Mari, Syria

Ancient Sumerian and Amorite city

Mari

تل حريري (in Arabic)

Ruins of Mari

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Mari, Syria (Syria)

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Alternative name| Tell Hariri
Location| Abu Kamal, Deir ez-Zor Governorate, Syria
Coordinates| 34°32′58″N 40°53′24″E﻿ / ﻿34.54944°N 40.89000°E﻿ / 34.54944; 40.89000
Type| Settlement
Area| 60 hectares (150 acres)
History
Founded| c. 2900 BC
Abandoned| 3rd century BC
Periods| Bronze Age
Cultures| East-Semitic (Kish civilization), Amorite
Site notes
Archaeologists| André Parrot
Condition| Ruined
Ownership| Public
Public access| Yes

Mari (Cuneiform: 𒈠𒌷𒆠, ma-riki, modern Tell Hariri; Arabic: تل حريري) was an ancient Semitic city-state in modern-day Syria. Its remains form a tell 11 kilometers north-west of Abu Kamal on the Euphrates River western bank, some 120 kilometers southeast of Deir ez-Zor. It flourished as a trade center and hegemonic state between 2900 BC and 1759 BC.[note 1] The city was built in the middle of the Euphrates trade routes between Sumer in the south and the Eblaite kingdom and the Levant in the west.

Mari was first abandoned in the middle of the 26th century BC but was rebuilt and became the capital of a hegemonic East Semitic state before 2500 BC. This second Mari engaged in a long war with its rival Ebla and is known for its strong affinity with Sumerian culture. It was destroyed in the 23rd century BC by the Akkadians, who allowed the city to be rebuilt and appointed a military governor (Shakkanakku). The governors became independent with the disintegration of the Akkadian Empire, and rