the Communist governments collapsed in Eastern Europe. Gorbachev declined to send in the Soviet military, effectively abandoning the Brezhnev Doctrine. The U.S. was not directly involved in these upheavals, but the Bush administration avoided gloating over the demise of the Eastern Bloc to avoid undermining further democratic reforms.[162]

Bush and Gorbachev met at the Malta Summit in December 1989. Though many on the right remained wary of Gorbachev, Bush came away with the belief that Gorbachev would negotiate in good faith.[163] For the remainder of his term, Bush sought cooperative relations with Gorbachev, believing that he was the key to peace.[164] The primary issue at the Malta Summit was the potential reunification of Germany. While Britain and France were wary of a re-unified Germany, Bush joined West German Chancellor Helmut Kohl in pushing for German reunification.[165] Bush believed that a reunified Germany would serve American interests.[166] After extensive negotiations, Gorbachev agreed to allow a reunified Germany to be a part of NATO, and Germany officially reunified in October 1990 after paying billions of marks to Moscow.[167]

Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev at the Helsinki Summit in 1990

Gorbachev used force to suppress nationalist movements within the Soviet Union itself.[168] A crisis in Lithuania left Bush in a difficult position, as he needed Gorbachev's cooperation in the reunification of Germany and feared that the collapse of the Soviet Union could leave nuclear arms in dangerous hands. The Bush administration mildly protested Gorbachev's suppression of Lithuania's independence movement, but took no action to directly intervene.[169] Bush warned independence movements of the disorder that could come with secession from the Soviet Union; in a 1991 address that critics labeled the "Chicken Kiev speech", he cautioned against "suicidal nationalism".[170] In July 1991, Bush and Gorbachev signed the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) treaty, in which both countries agreed to cut their strategic nuclear weapons by 30 percent.[171]

In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into fifteen independent republics, including Russia (labeled 11)

In August 1991, hard-line Communists launched a coup against Gorbachev; while the coup quickly fell apart, it broke the remaining power of Gorbachev and the central Soviet government.[172] Later that month, Gorbachev resigned as general secretary of the Communist party, and Russian president Boris Yeltsin ordered the seizure of Soviet property. Gorbachev clung to power as the President of the Soviet Union until December 1991, when the Soviet Union dissolved.[173] Fifteen states emerged from the Soviet Union, and of those states, Russia was the largest and most populous. Bush and Yeltsin met in February 1992, declaring a new era of "friendship and partnership".[174] In January 1993, Bush and Yeltsin agreed to START II, which provided for further nuclear arms reductions on top of the original START treaty.[175]

#### Invasion of Panama[edit]

Main article: United States invasion of Panama

Through the late 1980s, the U.S. provided aid to Manuel Noriega, the anti-Communist leader of Panama. Noriega had long standing ties to United States intelligence agencies, including during Bush's tenure as Director of Central Intelligence, and was also deeply involved in drug trafficking.[176] In May 1989, Noriega annulled the results of a democratic presidential election in which Guillermo Endara had been elected. Bush objected to the annulment of the election and worried about the status of the Panama Canal with Noriega still in office.[177] Bush dispatched 2,000 soldiers to the country, where they began conducting regular military exercises in violation of prior treaties.[178] After a U.S. serviceman was shot by Panamanian forces in December 1989, Bush ordered the United States invasion of Panama, known as "Operation Just Cause". The invasion was the first large-scale American military operation in more than 40 years that was not related to the Cold War. American forces quickly took control of the Panama Canal Zone and Panama City. Noriega surrendered on January 3, 1990, and was quickly transported to a prison in the United States. Twenty-three Americans died in the operation, while another 394 were wounded. Noriega was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992.[177] Historian Stewart Brewer argues that the invasion "represented a new era in American foreign policy" because Bush did not justify the invasion under the Monroe Doctrine or the threat of Communism, but rather on the grounds that it was in the best interests of the United States.[179]

#### Gulf War[edit]

Main article: Gulf War

Iraq (green) invaded Kuwait (orange) in 1990

Faced with massive debts and low oil prices in the aftermath of the Iran–Iraq War, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to conquer the country of Kuwait, a small, oil-rich country situated on Iraq's southern border.[180] After Iraq invaded Kuwait in August 1990, Bush imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and assembled a multi-national coalition opposed to the invasion.[181] The administration feared that a failure to respond to the invasion would embolden Hussein to attack Saudi Arabia or Israel, and wanted to discourage other countries from similar aggression.[182] Bush also wanted to ensure continued access to oil, as Iraq and Kuwait collectively accounted for 20 percent of the world's oil production, and Saudi Arabia produced another 26 percent of the world's oil supply.[183]

At Bush's insistence, in November 1990, the United Nations Security Council approved a resolution authorizing the use of force if Iraq did not withdraw from Kuwait by January 15, 1991.[184] Gorbachev's support, as well as China's abstention, helped ensure passage of the UN resolution.[185] Bush convinced Britain, France, and other nations to commit soldiers to an operation against Iraq, and he won important financial backing from Germany, Japan, South Korea, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.[186] In January 1991, Bush asked Congress to approve a joint resolution authorizing a war against Iraq.[187] Bush believed that the UN resolution had already provided him with the necessary authorization to launch a military operation against Iraq, but he wanted to show that the nation was united behind a military action.[188] Despite the opposition of a majority of Democrats in both the House and the Senate, Congress approved the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Iraq Resolution of 1991.[187]

Bush meets with Robert Gates, General Colin Powell, Secretary Dick Cheney and others about the situation in the Persian Gulf, 1991

After the January 15 deadline passed without an Iraqi withdrawal from Kuwait, U.S. and coalition forces conducted a bombing campaign that devastated Iraq's power grid and communications network, and resulted in the desertion of about 100,000 Iraqi soldiers. In retaliation, Iraq launched Scud missiles at Israel and Saudi Arabia, but most of the missiles did little damage. On February 23, coalition forces began a ground invasion into Kuwait, evicting Iraqi forces by the end of February 27. About 300 Americans, as well as approximately 65 soldiers from other coalition nations, died during the military action.[189] A cease fire was arranged on March 3, and the UN passed a resolution establishing a peacekeeping force in a demilitarized zone between Kuwait and Iraq.[190] A March 1991 Gallup poll showed that Bush had an approval rating of 89 percent, the highest presidential approval rating in the history of Gallup polling.[191] After 1991, the UN maintained economic sanctions against Iraq, and the United Nations Special Commission was assigned to ensure that Iraq did not revive its weapons of mass destruction program.[192]

#### NAFTA[edit]

Main article: North American Free Trade Agreement

From left to right: (standing) President Carlos Salinas, President Bush, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney; (seated) Jaime Serra Puche, Carla Hills, and Michael Wilson at the NAFTA Initialing Ceremony, October 1992

In 1987, the U.S. and Canada had reached a free trade agreement that eliminated many tariffs between the two countries. President Reagan had intended it as the first step towards a larger trade agreement to eliminate most tariffs among the United States, Canada, and Mexico.[193] The Bush administration, along with the Progressive Conservative Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney, spearheaded the negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Mexico. In addition to lowering tariffs, the proposed treaty would affect patents, copyrights, and trademarks.[194] In 1991, Bush sought fast track authority, which grants the president the power to submit an international trade agreement to Congress without the possibility of amendment. Despite congressional opposition led by House Majority Leader Dick Gephardt, both houses of Congress voted to grant Bush fast track authority. NAFTA was signed in December 1992, after Bush lost re-election,[195] but President Clinton won ratification of NAFTA in 1993.[196] NAFTA remains controversial for its impact on wages, jobs, and overall economic growth.[197]

### Domestic affairs[edit]

#### Economy and fiscal issues[edit]

The U.S. economy had generally performed well since emerging from recession in late 1982, but it slipped into a mild recession in 1990. The unemployment rate rose from 5.9 percent in 1989 to a high of 7.8 percent in mid-1991.[198][199] Large federal deficits, spawned during the Reagan years, rose from $152.1 billion in 1989[200] to $220 billion for 1990;[201] the $220 billion deficit represented a threefold increase since 1980.[202] As the public became increasingly concerned about the economy and other domestic affairs, Bush's well-received handling of foreign affairs became less of an issue for most voters.[203] Bush's top domestic priority was to bring an end to federal budget deficits, which he saw as a liability for the country's long-term economic health and standing in the world.[204] As he was opposed to major defense spending cuts[205] and had pledged to not raise taxes, the president had major difficulties in balancing the budget.[206]

Bush and congressional leaders agreed to avoid major changes to the budget for fiscal year 1990, which began in October 1989. However, both sides knew that spending cuts or new taxes would be necessary in the following year's budget in order to avoid the draconian automatic domestic spending cuts required by the Gramm–Rudman–Hollings Balanced Budget Act of 1987.[207] Bush and other leaders also wanted to cut deficits because Federal Reserve Chair Alan Greenspan refused to lower interest rates, and thus stimulate economic growth, unless the federal budget deficit was reduced.[208] In a statement released in late June 1990, Bush said that he would be open to a deficit reduction program which included spending cuts, incentives for economic growth, budget process reform, as well as tax increases.[209] To fiscal conservatives in the Republican Party, Bush's statement represented a betrayal, and they heavily criticized him for compromising so early in the negotiations.[210]

In September 1990, Bush and Congressional Democrats announced a compromise to cut funding for mandatory and discretionary programs while also raising revenue, partly through a higher gas tax. The compromise additionally included a "pay as you go" provision that required that new programs be paid for at the time of implementation.[211] House Minority Whip Newt Gingrich led the conservative opposition to the bill, strongly opposing any form of tax increase.[212] Some liberals also criticized the budget cuts in the compromise, and in October, the House rejected the deal, resulting in a brief government shutdown. Without the strong backing of the Republican Party, Bush agreed to another compromise bill, this one more favorable to Democrats. The Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990 (OBRA-90), enacted on October 27, 1990, dropped much of the gasoline tax increase in favor of higher income taxes on top earners. It included cuts to domestic spending, but the cuts were not as deep as those that had been proposed in the original compromise. Bush's decision to sign the bill damaged his standing with conservatives and the general public, but it also laid the groundwork for the budget surpluses of the late 1990s.[213]

#### Discrimination[edit]

> "Even the strongest person couldn't scale the Berlin Wall to gain the elusive promise of independence that lay just beyond. And so, together we rejoiced when that barrier fell. And now I sign legislation which takes a sledgehammer to another wall, one which has for too many generations separated Americans with disabilities from the freedom they could glimpse, but not grasp."

—Bush's remarks at the signing ceremony for the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990[214]

The disabled had not received legal protections under the landmark Civil Rights Act of 1964, and many faced discrimination and segregation by the time Bush took office. In 1988, Lowell P. Weicker Jr. and Tony Coelho had introduced the Americans with Disabilities Act, which barred employment discrimination against qualified individuals with disabilities. The bill had passed the Senate but not the House, and it was reintroduced in 1989. Though some conservatives opposed the bill due to its costs and potential burdens on businesses, Bush strongly supported it, partly because his son, Neil, had struggled with dyslexia. After the bill passed both houses of Congress, Bush signed the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 into law in July 1990.[215] The act required employers and public accommodations to make "reasonable accommodations" for the disabled, while providing an exception when such accommodations imposed an "undue hardship".[216]

Senator Ted Kennedy later led the congressional passage of a separate civil rights bill designed to facilitate launching employment discrimination lawsuits.[217] In vetoing the bill, Bush argued that it would lead to racial quotas in hiring.[218][219] In November 1991, Bush signed the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which was largely similar to the bill he had vetoed in the previous year.[217]

In August 1990, Bush signed the Ryan White CARE Act, the largest federally funded program dedicated to assisting persons living with HIV/AIDS.[220] Throughout his presidency, the AIDS epidemic grew dramatically in the U.S. and around the world, and Bush often found himself at odds with AIDS activist groups who criticized him for not placing a high priority on HIV/AIDS research and funding. Frustrated by the administration's lack of urgency on the issue, ACT UP, dumped the ashes of HIV/AIDS victims on the White House lawn during a viewing of the AIDS Quilt in 1992.[221] By that time, HIV had become the leading cause of death in the U.S. for men aged 25–44.[222]

#### Environment[edit]

In June 1989, the Bush administration proposed a bill to amend the Clean Air Act. Working with Senate Majority Leader George J. Mitchell, the administration won passage of the amendments over the opposition of business-aligned members of Congress who feared the impact of tougher regulations.[223] The legislation sought to curb acid rain and smog by requiring decreased emissions of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide,[224] and was the first major update to the Clean Air Act since 1977.[225] Bush also signed the Oil Pollution Act of 1990 in response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill. However, the League of Conservation Voters criticized some of Bush's other environmental actions, including his opposition to stricter auto-mileage standards.[226]

#### Points of Light[edit]

Main article: Points of Light

President Bush devoted attention to voluntary service as a means of solving some of America's most serious social problems. He often used the "thousand points of light" theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems. In his 1989 inaugural address, President Bush said, "I have spoken of a thousand points of light, of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation, doing good."[227] During his presidency, Bush honored numerous volunteers with the Daily Point of Light Award, a tradition that was continued by his presidential successors.[228] In 1990, the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism.[229] In 2007, the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network to create a new organization, Points of Light.[230]

#### Judicial appointments[edit]

Further information: George H. W. Bush Supreme Court candidates, George H. W. Bush judicial appointments, and George H. W. Bush judicial appointment controversies

Bush appointed Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court in 1991

Bush appointed two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1990, Bush appointed a largely unknown state appellate judge, David Souter, to replace liberal icon William Brennan.[231] Souter was easily confirmed and served until 2009, but joined the liberal bloc of the court, disappointing Bush.[231] In 1991, Bush nominated conservative federal judge Clarence Thomas to succeed Thurgood Marshall, a long-time liberal stalwart. Thomas, the former head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), faced heavy opposition in the Senate, as well as from pro-choice groups and the NAACP. His nomination faced another difficulty when Anita Hill accused Thomas of having sexually harassed her during his time as the chair of EEOC. Thomas won confirmation in a narrow 52–48 vote; 43 Republicans and 9 Democrats voted to confirm Thomas's nomination, while 46 Democrats and 2 Republicans voted against confirmation.[232] Thomas became one of the most conservative justices of his era.[233]

#### Other issues[edit]

Bush's education platform consisted mainly of offering federal support for a variety of innovations, such as open enrollment, incentive pay for outstanding teachers, and rewards for schools that improve performance with underprivileged children.[234] Though Bush did not pass a major educational reform package during his presidency, his ideas influenced later reform efforts, including Goals 2000 and the No Child Left Behind Act.[235] Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990,[236] which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States.[237] The act more than doubled the number of visas given to immigrants on the basis of job skills.[238] In the wake of the savings and loan crisis, Bush proposed a $50 billion package to rescue the savings and loans industry, and also proposed the creation of the Office of Thrift Supervision to regulate the industry. Congress passed the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery, and Enforcement Act of 1989, which incorporated most of Bush's proposals.[239]

### Public image[edit]

Bush's approval ratings (red) compared to his disapproval ratings (blue) during his presidency

Bush was widely seen as a "pragmatic caretaker" president who lacked a unified and compelling long-term theme in his efforts.[240][241][242] Indeed, Bush's sound bite where he refers to the issue of overarching purpose as "the vision thing" has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties.[243][244][245][246][247][248] His ability to gain broad international support for the Gulf War and the war's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph,[249] rousing bipartisan approval,[250] though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings, and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy.[251] A New York Times article mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket barcode reader;[252][253] the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was "out of touch".[252] Amid the early 1990s recession, his image shifted from "conquering hero" to "politician befuddled by economic matters".[254]

At the elite level, a number of commentators and political experts deplored the state of American politics in 1991–1992, and reported the voters were angry. Many analysts blamed the poor quality of national election campaigns.[255]

### 1992 presidential campaign[edit]

Main article: George H. W. Bush 1992 presidential campaign

Further information: 1992 United States presidential election

Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings, Bush's reelection initially looked likely.[256] As a result, many leading Democrats, including Mario Cuomo, Dick Gephardt, and Al Gore, declined to seek their party's presidential nomination.[257] However, Bush's tax increase had angered many conservatives, who believed that Bush had strayed from the conservative principles of Ronald Reagan.[258] He faced a challenge from conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan in the 1992 Republican primaries.[259] Bush fended off Buchanan's challenge and won his party's nomination at the 1992 Republican National Convention, but the convention adopted a socially conservative platform strongly influenced by the Christian right.[260]

Bush was defeated in the 1992 presidential election by Bill Clinton

Meanwhile, the Democrats nominated Governor Bill Clinton of Arkansas. A moderate who was affiliated with the Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), Clinton favored welfare reform, deficit reduction, and a tax cut for the middle class.[261] In early 1992, the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third party bid, claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient. His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties' perceived fiscal irresponsibility.[262] Perot also attacked NAFTA, which he claimed would lead to major job losses.[263] National polling taken in mid-1992 showed Perot in the lead, but Clinton experienced a surge through effective campaigning and the selection of Senator Al Gore, a popular and relatively young Southerner, as his running mate.[264]

Clinton won the election, taking 43 percent of the popular vote and 370 electoral votes, while Bush won 37.5 percent of the popular vote and 168 electoral votes.[265] Perot won 19% of the popular vote, one of the highest totals for a third-party candidate in U.S. history, drawing equally from both major candidates, according to exit polls.[266] Clinton performed well in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the West Coast, while also waging the strongest Democratic campaign in the South since the 1976 election.[267] Several factors were important in Bush's defeat. The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush's loss, as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either "not so good" or "poor".[268][269] On the eve of the 1992 election, the unemployment rate stood at 7.8%, which was the highest it had been since 1984.[270] The president was also damaged by his alienation of many conservatives in his party.[271] Bush blamed Perot in part for his defeat, though exit polls showed that Perot drew his voters about equally from Clinton and Bush.[272]

Despite his defeat, Bush left office with a 56 percent job approval rating in January 1993.[273] Like many of his predecessors, Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office. In December 1992, he granted executive clemency to six former senior government officials implicated in the Iran-Contra scandal, most prominently former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger.[274] The charges against the six were that they lied to or withheld information from Congress. The pardons effectively brought an end to the Iran-Contra scandal.[275]

According to Seymour Martin Lipset, the 1992 election had several unique characteristics. Voters felt that economic conditions were worse than they actually were, which harmed Bush. A rare event was the presence of a strong third-party candidate. Liberals launched a backlash against 12 years of a conservative White House. The chief factor was Clinton uniting his party, and winning over a number of heterogeneous groups.[276]

## Post-presidency (1993–2018)[edit]

Main article: Post-presidency of George H. W. Bush

### Appearances[edit]

President Bill Clinton meeting with former presidents George H. W. Bush and Jimmy Carter at the White House in September 1993

After leaving office, Bush and his wife built a retirement house in the community of West Oaks, Houston.[277] He established a presidential office within the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive in Houston.[278] He also frequently spent time at his vacation home in Kennebunkport, took annual cruises in Greece, went on fishing trips in Florida, and visited the Bohemian Club in Northern California. He declined to serve on corporate boards, but delivered numerous paid speeches and served as an adviser to The Carlyle Group, a private equity firm.[279] He never published his memoirs, but he and Brent Scowcroft co-wrote A World Transformed, a 1998 work on foreign policy. Portions of his letters and his diary were later published as The China Diary of George H. W. Bush and All the Best, George Bush.[280]

During a 1993 visit to Kuwait, Bush was targeted in an assassination plot directed by the Iraqi Intelligence Service. President Clinton retaliated when he ordered the firing of 23 cruise missiles at Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad.[281] Bush did not publicly comment on the assassination attempt or the missile strike, but privately spoke with Clinton shortly before the strike took place.[282] In the 1994 gubernatorial elections, his sons George W. and Jeb concurrently ran for Governor of Texas and Governor of Florida. Concerning their political careers, he advised them both that "[a]t some point both of you may want to say 'Well, I don't agree with my Dad on that point' or 'Frankly I think Dad was wrong on that.' Do it. Chart your own course, not just on the issues but on defining yourselves".[283] George W. won his race against Ann Richards while Jeb lost to Lawton Chiles. After the results came in, the elder Bush told ABC, "I have very mixed emotions. Proud father, is the way I would sum it all up."[284] Jeb would again run for governor of Florida in 1998 and win at the same time that his brother George W. won re-election in Texas. It marked the second time in United States history that a pair of brothers served simultaneously as governors.[285]

George and Barbara Bush, 2001

Bush supported his son's candidacy in the 2000 presidential election, but did not actively campaign in the election and did not deliver a speech at the 2000 Republican National Convention.[286] George W. Bush defeated Al Gore in the 2000 election and was re-elected in 2004. Bush and his son thus became the second father–son pair to each serve as President of the United States, following John Adams and John Quincy Adams.[287] Through previous administrations, the elder Bush had ubiquitously been known as "George Bush" or "President Bush", but following his son's election the need to distinguish between them has made retronymic forms such as "George H. W. Bush" and "George Bush Sr." and colloquialisms such as "Bush 41" and "Bush the Elder" more common.[288] Bush advised his son on some personnel choices, approving of the selection of Dick Cheney as running mate and the retention of George Tenet as CIA Director. However, he was not consulted on all appointments, including that of his old rival, Donald Rumsfeld, as Secretary of Defense.[289] Though he avoided giving unsolicited advice to his son, Bush and his son also discussed some matters of policy, especially regarding national security issues.[290]

In his retirement, Bush used the public spotlight to support various charities.[291] Despite earlier political differences with Bill Clinton, the two former presidents eventually became friends.[292] They appeared together in television ads, encouraging aid for victims of Hurricane Katrina and the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami.[293] However, when interviewed by Jon Meacham, Bush criticized Donald Rumsfeld, Dick Cheney, and even his own son George W. Bush for their handling of foreign policy after the September 11 attacks.[294]

### Final years[edit]

From left to right: George H. W. Bush, Barack Obama, George W. Bush, Bill Clinton, and Jimmy Carter

Bush supported Republican John McCain in the 2008 presidential election,[295] and Republican Mitt Romney in the 2012 presidential election,[296] but both were defeated by Democrat Barack Obama. In 2011, Obama awarded Bush with the Presidential Medal of Freedom, the highest civilian honor in the United States.[297]

Bush supported his son Jeb's bid in the 2016 Republican primaries.[298] Jeb Bush's campaign struggled however, and he withdrew from the race during the primaries. Neither George H. W. nor George W. Bush endorsed the eventual Republican nominee, Donald Trump;[299] all three Bushes emerged as frequent critics of Trump's policies and speaking style, while Trump frequently criticized George W. Bush's presidency. George H. W. Bush later said that he voted for the Democratic nominee, Hillary Clinton, in the general election.[300] After the election, Bush wrote a letter to president-elect Donald Trump in January 2017 to inform him that because of his poor health, he would not be able to attend Trump's inauguration on January 20; he gave him his best wishes.[301]

In August 2017, after the violence at Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, both Presidents Bush released a joint statement saying, "America must always reject racial bigotry, anti-Semitism, and hatred in all forms[. ...] As we pray for Charlottesville, we are all reminded of the fundamental truths recorded by that city's most prominent citizen in the Declaration of Independence: we are all created equal and endowed by our Creator with unalienable rights."[302][303]

On April 17, 2018, Barbara Bush died at the age of 92[304] at her home in Houston, Texas. Her funeral was held at St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston four days later.[305][306] Bush, along with former Presidents Barack Obama, George W. Bush (son), Bill Clinton and First Ladies Melania Trump, Michelle Obama, Laura Bush (daughter-in-law) and Hillary Clinton attended the funeral and posed together for a photo as a sign of unity.[307][308]

On November 1, 2018, Bush went to the polls to vote early in the midterm elections. This would be his final public appearance.[309]

### Death and funeral[edit]

Main article: Death and state funeral of George H. W. Bush

Members of the public pay their respects at the casket of George H. W. Bush lying in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C.

After a long battle with vascular Parkinson's disease, Bush died at his home in Houston on November 30, 2018, at the age of 94.[310][311] At the time of his death he was the longest-lived U.S. president,[312] a distinction now held by Jimmy Carter.[313] He was also the third-oldest vice president.[h] Bush lay in state in the Rotunda of the U.S. Capitol from December 3 through December 5; he was the 12th U.S. president to be accorded this honor.[315][316] Then, on December 5, Bush's casket was transferred from the Capitol rotunda to Washington National Cathedral where a state funeral was held.[317] After the funeral, Bush's body was transported to George H.W. Bush Presidential Library in College Station, Texas, where he was buried next to his wife Barbara and daughter Robin.[318] At the funeral, former president George W. Bush eulogized his father saying, "He looked for the good in each person, and he usually found it."[317]

## Personal life[edit]

In 1991, The New York Times revealed that Bush was suffering from Graves' disease, a non-contagious thyroid condition that his wife Barbara also suffered from.[319] Bush had two separate hip replacement surgeries in 2000 and 2007.[320] Thereafter, Bush started to experience weakness in his legs, which was attributed vascular parkinsonism, a form of Parkinson's disease. He progressively developed problems walking, initially needing a walking stick for mobility aid before he eventually came to rely on a wheelchair from 2011 onwards.[321]

Bush was a lifelong Episcopalian and a member of St. Martin's Episcopal Church in Houston. As President, Bush regularly attended services at St. John's Episcopal Church in Washington D.C.[322] He cited various moments in his life on the deepening of his faith, including his escape from Japanese forces in 1944, and the death of his three-year-old daughter Robin in 1953.[323] His faith was reflected in his "thousand points of light" speech, his support for prayer in schools, and his support for the pro-life movement (following his election as vice president).[324][323]

## Legacy[edit]

### Historical reputation[edit]

Bush visits NAS JRB during Hurricane Katrina relief efforts, 2005

Polls of historians and political scientists have ranked Bush in the top half of presidents. A 2018 poll of the American Political Science Association's Presidents and Executive Politics section ranked Bush as the 17th best president out of 44.[325] A 2017 C-SPAN poll of historians also ranked Bush as the 20th best president out of 43.[326] Richard Rose described Bush as a "guardian" president, and many other historians and political scientists have similarly described Bush as a passive, hands-off president who was "largely content with things as they were".[327] Professor Steven Knott writes that "[g]enerally the Bush presidency is viewed as successful in foreign affairs but a disappointment in domestic affairs."[328]

Biographer Jon Meacham writes that, after he left office, many Americans viewed Bush as "a gracious and underappreciated man who had many virtues but who had failed to project enough of a distinctive identity and vision to overcome the economic challenges of 1991–92 and to win a second term."[329] Bush himself noted that his legacy was "lost between the glory of Reagan ... and the trials and tribulations of my sons."[330] In the 2010s, Bush was fondly remembered for his willingness to compromise, which contrasted with the intensely partisan era that followed his presidency.[331]

In 2018, Vox highlighted Bush for his "pragmatism" as a moderate Republican president by working across the aisle.[332] They specifically noted Bush's accomplishments within the domestic policy by making bipartisan deals, including raising the tax budget among the wealthy with the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1990. Bush also helped pass the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 which The New York Times described as "the most sweeping anti-discrimination law since the Civil Rights Act of 1964.[333] In response to the Exxon Valdez oil spill, Bush built another bipartisan coalition to strengthen the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.[334][335] Bush also championed and signed into a law the Immigration Act of 1990, a sweeping bipartisan immigration reform act that made it easier for immigrants to legally enter the county, while also granting immigrants fleeing violence the temporary protected status visa, as well as lifted the pre-naturalization English testing process, and finally "eliminated the exclusion of homosexuals under what Congress now deemed the medically unsound classification of "sexual deviant" that was included in the 1965 act."[336][337] Bush stated, "Immigration is not just a link to our past but its also a bridge to America's future".[338]

According to USA Today, the legacy of Bush's presidency was defined by his victory over Iraq after the invasion of Kuwait, and by his presiding over the dissolution of the Soviet Union and German reunification.[339] Michael Beschloss and Strobe Talbott praise Bush's handling of the USSR, especially how he prodded Gorbachev in terms of releasing control over the satellite states and permitting German unification—and especially a united Germany in NATO.[340] Andrew Bacevich judges the Bush administration as "morally obtuse" in the light of its "business-as-usual" attitude towards China after the massacre in Tiananmen Square and its uncritical support of Gorbachev as the Soviet Union disintegrated.[341] David Rothkopf argues:

In the recent history of U.S. foreign policy, there has been no president, nor any president's team, who, when confronted with profound international change and challenges, responded with such a thoughtful and well-managed foreign policy....[the Bush administration was] a bridge over one of the great fault lines of history [that] ushered in a 'new world order' it described with great skill and professionalism."[342]

### Memorials, awards, and honors[edit]

Main article: List of awards and honors received by George H. W. Bush

The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas, 2011

In 1990, Time magazine named him the Man of the Year.[343] In 1997, the Houston Intercontinental Airport was renamed as the George Bush Intercontinental Airport.[344] In 1999, the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, was named the George Bush Center for Intelligence in his honor.[345] In 2011, Bush, an avid golfer, was inducted in the World Golf Hall of Fame.[346] The USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77), the tenth and last  Nimitz-class supercarrier of the United States Navy, was named for Bush.[347][348] Bush is commemorated on a postage stamp that was issued by the United States Postal Service in 2019.[349]

The George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum, the tenth U.S. presidential library, was completed in 1997.[350] It contains the presidential and vice presidential papers of Bush and the vice presidential papers of Dan Quayle.[351] The library is located on a 90-acre (36 ha) site on the west campus of Texas A&M University in College Station, Texas.[352] Texas A&M University also hosts the Bush School of Government and Public Service, a graduate public policy school.[352]

## See also[edit]

* Electoral history of George H. W. Bush
* List of presidents of the United States

## Notes[edit]

1. ^ Since around 2000, he was usually called George H. W. Bush, Bush Senior, Bush 41 or Bush the Elder to distinguish him from his eldest son, George W. Bush, who served as the 43rd president from 2001 to 2009; previously he was usually referred to simply as George Bush.
2. ^ Bush later purchased the estate, which is now known as the Bush compound.[10]
3. ^ For decades, Bush was considered the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy during his period of service,[17] but such claims are now regarded as speculation.[18] His official Navy biography called him "the youngest" in 2001,[19] but by 2018 the Navy biography described him as "one of the youngest".[20]
4. ^ Bush's fellow crew members for the mission were William G. White and John Delaney. According to the accounts of an American pilot and a Japanese individual, another parachute from Bush's aircraft opened, but the bodies of White and Delaney were never recovered.[24]
5. ^ At the time of his wife's death on April 17, 2018, George H. W. had been married to Barbara for 73 years, the longest presidential marriage in American history at that point.[35] The length of their marriage was surpassed in 2019 by the marriage of Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter.[36]
6. ^ Biographer Jon Meacham writes that it was widely assumed at the time that Donald Rumsfeld had engineered Bush's appointment as CIA Director since the post was regarded as a "political graveyard". Meacham writes that it is more likely that the key factor in Bush's appointment was that Ford believed Bush would work better with Secretary of State Henry Kissinger than would Elliot Richardson, his original pick for the CIA post.[85]
7. ^ The 1988 presidential election remains the only presidential election since 1948 in which either party won a third consecutive term.[152]
8. ^ The longest-lived U.S. vice president is John Nance Garner, who died on November 7, 1967, 15 days short of his 99th birthday.[314]

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* "In Memoriam: George Herbert Walker Bush (1924–2018): Veteran, Statesman, Diplomat". Department of State, The National Museum of American Diplomacy. December 20, 2018.
* "George H.W. Bush: Diplomats Remember". American Foreign Service Association.
* "President George H.W. Bush: Foreign Policy". Study.com.
* Pamela Falk (December 3, 2018). "George H.W. Bush stood out as tough negotiator on the world stage". CBS News.
* "George H.W. Bush Professorship of International Relations". Johns Hopkins University, Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies.

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305. ^ Kamath, Tulsi (April 17, 2018). "Bush family releases details on Barbara Bush's funeral, public visitation". Houston Chronicle. Retrieved April 18, 2018.
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347. ^ "Future USS George H. W. Bush to Transit". Naval Sea Systems Command Public Affairs. December 18, 2008. Retrieved December 22, 2008.
348. ^ Jones, Matthew (January 10, 2009). "Carrier awaits a call to come to life in ceremony today". The Virginian Pilot. Landmark Communications. Archived from the original on February 4, 2009. Retrieved January 10, 2009.
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350. ^ "National Archives Accepts Bush Library as Tenth Presidential Library" (Press release). National Archives and Records Administration. November 6, 1997. Retrieved November 30, 2018.
351. ^ "The Birth of the Tenth Presidential Library: The Bush Presidential Materials Project, 1993–1994". George H.W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on April 10, 2007. Retrieved March 22, 2007.
352. ^ a b Heathman, Claire (July 3, 2013). "How Texas A&M became home to the George Bush Presidential Library and Museum". The Bryan-College Station Eagle. Retrieved November 30, 2018.

### Works cited[edit]

* Greene, John Robert (2015). The Presidency of George Bush (2nd ed.). University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-2079-1.
* Herring, George C. (2008). From Colony to Superpower; U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507822-0.
* Leuchtenberg, William E. (2015). The American President: From Teddy Roosevelt to Bill Clinton. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195176162.
* Meacham, Jon (2015). Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush. Random House. ISBN 978-1-4000-6765-7.
* Naftali, Timothy (2007). George H. W. Bush. Times Books. ISBN 978-0-8050-6966-2.
* Patterson, James (2005). Restless Giant: The United States from Watergate to Bush v. Gore. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0195122169.
* Rossinow, Douglas C. (2015). The Reagan Era: A History of the 1980s. Columbia University Press. ISBN 9780231538657.
* Waterman, Richard W. (1996). "Storm Clouds on the Political Horizon: George Bush at the Dawn of the 1992 Presidential Election". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 26 (2): 337–349. JSTOR 27551581.
* Wilentz, Sean (2008). The Age of Reagan. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-074480-9.

## Further reading[edit]

### Secondary sources[edit]

* Andrew, Christopher (1996). For the President's Eyes Only: Secret Intelligence and the American Presidency from Washington to Bush. Harper Perennial. pp. 503–536. ISBN 978-0-06-092178-1.
* Barilleaux, Ryan J.; Stuckey, Mary E. (1992). Leadership and the Bush Presidency: Prudence or Drift in an Era of Change. New York: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-94418-6.
* Becker, Jean (2021). The Man I Knew: The Amazing Story of George H. W. Bush's Post-Presidency. Twelve. ISBN 978-1-53-873530-5.
* Brands, H. W. (2004). "George Bush and the Gulf War of 1991". Presidential Studies Quarterly. 34 (1): 113–131. doi:10.1111/j.1741-5705.2004.00038.x. JSTOR 27552567.
* Cox, Michael, and Steven Hurst. "'His finest hour?'George Bush and the diplomacy of German unification." Diplomacy and statecraft 13.4 (2002): 123–150.
* Cull, Nicholas J. "Speeding the Strange Death of American Public Diplomacy: The George H. W. Bush Administration and the US Information Agency." Diplomatic History 34.1 (2010): 47–69.
* Ducat, Stephen J. (2004). The Wimp Factor: Gender Gaps, Holy Wars, and the Politics of Anxious Masculinity. Boston: Beacon Press. ISBN 978-0-8070-4344-8.
* Duffy, Michael; Goodgame, Dan (1992). Marching in Place: The Status Quo Presidency of George Bush. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-73720-7.
* Engel, Jeffrey A. "A Better World...but Don't Get Carried Away: The Foreign Policy of George H. W. Bush Twenty Years On." Diplomatic History 34.1 (2010): 25–46.
* Engel, Jeffrey A. When the World Seemed New: George H. W. Bush and the End of the Cold War (2018) excerpt
* Fitzwater, Marlin (1995). Call the Briefing. New York: Times Books. ISBN 978-0-7388-3458-0.
* Hyams, Joe (1991). Flight of the Avenger: George Bush at War. San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic. ISBN 978-0-15-131469-0.
* Kelley, Kitty (2004). The Family: The True Story of the Bush Dynasty. London: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-50324-2.
* Maynard, Christopher. Out of the shadow: George H. W. Bush and the end of the Cold War (Texas A&M University Press, 2008).
* Meacham, Jon (2015). Destiny and Power: The American Odyssey of George Herbert Walker Bush. Random House. ISBN 978-1-40-006765-7.
* Podhoretz, John (1993). Hell of a Ride: Backstage at the White House Follies, 1989–1993. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-79648-8.
* Saunders, Harold (July 2014). "What Really Happened in Bangladesh: Washington, Islamabad, and the Genocide in East Pakistan". Foreign Affairs. 93 (3): 36–42.
* Smith, Curt (2014). George H. W. Bush: Character at the Core. Potomac Books. ISBN 978-1-61-234685-4.
* Smith, Jean Edward (1992). George Bush's War. New York: Henry Holt & Company. ISBN 978-0-8050-1388-7.
* Sununu, John H. (2015). The Quiet Man: The Indispensable Presidency of George H. W. Bush. Broadside Books. ISBN 978-0-06-238428-7.
* Troy, Gil. "Stumping in the bookstores: A literary history of the 1992 presidential campaign." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1995): 697–710. online
* Updegrove, Mark K. (2017). The Last Republicans: Inside the Extraordinary Relationship between George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush. Harper. ISBN 978-0-06-265412-0.
* Wicker, Tom (2004). George Herbert Walker Bush. Lipper/Viking. ISBN 978-0-670-03303-4.
* McBride, Tim (June 12, 2009). "The President Who Treated Me Like a Son". The Daily Beast. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
* American Experience, The Presidents: George H.W. Bush (Television production). American Experience, Public Broadcasting Service. 2008. Retrieved October 8, 2014.

### Primary sources[edit]

* Bush, George H. W. (1987). Looking Forward: An Autobiography. New York: Doubleday. ISBN 978-0-385-14181-9.
* Bush, George H. W.; Scowcroft, Brent (1998). A World Transformed. New York: Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-43248-7.
* Bush, George H. W. (1999). All the Best, George Bush: My Life in Letters and Other Writings. New York: Scribner. ISBN 978-0-684-83958-5.
* Bush, George H. W.; Bush, Barbara (2009). "Interview with: George W. Bush, Barbara Bush" (Interview). Interviewed by McGrath, Jim. Archived from the original on November 14, 2013. Retrieved October 8, 2014.
* Bush, George W. (2014). 41: A Portrait of My Father. Crown. ISBN 978-0-553-44778-1.
* Bush Koch, Dorothy (2006). My Father, My President: A Personal Account of the Life of George H. W. Bush. Grand Central Publishing. ISBN 978-0-446-57990-2.
* Bush, George H. W. (2011). Engel, Jeffrey A. (ed.). The China Diary of George H. W. Bush: The Making of a Global President. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-1-4008-2961-3.

## External links[edit]

George H. W. Bush at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* News from Wikinews
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource

* George H.W. Bush Presidential Library Center
* White House biography
* Full audio of a number of Bush speeches Miller Center of Public Affairs
* George H. W. Bush collected news and commentary at The New York Times
*   * United States Congress. "George H. W. Bush (id: B001166)". Biographical Directory of the United States Congress.
* 1992 election episode in CNN's Race for the White House
*   * Extensive essays on Bush and shorter essays on each member of his cabinet and First Lady from the Miller Center of Public Affairs
* Appearances on C-SPAN
* "Life Portrait of George H. W. Bush", from C-SPAN's American Presidents: Life Portraits, December 13, 1999
* George H. W. Bush Archived January 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine an American Experience documentary
* Works by George H. W. Bush at Project Gutenberg
* George H. W. Bush at Find a Grave

* v
* t
* e

George H. W. Bush

* 41st President of the United States (1989–1993)
* 43rd Vice President of the United States (1981–1989)
* Director of Central Intelligence (1976–1977)
* UN Ambassador (1971–1973)
* U.S. Representative for TX–7 (1967–1971)

Presidency|

* Transition
* Inauguration
* Timeline
* 1989
* 1990
* 1991
* 1992
* January 1993
* Environmental policy
* Soviet Union summits
* Malta
* Helsinki
* Invasion of Panama
* Chemical Weapons Accord
* Gulf War
* 1991 Madrid Conference
* National Space Council
* New world order
* Somali Civil War
* Unified Task Force
* Negotiations for the North American Free Trade Agreement
* Cannabis policy
* Vomiting incident
* Broccoli comments
* White House horseshoe pit
* Presidential pardons
* International trips
* Oval Office desk
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Thomas
* Supreme Court candidates
* controversies
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations

Life|

* Presidential Library
* Bush School of Government and Public Service
* Walker's Point Estate
* Post-presidency
* Death and state funeral

Speeches|

* State of the Union addresses
* 1990
* 1991
* 1992
* Chicken Kiev

Elections|

| U.S. Senate|

* 1964
* 1970

|

U.S. House|

* 1966
* 1968

Vice Presidential|

* 1980 campaign
* selection
* convention
* election
* transition
* 1984 campaign
* convention
* election

Presidential|

* 1980 campaign
* primaries
* 1988 campaign
* primaries
* running mate selection
* convention
* "a thousand points of light"
* "Read my lips: no new taxes"
* debates
* election
* 1992 campaign
* primaries
* convention
* debates
* election

Public image|

* Saturday Night Live parodies
* The X-Presidents
* Presidential Reunion (2010 short film)
* The Naked Gun 2½: The Smell of Fear (1991)
* What It Takes: The Way to the White House (1993)
* The Silence of the Hams (1994)
* George Bush: The Life of a Lone Star Yankee (1997)
* The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty (2004)
* George H.W. Bush (2008)
* Bad for Democracy (2008)
* Family of Secrets (2009)
* 41: A Portrait of My Father (2014 book)
* Destiny and Power (2015 book)

Books|

* A World Transformed (1998)
* All the Best (1999)

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* Presidential Library
* Medal of Freedom
* Bush School of Government
* Reagan Award
* George Bush Intercontinental Airport
* USS George H.W. Bush (CVN-77)

Family|

* Barbara Bush (wife)
* George W. Bush (son
* presidency)
* Pauline Robinson Bush (daughter)
* Jeb Bush (son)
* Neil Bush (son)
* Marvin Bush (son)
* Dorothy Bush Koch (daughter)
* Barbara Bush Coyne (granddaughter)
* Jenna Bush Hager (granddaughter)
* George P. Bush (grandson)
* Lauren Bush (granddaughter)
* Pierce Bush (grandson)
* Prescott Bush (father)
* Dorothy Walker Bush (mother)
* Nancy Walker Bush Ellis (sister)
* Jonathan Bush (brother)
* William H. T. Bush (brother)
* Samuel P. Bush (grandfather)
* George Herbert Walker (grandfather)
* James Smith Bush (great-grandfather)
* Obadiah Bush (great-great-grandfather)
* Millie (family dog)
* Sully (service dog)

* ← Ronald Reagan
* Bill Clinton →

* ← Walter Mondale
* Dan Quayle →

* Category

Offices and distinctions

| Party political offices

Preceded by

Roy Whittenburg

|  Republican nominee for U.S. Senator from Texas
(Class 1)
1964, 1970 | Succeeded by

Alan Steelman

Preceded by

Everett Dirksen
Gerald Ford

|  Response to the State of the Union address
1968
Served alongside: Howard Baker, Peter Dominick, Gerald Ford, Robert Griffin, Thomas Kuchel, Mel Laird, Bob Mathias, George Murphy, Dick Poff, Chuck Percy, Al Quie, Charlotte Reid, Hugh Scott, Bill Steiger, John Tower | Vacant

Title next held by

Donald Fraser, Scoop Jackson, Mike Mansfield, John McCormack, Patsy Mink, Ed Muskie, Bill Proxmire
Preceded by

Bob Dole

|  Chair of the Republican National Committee
1973–1974  | Succeeded by

Mary Louise Smith

Republican nominee for Vice President of the United States
1980, 1984 | Succeeded by

Dan Quayle

Preceded by

Ronald Reagan

|  Republican nominee for President of the United States
1988, 1992 | Succeeded by

Bob Dole

U.S. House of Representatives
Preceded by

John Dowdy

|  Member of the U.S. House of Representatives
from Texas's 7th congressional district
1967–1971  | Succeeded by

William Reynolds Archer Jr

Diplomatic posts
Preceded by

Charles Yost

|  United States Ambassador to the United Nations
1971–1973  | Succeeded by

John Scali

Preceded by

Colin Crowe

|  President of the United Nations Security Council
May 1972  | Succeeded by

Lazar Mojsov

Government offices
Preceded by

William Colby

|  Director of Central Intelligence
1976–1977  | Succeeded by

Stansfield Turner

Political offices
Preceded by

Walter Mondale

|  Vice President of the United States
1981–1989  | Succeeded by

Dan Quayle

Preceded by

Ronald Reagan

|  President of the United States
1989–1993  | Succeeded by

Bill Clinton

Awards and achievements
Preceded by

Rudy Giuliani

|  Recipient of the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award
2007  | Succeeded by

Natan Sharansky

Articles related to George H. W. Bush

* v
* t
* e

Bush family

* Bush–Davis–Walker family political line
* Bush family
* Bush (surname)

Prescott Bush ancestors|

* Samuel Prescott Bush (1863–1948)
* James Smith Bush (1825–1889)
* Obadiah Newcomb Bush (1797–1851)

Samuel P. Bush and Flora Sheldon|

* Prescott Sheldon Bush

Prescott Bush (1895–1972) and
Dorothy Wear Walker (1901–1992)|

* George Herbert Walker Bush (m.) Barbara Pierce
* Nancy Walker Bush Ellis
* Jonathan James Bush
* William Henry Trotter Bush

George H. W. Bush (1924–2018)
Nancy Walker Bush Ellis (1926–2021)
Jonathan Bush (1931–2021)|

* George Walker Bush (m.) Laura Lane Welch
* Pauline Robinson Bush
* John Ellis Bush (m.) Columba Bush
* Neil Mallon Bush
* Marvin Pierce Bush
* Dorothy Walker Bush (m.) Robert P. Koch

* John Prescott Ellis
* Alexander Ellis III
* Josiah Wear Ellis

* Billy Bush
* Jonathan S. Bush

George W. Bush (b. 1946)
Jeb Bush (b. 1953)
Neil Bush (b. 1955)|

* Barbara Pierce Bush
* Jenna Welch Bush

* George Prescott Bush

* Lauren Bush (m.) David Lauren

* Walker's Point Estate
* Buckeye Steel Castings
* G. H. Walker & Co.
* The Family: The Real Story of the Bush Dynasty
* Family of Secrets
* Political line
* W.

* v
* t
* e

Presidents of the United States

Presidents and
presidencies|

1. George Washington (1789–1797)
2. John Adams (1797–1801)
3. Thomas Jefferson (1801–1809)
4. James Madison (1809–1817)
5. James Monroe (1817–1825)
6. John Quincy Adams (1825–1829)
7. Andrew Jackson (1829–1837)
8. Martin Van Buren (1837–1841)
9. William Henry Harrison (1841)
10. John Tyler (1841–1845)
11. James K. Polk (1845–1849)
12. Zachary Taylor (1849–1850)
13. Millard Fillmore (1850–1853)
14. Franklin Pierce (1853–1857)
15. James Buchanan (1857–1861)
16. Abraham Lincoln (1861–1865)
17. Andrew Johnson (1865–1869)
18. Ulysses S. Grant (1869–1877)
19. Rutherford B. Hayes (1877–1881)
20. James A. Garfield (1881)
21. Chester A. Arthur (1881–1885)
22. Grover Cleveland (1885–1889)
23. Benjamin Harrison (1889–1893)
24. Grover Cleveland (1893–1897)
25. William McKinley (1897–1901)
26. Theodore Roosevelt (1901–1909)
27. William Howard Taft (1909–1913)
28. Woodrow Wilson (1913–1921)
29. Warren G. Harding (1921–1923)
30. Calvin Coolidge (1923–1929)
31. Herbert Hoover (1929–1933)
32. Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933–1945)
33. Harry S. Truman (1945–1953)
34. Dwight D. Eisenhower (1953–1961)
35. John F. Kennedy (1961–1963)
36. Lyndon B. Johnson (1963–1969)
37. Richard Nixon (1969–1974)
38. Gerald Ford (1974–1977)
39. Jimmy Carter (1977–1981)
40. Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)
41. George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)
42. Bill Clinton (1993–2001)
43. George W. Bush (2001–2009)
44. Barack Obama (2009–2017)
45. Donald Trump (2017–2021)
46. Joe Biden (2021–present)

Presidency
timelines|

* Washington
* McKinley
* T. Roosevelt
* Taft
* Wilson
* Harding
* Coolidge
* Hoover
* F. D. Roosevelt
* Truman
* Eisenhower
* Kennedy*
* L. B. Johnson
* Nixon
* Ford*
* Carter*
* Reagan
* G. H. W. Bush*
* Clinton*
* G. W. Bush*
* Obama*
* Trump*
* Biden*

* Links to list of related timelines

* Category
* Commons
* List

* v
* t
* e

Unsuccessful major party candidates for President of the United States

1. Thomas Jefferson (1796)
2. John Adams (1800)
3. Charles C. Pinckney (1804, 1808)
4. DeWitt Clinton (1812)
5. Rufus King (1816)
6. Andrew Jackson (1824)
7. William H. Crawford (1824)
8. Henry Clay (1824, 1832, 1844)
9. John Quincy Adams (1828)
10. William Henry Harrison (1836)
11. Hugh Lawson White (1836)
12. Martin Van Buren (1840)
13. Lewis Cass (1848)
14. Winfield Scott (1852)
15. John C. Frémont (1856)
16. Stephen A. Douglas (1860)
17. George B. McClellan (1864)
18. Horatio Seymour (1868)
19. Horace Greeley (1872)
20. Samuel J. Tilden (1876)
21. Winfield Scott Hancock (1880)
22. James G. Blaine (1884)
23. Grover Cleveland (1888)
24. Benjamin Harrison (1892)
25. William J. Bryan (1896, 1900, 1908)
26. Alton B. Parker (1904)
27. William Howard Taft (1912)
28. Charles Evans Hughes (1916)
29. James M. Cox (1920)
30. John W. Davis (1924)
31. Al Smith (1928)
32. Herbert Hoover (1932)
33. Alf Landon (1936)
34. Wendell Willkie (1940)
35. Thomas E. Dewey (1944, 1948)
36. Adlai Stevenson (1952, 1956)
37. Richard Nixon (1960)
38. Barry Goldwater (1964)
39. Hubert Humphrey (1968)
40. George McGovern (1972)
41. Gerald Ford (1976)
42. Jimmy Carter (1980)
43. Walter Mondale (1984)
44. Michael Dukakis (1988)
45. George H. W. Bush (1992)
46. Bob Dole (1996)
47. Al Gore (2000)
48. John Kerry (2004)
49. John McCain (2008)
50. Mitt Romney (2012)
51. Hillary Clinton (2016)
52. Donald Trump (2020)

* All presidential candidates
* Presidents
* Third party candidates

* v
* t
* e

Republican Party

* History
* National Union Party
* Third Party System
* Fourth Party System
* Fifth Party System
* Sixth Party System

Presidential
tickets
and
national
conventions|

* 1856 (Philadelphia): Frémont/Dayton
* 1860 (Chicago): Lincoln/Hamlin
* 1864 (Baltimore): Lincoln/Johnson
* 1868 (Chicago): Grant/Colfax
* 1872 (Philadelphia): Grant/Wilson
* 1876 (Cincinnati): Hayes/Wheeler
* 1880 (Chicago): Garfield/Arthur
* 1884 (Chicago): Blaine/Logan
* 1888 (Chicago): Harrison/Morton
* 1892 (Minneapolis): Harrison/Reid
* 1896 (Saint Louis): McKinley/Hobart
* 1900 (Philadelphia): McKinley/Roosevelt
* 1904 (Chicago): Roosevelt/Fairbanks
* 1908 (Chicago): Taft/Sherman
* 1912 (Chicago): Taft/Sherman/Butler
* 1916 (Chicago): Hughes/Fairbanks
* 1920 (Chicago): Harding/Coolidge
* 1924 (Cleveland): Coolidge/Dawes
* 1928 (Kansas City): Hoover/Curtis
* 1932 (Chicago): Hoover/Curtis
* 1936 (Cleveland): Landon/Knox
* 1940 (Philadelphia): Willkie/McNary
* 1944 (Chicago): Dewey/Bricker
* 1948 (Philadelphia): Dewey/Warren
* 1952 (Chicago): Eisenhower/Nixon
* 1956 (San Francisco): Eisenhower/Nixon
* 1960 (Chicago): Nixon/Lodge
* 1964 (San Francisco): Goldwater/Miller
* 1968 (Miami Beach): Nixon/Agnew
* 1972 (Miami Beach): Nixon/Agnew
* 1976 (Kansas City): Ford/Dole
* 1980 (Detroit): Reagan/G. H. W. Bush
* 1984 (Dallas): Reagan/G. H. W. Bush
* 1988 (New Orleans): G. H. W. Bush/Quayle
* 1992 (Houston): G. H. W. Bush/Quayle
* 1996 (San Diego): Dole/Kemp
* 2000 (Philadelphia): G. W. Bush/Cheney
* 2004 (New York): G. W. Bush/Cheney
* 2008 (St. Paul): McCain/Palin
* 2012 (Tampa): Romney/Ryan
* 2016 (Cleveland): Trump/Pence
* 2020 (Charlotte/other locations): Trump/Pence

Presidential
administrations|

* Lincoln (1861–1865)
* Johnson (1865–1868)
* Grant (1869–1877)
* Hayes (1877–1881)
* Garfield (1881)
* Arthur (1881–1885)
* Harrison (1889–1893)
* McKinley (1897–1901)
* Roosevelt (1901–1909)
* Taft (1909–1913)
* Harding (1921–1923)
* Coolidge (1923–1929)
* Hoover (1929–1933)
* Eisenhower (1953–1961)
* Nixon (1969–1974)
* Ford (1974–1977)
* Reagan (1981–1989)
* G. H. W. Bush (1989–1993)
* G. W. Bush (2001–2009)
* Trump (2017–2021)

U.S. Senate
leaders
and
conference
chairs|

* J. P. Hale (1859–1862)
* Anthony (1862–1884)
* Sherman (1884–1885)
* Edmunds (1885–1891)
* Sherman (1891–1897)
* Allison (1897–1908)
* E. Hale (1908–1911)
* Cullom (1911–1913)
* Gallinger (1913–1918)
* Lodge (1918–1924)
* Curtis (1924–1929)
* Watson (1929–1933)
* McNary (1933–1940)
* Austin (1940–1941)
* McNary (1941–1944)
* White (1944–1949)
* Wherry (1949–1952)
* Bridges (1952–1953)
* Taft (1953)
* Knowland (1953–1959)
* Dirksen (1959–1969)
* Scott (1969–1977)
* Baker (1977–1979)
* Stevens (1979–1980)
* Baker (1980–1985)
* Dole (1985–1996)
* Lott (1996–2003)
* Frist (2003–2007)
* McConnell (2007–present)

U.S. House
leaders
and
conference
chairs|

* Pennington (1860–1861)
* Grow (1861–1863)
* Colfax (1863–1869)
* Pomeroy (1869)
* Blaine (1869–1875)
* McCrary (1875–1877)
* Hale (1877–1879)
* Frye (1879–1881)
* Keifer (1881–1883)
* Cannon (1883–1889)
* Reed (1889–1891)
* T. J. Henderson (1891–1895)
* Reed (1895–1899)
* D. B. Henderson (1899–1903)
* Cannon (1903–1911)
* Mann (1911–1919)
* Gillett (1919–1925)
* Longworth (1925–1931)
* Snell (1931–1939)
* Martin (1939–1959)
* Halleck (1959–1965)
* Ford (1965–1973)
* Rhodes (1973–1981)
* Michel (1981–1995)
* Gingrich (1995–1999)
* Hastert (1999–2007)
* Boehner (2007–2015)
* Ryan (2015–2019)
* McCarthy (2019–present)

RNC|

| Chairs|

* Morgan
* Raymond
* Ward
* Claflin
* Morgan
* Chandler
* Cameron
* Jewell
* Sabin
* Jones
* Quay
* Clarkson
* Campbell
* Carter
* Hanna
* Payne
* Cortelyou
* New
* Hitchcock
* Hill
* Rosewater
* Hilles
* Wilcox
* Hays
* Adams
* Butler
* Work
* Huston
* Fess
* Sanders
* Fletcher
* Hamilton
* Martin
* Walsh
* Spangler
* Brownell
* Reece
* Scott
* Gabrielson
* Summerfield
* Roberts
* Hall
* Alcorn
* T. Morton
* Miller
* Burch
* Bliss
* R. Morton
* Dole
* Bush
* Smith
* Brock
* Richards
* Laxalt/Fahrenkopf
* Fahrenkopf
* Atwater
* Yeutter
* Bond
* Barbour
* Nicholson
* Gilmore
* Racicot
* Gillespie
* Mehlman
* Martínez/Duncan
* Duncan
* Steele
* Priebus
* Romney McDaniel

|

Chair elections|

* 2009
* 2011
* 2013
* 2015
* 2017

Parties by
state and
territory|

| State|

* Alabama
* Alaska
* Arizona
* Arkansas
* California
* Colorado
* Connecticut
* Delaware
* Florida
* Georgia
* Hawaii
* Idaho
* Illinois
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Louisiana
* Maine
* Maryland
* Massachusetts
* Michigan
* Minnesota
* Mississippi
* Missouri
* Montana
* Nebraska
* Nevada
* New Hampshire
* New Jersey
* New Mexico
* New York
* North Carolina
* North Dakota
* Ohio
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Rhode Island
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Utah
* Vermont
* Virginia
* Washington
* West Virginia
* Wisconsin
* Wyoming

|

Territory|

* American Samoa
* District of Columbia
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Puerto Rico
* Virgin Islands

Affiliated
organizations|

| Fundraising
groups|

* National Republican Congressional Committee
* National Republican Redistricting Trust
* National Republican Senatorial Committee
* Republican Governors Association

|

Sectional
groups|

* College Republicans
* Chairmen
* Congressional Hispanic Conference
* Log Cabin Republicans
* Republican Jewish Coalition
* Republican National Hispanic Assembly
* Republicans Abroad
* Teen Age Republicans
* Young Republicans
* Republicans Overseas

Factional
groups|

* Republican Main Street Partnership
* Republican Majority for Choice
* Republican Liberty Caucus
* Republican National Coalition for Life
* Republican Study Committee
* Republican Governance Group
* ConservAmerica
* Liberty Caucus
* Freedom Caucus
* Ripon Society
* The Wish List

Related|

* Primaries
* Debates
* Bibliography
* International Democrat Union
* Timeline of modern American conservatism

* v
* t
* e

Vice presidents of the United States

1. John Adams (1789–1797)
2. Thomas Jefferson (1797–1801)
3. Aaron Burr (1801–1805)
4. George Clinton (1805–1812)
5. Elbridge Gerry (1813–1814)
6. Daniel D. Tompkins (1817–1825)
7. John C. Calhoun (1825–1832)
8. Martin Van Buren (1833–1837)
9. Richard M. Johnson (1837–1841)
10. John Tyler (1841)
11. George M. Dallas (1845–1849)
12. Millard Fillmore (1849–1850)
13. William R. King (1853)
14. John C. Breckinridge (1857–1861)
15. Hannibal Hamlin (1861–1865)
16. Andrew Johnson (1865)
17. Schuyler Colfax (1869–1873)
18. Henry Wilson (1873–1875)
19. William A. Wheeler (1877–1881)
20. Chester A. Arthur (1881)
21. Thomas A. Hendricks (1885)
22. Levi P. Morton (1889–1893)
23. Adlai Stevenson (1893–1897)
24. Garret Hobart (1897–1899)
25. Theodore Roosevelt (1901)
26. Charles W. Fairbanks (1905–1909)
27. James S. Sherman (1909–1912)
28. Thomas R. Marshall (1913–1921)
29. Calvin Coolidge (1921–1923)
30. Charles G. Dawes (1925–1929)
31. Charles Curtis (1929–1933)
32. John N. Garner (1933–1941)
33. Henry A. Wallace (1941–1945)
34. Harry S. Truman (1945)
35. Alben W. Barkley (1949–1953)
36. Richard Nixon (1953–1961)
37. Lyndon B. Johnson (1961–1963)
38. Hubert Humphrey (1965–1969)
39. Spiro Agnew (1969–1973)
40. Gerald Ford (1973–1974)
41. Nelson Rockefeller (1974–1977)
42. Walter Mondale (1977–1981)
43. George H. W. Bush (1981–1989)
44. Dan Quayle (1989–1993)
45. Al Gore (1993–2001)
46. Dick Cheney (2001–2009)
47. Joe Biden (2009–2017)
48. Mike Pence (2017–2021)
49. Kamala Harris (2021–present)

* Category
* Commons
* List

* v
* t
* e

Directors of Central Intelligence and the Central Intelligence Agency

Central Intelligence|

* Souers
* Vandenberg
* Hillenkoetter
* Smith
* Dulles
* McCone
* Raborn
* Helms
* Schlesinger
* Colby
* Bush
* Turner
* Casey
* Webster
* Gates
* Woolsey
* Deutch
* Tenet
* Goss

Central Intelligence Agency|

* Goss
* Hayden
* Panetta
* Petraeus
* Brennan
* Pompeo
* Haspel
* Burns

* v
* t
* e

United States Ambassadors to the United Nations

* Stettinius
* Johnson
* Austin
* Lodge
* Wadsworth
* Stevenson
* Goldberg
* Ball
* Wiggins
* Yost
* Bush
* Scali
* Moynihan
* Scranton
* Young
* McHenry
* Kirkpatrick
* Walters
* Pickering
* Perkins
* Albright
* Richardson
* Burleigh
* Holbrooke
* Cunningham
* Negroponte
* Danforth
* Patterson
* Bolton
* Wolff
* Khalilzad
* Rice
* DiCarlo
* Power
* Sison
* Haley
* Cohen
* Craft
* Mills
* Thomas-Greenfield

Italics indicates acting

* v
* t
* e

United States Ambassadors to China

Great Qing Empire

Commissioner|

* Cushing (Envoy)
* Everett
* Davis
* Parker (chargé d’affaires)
* Marshall
* McLane
* Parker

Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary|

* Reed
* Ward
* Burlingame
* Browne
* Low
* Avery
* Seward
* Angell
* Young
* Denby
* Conger
* Rockhill
* Calhoun

Republic of China (Beijing/Nanjing)

Envoy Extraordinary and
Minister Plenipotentiary|

* Calhoun
* Reinsch
* Crane
* Schurman
* MacMurray
* Johnson

Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary|

* Johnson
* Gauss
* Hurley
* Stuart

Republic of China (Taipei)

Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary|

* Rankin
* Drumright
* Kirk
* Wright
* McConaughy
* Unger

People's Republic of China

Chiefs of the U.S. Liaison
Office in Beijing|

* Bruce
* Bush
* Gates
* Woodcock

Ambassador Extraordinary
and Plenipotentiary|

* Woodcock
* Hummel
* Lord
* Lilley
* Roy
* Sasser
* Prueher
* Randt
* Huntsman
* Locke
* Baucus
* Branstad
* Burns

See also: American Institute in Taiwan

* v
* t
* e

George W. Bush

* 43rd President of the United States (2001–2009)
* 46th Governor of Texas (1995–2000)

Presidency|

* Transition
* 1st inauguration
* 2nd inauguration
* Domestic policy
* Legislation and programs
* Economic policy
* Foreign policy
* International trips
* Bush Doctrine
* Russia summits
* Slovenia
* Slovakia
* War in Afghanistan
* Status of Forces Agreement
* Patriot Act
* No Child Left Behind Act
* Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act
* USA Freedom Corps
* Department of Homeland Security
* Space policy
* Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty
* "War on Terror"
* President's Council on Service and Civic Participation
* award
* Dismissal of U.S. attorneys controversy
* Email controversy
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court candidates
* John Roberts
* Harriet Miers
* Samuel Alito
* controversies
* Cabinet
* Pardons
* Impeachment efforts
* Executive orders
* Presidential proclamations

Life and
legacy|

* Childhood home
* Early life and career
* Presidential library
* Presidential portrait
* Military service controversy
* Killian documents controversy
* authenticity issues
* Professional life
* Governorship of Texas
* Prairie Chapel Ranch
* Walker's Point Estate
* Clinton Bush Haiti Fund

Speeches|

* Axis of evil
* Mission Accomplished
* State of the Union addresses
* 2002
* 2003
* 2004
* 2005
* 2006
* 2007
* 2008

Elections|

| U.S. House|

* 1978

|

Gubernatorial|

* 1994
* 1998

Presidential|

* 2000 campaign
* primaries
* running mate selection
* convention
* debates
* election
* Bush v. Gore
* 2004 campaign
* primaries
* convention
* debates
* election

Public image|

* Bushisms
* Nicknames
* As the subject of books and films
* Fictionalized portrayals
* Miss Me Yet?
* "Yo, Blair"

Books|

* A Charge to Keep (1999)
* Decision Points (2010)
* 41: A Portrait of My Father (2014)
* Portraits of Courage (2017)
* Out of Many, One (2021)

Popular
culture|

* Fahrenheit 9/11 (2004 documentary)
* W. (2008 film)

Family|

* Laura Bush (wife)
* Barbara Pierce Bush (daughter)
* Jenna Bush Hager (daughter)
* George H. W. Bush (father
* presidency)
* Barbara Bush (mother)
* Robin Bush (sister)
* Jeb Bush (brother)
* Neil Bush (brother)
* Marvin Bush (brother)
* Dorothy Bush Koch (sister)
* Prescott Bush (grandfather)
* George P. Bush (nephew)
* Barney (dog)
* Miss Beazley (dog)
* India (cat)
* Spot Fetcher (dog)

* ← Bill Clinton
* Barack Obama →

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet of President Richard Nixon (1969–1974)

Cabinet

Vice President|

* Spiro Agnew (1969–1973)
* None (1973)
* Gerald Ford (1973–1974)

Secretary of State|

* William P. Rogers (1969–1973)
* Henry Kissinger (1973–1974)

Secretary of the Treasury|

* David M. Kennedy (1969–1971)
* John Connally (1971–1972)
* George Shultz (1972–1974)
* William E. Simon (1974)

Secretary of Defense|

* Melvin Laird (1969–1973)
* Elliot Richardson (1973)
* James R. Schlesinger (1973–1974)

Attorney General|

* John N. Mitchell (1969–1972)
* Richard Kleindienst (1972–1973)
* Elliot Richardson (1973)
* William B. Saxbe (1974)

Postmaster General|

* Winton M. Blount (1969–1971)

Secretary of the Interior|

* Wally Hickel (1969–1970)
* Rogers Morton (1970–1974)

Secretary of Agriculture|

* Clifford M. Hardin (1969–1971)
* Earl Butz (1971–1974)

Secretary of Commerce|

* Maurice Stans (1969–1972)
* Peter G. Peterson (1972–1973)
* Frederick B. Dent (1973–1974)

Secretary of Labor|

* George Shultz (1969–1970)
* James Day Hodgson (1970–1973)
* Peter J. Brennan (1973–1974)

Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare|

* Robert Finch (1969–1970)
* Elliot Richardson (1970–1973)
* Caspar Weinberger (1973–1974)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|

* George W. Romney (1969–1973)
* James Thomas Lynn (1973–1974)

Secretary of Transportation|

* John Volpe (1969–1973)
* Claude Brinegar (1973–1974)

Cabinet-level

Director of the Bureau of the Budget|

* Robert Mayo (1969–1970)

Director of the Office of Management and Budget|

* George Shultz (1970–1972)
* Caspar Weinberger (1972–1973)
* Roy Ash (1973–1974)

Ambassador to the United Nations|

* Charles Yost (1969–1971)
* George H. W. Bush (1971–1973)
* John A. Scali (1973–1974)

Counselor to the President|

* Arthur F. Burns (1969)
* Daniel Patrick Moynihan (1969–1970)
* Bryce Harlow (1969–1970)
* Robert Finch (1970–1972)
* Donald Rumsfeld (1970–1971)
* Anne Armstrong (1973–1974)
* Dean Burch (1974)
* Kenneth Rush (1974)

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet of President Ronald Reagan (1981–1989)

Cabinet

Vice President|

* George H. W. Bush (1981–1989)

Secretary of State|

* Alexander Haig (1981–1982)
* George Shultz (1982–1989)

Secretary of the Treasury|

* Donald Regan (1981–1985)
* James Baker (1985–1988)
* Nicholas F. Brady (1988–1989)

Secretary of Defense|

* Caspar Weinberger (1981–1987)
* Frank Carlucci (1987–1989)

Attorney General|

* William French Smith (1981–1985)
* Edwin Meese (1985–1988)
* Dick Thornburgh (1988–1989)

Secretary of the Interior|

* James G. Watt (1981–1983)
* William P. Clark Jr. (1983–1985)
* Donald P. Hodel (1985–1989)

Secretary of Agriculture|

* John Rusling Block (1981–1986)
* Richard Edmund Lyng (1986–1989)

Secretary of Commerce|

* Malcolm Baldrige Jr. (1981–1987)
* William Verity Jr. (1987–1989)

Secretary of Labor|

* Raymond J. Donovan (1981–1985)
* Bill Brock (1985–1987)
* Ann Dore McLaughlin (1987–1989)

Secretary of Health and Human Services|

* Richard Schweiker (1981–1983)
* Margaret Heckler (1983–1985)
* Otis Bowen (1985–1989)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|

* Samuel Pierce (1981–1989)

Secretary of Transportation|

* Drew Lewis (1981–1983)
* Elizabeth Dole (1983–1987)
* James H. Burnley IV (1987–1989)

Secretary of Energy|

* James B. Edwards (1981–1983)
* Donald P. Hodel (1983–1985)
* John S. Herrington (1985–1989)

Secretary of Education|

* Terrel Bell (1981–1984)
* William Bennett (1985–1988)
* Lauro Cavazos (1988–1989)

Cabinet-level

Director of the Office of Management and Budget|

* David Stockman (1981–1985)
* James C. Miller III (1985–1988)
* Joe Wright (1988–1989)

Director of Central Intelligence|

* William J. Casey (1981–1987)
* William H. Webster (1987–1989)

Trade Representative|

* Bill Brock (1981–1985)
* Clayton Yeutter (1985–1989)

Ambassador to the United Nations|

* Jeane Kirkpatrick (1981–1985)
* Vernon A. Walters (1985–1989)

Counselor to the President|

* Edwin Meese (1981–1985)
* None (1985–1989)

* v
* t
* e

Cabinet of President George H. W. Bush (1989–1993)

Cabinet

Vice President|

* Dan Quayle (1989–1993)

Secretary of State|

* James Baker (1989–1992)
* Lawrence Eagleburger (1992–1993)

Secretary of the Treasury|

* Nicholas F. Brady (1989–1993)

Secretary of Defense|

* Dick Cheney (1989–1993)

Attorney General|

* Dick Thornburgh (1989–1991)
* William Barr (1991–1993)

Secretary of the Interior|

* Manuel Lujan Jr. (1989–1993)

Secretary of Agriculture|

* Clayton Yeutter (1989–1991)
* Edward Rell Madigan (1991–1993)

Secretary of Commerce|

* Robert Mosbacher (1989–1992)
* Barbara Franklin (1992–1993)

Secretary of Labor|

* Elizabeth Dole (1989–1990)
* Lynn Morley Martin (1991–1993)

Secretary of Health and Human Services|

* Louis Wade Sullivan (1989–1993)

Secretary of Housing and Urban Development|

* Jack Kemp (1989–1993)

Secretary of Transportation|

* Samuel K. Skinner (1989–1991)
* Andrew Card (1992–1993)

Secretary of Energy|

* James D. Watkins (1989–1993)

Secretary of Education|

* Lauro Cavazos (1989–1990)
* Lamar Alexander (1991–1993)

Secretary of Veterans Affairs|

* Ed Derwinski (1989–1992)

Cabinet-level

Director of the Office of Management and Budget|

* Richard Darman (1989–1993)

Trade Representative|

* Carla Anderson Hills (1989–1993)

Counselor to the President|

* None (1989–1992)
* Clayton Yeutter (1992–1993)

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1976) 1980 United States presidential election (1984 ->)

Republican Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Nominee: Ronald Reagan
* campaign
* positions
* VP nominee: George H. W. Bush

Other candidates
John B. Anderson
Howard Baker
George H. W. Bush
John Connally
Phil Crane
Bob Dole
Ben Fernandez
Harold Stassen

Democratic Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Incumbent nominee: Jimmy Carter
* Incumbent VP nominee: Walter Mondale

* Other candidates: Jerry Brown
* Ted Kennedy
* campaign
* Ron Dellums

Independent|

Candidate
John B. Anderson
Running mate
Patrick Lucey

Other independent and third party candidates

Libertarian Party|

Nominee
Ed Clark
VP nominee
David Koch

Citizens Party|

Nominee
Barry Commoner
VP nominee
LaDonna Harris

Communist Party|

Nominee
Gus Hall
VP nominee
Angela Davis

Peace and Freedom Party|

* Nominee: Maureen Smith
* VP Nominee: Elizabeth Cervantes Barron

Prohibition Party|

Nominee
Ben Bubar
VP nominee
Earl Dodge

Socialist Party|

Nominee
David McReynolds
VP nominee
Diane Drufenbrock

Socialist Workers Party|

Nominee
Andrew Pulley
Alternate nominees
Richard Congress
Clifton DeBerry

Workers World Party|

Nominee
Deirdre Griswold
VP nominee
Gavrielle Holmes

Independents and other candidates|

* Lyndon LaRouche
* Warren Spannaus

Other 1980 elections
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1980) 1984 United States presidential election (1988 ->)

Republican Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Incumbent nominee: Ronald Reagan
* campaign
* positions
* Incumbent VP nominee: George H. W. Bush

* Other candidates: Ben Fernandez
* Harold Stassen

Democratic Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Nominee: Walter Mondale
* campaign
* VP nominee: Geraldine Ferraro

* Other candidates: Reubin Askew
* Alan Cranston
* John Glenn
* Gary Hart
* Fritz Hollings
* Jesse Jackson
* campaign
* George McGovern

Third party and independent candidates

Citizens Party|

Nominee
Sonia Johnson
VP nominee
Richard Walton

Communist Party|

Nominee
Gus Hall
VP nominee
Angela Davis

Libertarian Party|

Nominee
David Bergland
VP nominee
Jim Lewis

Other candidates
Gene Burns
Earl Ravenal
Mary Ruwart

Prohibition Party|

Nominee
Earl Dodge

Socialist Equality Party|

Nominee
Edward Winn
VP nominee
Helen Halyard

Socialist Party|

Nominee
Sonia Johnson
VP nominee
Richard Walton

Socialist Workers Party|

Nominee
Melvin T. Mason
VP nominee
Matilde Zimmermann

Workers World Party|

Nominee
Larry Holmes
Alternate nominee
Gavrielle Holmes
VP nominee
Gloria La Riva

Independents and other candidates|

* Charles Doty
* Larry Flynt
* Larry "Bozo" Harmon
* Lyndon LaRouche
* Running mate: Billy Davis

Other 1984 elections
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1984) 1988 United States presidential election (1992 ->)

Republican Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Nominee: George H. W. Bush
* campaign
* VP nominee: Dan Quayle

* Other candidates: Bob Dole
* Pete du Pont
* Ben Fernandez
* Alexander Haig
* Jack Kemp
* Paul Laxalt
* Isabell Masters
* Pat Robertson
* Donald Rumsfeld
* Harold Stassen

Democratic Party|

* Convention
* Primaries
* results

Candidates|

* Nominee: Michael Dukakis
* campaign
* VP nominee: Lloyd Bentsen

* Other candidates: Douglas Applegate
* Bruce Babbitt
* Joe Biden
* campaign
* positions
* David Duke
* Dick Gephardt
* Al Gore
* campaign
* Gary Hart
* Jesse Jackson
* campaign
* Lyndon LaRouche
* campaign
* positions
* Andy Martin
* Patricia Schroeder
* Paul Simon
* James Traficant

Third party and independent candidates

Libertarian Party|

* Convention
* Nominee: Ron Paul
* campaign
* positions
* VP nominee: Andre Marrou
* Other candidates: Jim Lewis
* Russell Means

New Alliance Party|

* Nominee: Lenora Fulani

Populist Party|

* Nominee: David Duke

Prohibition Party|

* Nominee: Earl Dodge
* VP nominee: George Ormsby

Socialist Equality Party|

* Nominee: Edward Winn

Socialist Party|

* Nominee: Willa Kenoyer
* VP nominee: Ron Ehrenreich

Socialist Workers Party|

* Nominee: James Warren
* VP nominee: Kathleen Mickells

Workers World Party|

* Nominee: Larry Holmes
* VP nominee: Gloria La Riva

Independents and others|

* Jack Herer
* Lyndon LaRouche
* Herbert G. Lewin
* William A. Marra
* Eugene McCarthy

* Other 1988 elections: House
* Senate
* Gubernatorial

* v
* t
* e

(<- 1988) 1992 United States presidential election (1996 ->)

Democratic Party|

Convention
Primaries

Candidates|

* Nominee: Bill Clinton
* campaign
* positions
* VP nominee: Al Gore

* Other candidates: Larry Agran
* Jerry Brown
* Tom Harkin
* campaign
* Bob Kerrey
* Lyndon LaRouche
* campaign
* positions
* Tom Laughlin
* Eugene McCarthy
* Paul Tsongas
* Douglas Wilder
* Charles Woods

Republican Party|

Convention
Primaries

Candidates|

* Incumbent nominee: George H. W. Bush
* campaign
* Incumbent VP nominee: Dan Quayle

* Other candidates: Pat Buchanan
* David Duke
* Jack Fellure
* Isabell Masters
* Pat Paulsen
* Tennie Rogers
* Harold Stassen

Independent|

* Candidate: Ross Perot
* campaign
* VP candidate: James Stockdale

Other independent and third party candidates

Libertarian Party|

* Convention
* Nominee: Andre Marrou
* VP nominee: Nancy Lord

Natural Law Party|

Nominee
John Hagelin
VP nominee
Mike Tompkins

New Alliance Party|

Nominee
Lenora Fulani
VP nominee
Maria Elizabeth Muñoz

Prohibition Party|

Nominee
Earl Dodge
VP nominee
George Ormsby

Socialist Party USA|

Nominee
J. Quinn Brisben
VP nominee
Barbara Garson

Socialist Workers Party|

Nominee
James Warren
VP nominee
Willie Mae Reid

U.S. Taxpayers Party|

Nominee
Howard Phillips
VP nominee
Albion W. Knight Jr.

Workers World Party|

Nominee
Gloria La Riva
VP nominee
Larry Holmes

Independents and other candidates|

Ronald Daniels (running mate: Asiba Tupahache)
Bo Gritz
Isabell Masters

Other 1992 elections
House
Senate
Gubernatorial

* v
* t
* e

Time Persons of the Year

1927–1950|

* Charles Lindbergh (1927)
* Walter Chrysler (1928)
* Owen D. Young (1929)
* Mohandas Gandhi (1930)
* Pierre Laval (1931)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1932)
* Hugh S. Johnson (1933)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1934)
* Haile Selassie (1935)
* Wallis Simpson (1936)
* Chiang Kai-shek / Soong Mei-ling (1937)
* Adolf Hitler (1938)
* Joseph Stalin (1939)
* Winston Churchill (1940)
* Franklin D. Roosevelt (1941)
* Joseph Stalin (1942)
* George Marshall (1943)
* Dwight D. Eisenhower (1944)
* Harry S. Truman (1945)
* James F. Byrnes (1946)
* George Marshall (1947)
* Harry S. Truman (1948)
* Winston Churchill (1949)
* The American Fighting-Man (1950)

1951–1975|

* Mohammed Mosaddeq (1951)
* Elizabeth II  (1952)
* Konrad Adenauer (1953)
* John Foster Dulles (1954)
* Harlow Curtice (1955)
* Hungarian Freedom Fighters (1956)
* Nikita Khrushchev (1957)
* Charles de Gaulle (1958)
* Dwight D. Eisenhower (1959)
* U.S. Scientists: George Beadle / Charles Draper / John Enders / Donald A. Glaser / Joshua Lederberg / Willard Libby / Linus Pauling / Edward Purcell / Isidor Rabi / Emilio Segrè / William Shockley / Edward Teller / Charles Townes / James Van Allen / Robert Woodward (1960)
* John F. Kennedy (1961)
* Pope John XXIII (1962)
* Martin Luther King Jr. (1963)
* Lyndon B. Johnson (1964)
* William Westmoreland (1965)
* The Generation Twenty-Five and Under (1966)
* Lyndon B. Johnson (1967)
* The Apollo 8 Astronauts: William Anders / Frank Borman / Jim Lovell (1968)
* The Middle Americans (1969)
* Willy Brandt (1970)
* Richard Nixon (1971)
* Henry Kissinger / Richard Nixon (1972)
* John Sirica (1973)
* King Faisal (1974)
* American Women: Susan Brownmiller / Kathleen Byerly / Alison Cheek / Jill Conway / Betty Ford / Ella Grasso / Carla Hills / Barbara Jordan / Billie Jean King / Susie Sharp / Carol Sutton / Addie Wyatt (1975)

1976–2000|

* Jimmy Carter (1976)
* Anwar Sadat (1977)
* Deng Xiaoping (1978)
* Ayatollah Khomeini (1979)
* Ronald Reagan (1980)
* Lech Wałęsa (1981)
* The Computer (1982)
* Ronald Reagan / Yuri Andropov (1983)
* Peter Ueberroth (1984)
* Deng Xiaoping (1985)
* Corazon Aquino (1986)
* Mikhail Gorbachev (1987)
* The Endangered Earth (1988)
* Mikhail Gorbachev (1989)
* George H. W. Bush (1990)
* Ted Turner (1991)
* Bill Clinton (1992)
* The Peacemakers: Yasser Arafat / F. W. de Klerk / Nelson Mandela / Yitzhak Rabin (1993)
* Pope John Paul II (1994)
* Newt Gingrich (1995)
* David Ho (1996)
* Andrew Grove (1997)
* Bill Clinton / Ken Starr (1998)
* Jeff Bezos (1999)
* George W. Bush (2000)

2001–present|

* Rudolph Giuliani (2001)
* The Whistleblowers: Cynthia Cooper / Coleen Rowley / Sherron Watkins (2002)
* The American Soldier (2003)
* George W. Bush (2004)
* The Good Samaritans: Bono / Bill Gates / Melinda Gates (2005)
* You (2006)
* Vladimir Putin (2007)
* Barack Obama (2008)
* Ben Bernanke (2009)
* Mark Zuckerberg (2010)
* The Protester (2011)
* Barack Obama (2012)
* Pope Francis (2013)
* Ebola Fighters: Dr. Jerry Brown / Dr. Kent Brantly / Ella Watson-Stryker / Foday Gollah / Salome Karwah (2014)
* Angela Merkel (2015)
* Donald Trump (2016)
* The Silence Breakers (2017)
* The Guardians: Jamal Khashoggi / Maria Ressa / Wa Lone / Kyaw Soe Oo / Staff of The Capital (2018)
* Greta Thunberg (2019)
* Joe Biden / Kamala Harris (2020)
* Elon Musk (2021)

* v
* t
* e

Theodore Roosevelt Award winners

* 1967: Eisenhower
* 1968: Saltonstall
* 1969: White
* 1970: Hovde
* 1971: Kraft Jr.
* 1972: Holland
* 1973: Bradley
* 1974: Owens
* 1975: Ford
* 1976: Hamilton
* 1977: Bradley
* 1978: Zornow
* 1979: Chandler
* 1980: Cooley
* 1981: Linkletter
* 1982: ~~Cosby~~
* 1983: Palmer
* 1984: Lawrence
* 1985: Fleming
* 1986: Bush
* 1987: Zable
* 1988: Not presented
* 1989: Ebert
* 1990: Reagan
* 1991: Gibson
* 1992: Kemp
* 1993: Alexander
* 1994: Johnson
* 1995: Mathias
* 1996: Wooden
* 1997: Payne
* 1998: Dole
* 1999: Richardson
* 2000: Staubach
* 2001: Cohen
* 2002: Shriver
* 2003: de Varona
* 2004: Page
* 2005: Ride
* 2006: Kraft
* 2007: Tagliabue
* 2008: Glenn
* 2009: Albright
* 2010: Mitchell
* 2011: Dunwoody
* 2012: Allen
* 2013: Dungy
* 2014: Mills
* 2015: Jackson
* 2016: Ueberroth
* 2017: Brooke-Marciniak
* 2018: Wilmore
* 2019: Caslen
* 2020: Delaney
* 2021: McLendon

* v
* t
* e

National Football Foundation Gold Medal winners

* 1958: Dwight D. Eisenhower
* 1959: Douglas MacArthur
* 1960: Herbert Hoover & Amos Alonzo Stagg
* 1961: John F. Kennedy
* 1962: Byron "Whizzer" White
* 1963: Roger Blough
* 1964: Donold B. Lourie
* 1965: Juan T. Trippe
* 1966: Earl H. "Red" Blaik
* 1967: Frederick L. Hovde
* 1968: Chester J. LaRoche
* 1969: Richard Nixon
* 1970: Thomas J. Hamilton
* 1971: Ronald Reagan
* 1972: Gerald Ford
* 1973: John Wayne
* 1974: Gerald B. Zornow
* 1975: David Packard
* 1976: Edgar B. Speer
* 1977: Louis H. Wilson
* 1978: Vincent dePaul Draddy
* 1979: William P. Lawrence
* 1980: Walter J. Zable
* 1981: Justin W. Dart
* 1982: Silver Anniversary Awards (NCAA) \- All Honored Jim Brown, Willie Davis, Jack Kemp, Ron Kramer, Jim Swink
* 1983: Jack Kemp
* 1984: John F. McGillicuddy
* 1985: William I. Spencer
* 1986: William H. Morton
* 1987: Charles R. Meyer
* 1988: Clinton E. Frank
* 1989: Paul Brown
* 1990: Thomas H. Moorer
* 1991: George H. W. Bush
* 1992: Donald R. Keough
* 1993: Norman Schwarzkopf
* 1994: Thomas S. Murphy
* 1995: Harold Alfond
* 1996: Gene Corrigan
* 1997: Jackie Robinson
* 1998: John H. McConnell
* 1999: Keith Jackson
* 2000: Fred M. Kirby II
* 2001: Billy Joe "Red" McCombs
* 2002: George Steinbrenner
* 2003: Tommy Franks
* 2004: William V. Campbell
* 2005: Jon F. Hanson
* 2006: Joe Paterno & Bobby Bowden
* 2007: Pete Dawkins & Roger Staubach
* 2008: John Glenn
* 2009: Phil Knight & Bill Bowerman
* 2010: Bill Cosby
* 2011: Robert Gates
* 2012: Roscoe Brown
* 2013: National Football League & Roger Goodell
* 2014: Tom Catena & George Weiss
* 2015: Condoleezza Rice
* 2016: Archie Manning
* 2017: None awarded
* 2018: Aaron Feis & Jason Seaman
* 2019: Mark Harmon

* v
* t
* e

Lain in state (United States)

Lain in state
US Capitol rotunda|

* Clay (1852)
* Lincoln (1865, funeral)‡
* Stevens (1868)
* Sumner (1874)
* Wilson (1875)
* Garfield (1881)‡
* Logan (1886)
* McKinley (1901)‡
* L'Enfant (1909)1
* Dewey (1917)
* Unknown Soldier for World War I (1921)
* Harding (1923)
* W. H. Taft (1930)
* Pershing (1948)
* R. A. Taft (1953)
* Unknown Soldiers for World War II and the Korean War (1958)
* Kennedy (1963, funeral)‡
* MacArthur (1964)
* H. Hoover (1964)
* Eisenhower (1969)
* Dirksen (1969)
* J. E. Hoover (1972)
* Johnson (1973)
* Humphrey (1978)
* Unknown Soldier for the Vietnam War (1984)2
* Pepper (1989)
* Reagan (2004, funeral)
* Ford (2006–07, funeral)
* Inouye (2012)
* McCain (2018)
* Bush (2018, funeral)
* Cummings (2019)3
* Lewis (2020)
* Ginsburg (2020, funeral)3,4
* Dole (2021)
* Reid (2022)
* Young (2022)3

Lain in honor
US Capitol rotunda|

* Chestnut and Gibson (1998)
* Parks (2005)
* Graham (2018)
* Sicknick (2021)
* Evans (2021)
* Williams (2022)

Lain in repose
Great Hall of the
US Supreme Court|

* Warren (1974)
* Marshall (1993)
* Burger (1995)
* Brennan (1997)
* Blackmun (1999)
* Rehnquist (2005)
* Scalia (2016)
* Stevens (2019)
* Ginsburg (2020, funeral)4

Bold \- Presidents and chief justices • ‡ - Assassinated
1 Died in 1825, exhumed and honored before reinterment • 2 Later identified as 1st. Lt. Michael Blassie • 3 Lain in state in the National Statuary Hall, not in the US Capitol rotunda • 4 Lain in repose and Lain in state

* v
* t
* e

Refusenik movement and 1990s post-Soviet aliyah

(c. 1970 – 2000)

Background|

| Causes|

* The Holocaust
* Antisemitism in the Soviet Union
* Joseph Stalin
* Zionism
* Six-Day War
* Emigration from the Eastern Bloc
* Slánský trial
* Anti-cosmopolitan campaign

|

Jewish groups|

* Ashkenazim
* Mountain Jews
* Karaim
* Krymchaks
* Bukharan Jews
* Georgian Jews

Events|

* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
* 1970s aliyah
* Jackson–Vanik amendment
* Helsinki Accords
* Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews
* Operation Solomon
* Dissolution of the Soviet Union

People|

| Soviet Union
Commonwealth of Independent States|

| Pro-government/antisemitic|

* Leonid Brezhnev
* Yuri Andropov
* Mikhail Gorbachev
* Mikhail Suslov
* David Dragunsky
* Yakov Fishman
* Adolf Shayevich
* Emomali Rahmon

|

Jewish|

* Ida Nudel
* Natan Sharansky
* Yuli Edelstein
* Eduard Kuznetsov
* Iosif Begun

United States|

* Jimmy Carter
* Ronald Reagan
* George H. W. Bush
* George Shultz
* Henry M. Jackson
* Charles Vanik
* Menachem Mendel Schneerson
* Meir Kahane

Israel|

* Golda Meir
* Yitzhak Rabin
* Shimon Peres
* Menachem Begin
* Yitzhak Shamir
* Benjamin Netanyahu
* Simcha Dinitz
* Avraham Burg
* Nehemiah Levanon
* Yehuda Lapidot

Other|

| Pro-Soviet|

* Władysław Gomułka

|

Pro-Jewish|

* Nicolae Ceaușescu

Organisations|

| Soviet Union|

* Communist Party of the Soviet Union
* Communist Party of the Russian Federation
* Anti-Zionist Committee of the Soviet Public
* Moscow Helsinki Group
* Pamyat

|

United States|

* Jewish Defense League
* American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee
* Union of Councils for Soviet Jews
* National Coalition Supporting Soviet Jewry

Israel|

* Nativ
* Jewish Agency

Aftermath|

* Russian Jews in Israel
* Yisrael BaAliyah
* Channel 9

Portals:

Biography Texas Business and economics Politics Connecticut World War II United States

Authority control

General|

* ISNI
* 1
* VIAF
* 1
* WorldCat

National libraries|

* Norway
* Spain
* France (data)
* Argentina
* Catalonia
* Germany
* Israel
* United States
* Latvia
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Australia
* Korea
* Croatia
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Sweden

Art galleries and museums|

* Te Papa (New Zealand)

Art research institutes|

* Artist Names (Getty)

Biographical dictionaries|

* Germany

Scientific databases|

* CiNii (Japan)

Other|

* Faceted Application of Subject Terminology
* MusicBrainz artist
* National Archives (US)
* RERO (Switzerland)
* 1
* Social Networks and Archival Context
* 2
* SUDOC (France)
* 1
* Trove (Australia)
* 1
* US Congress

*[m.]: married
*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template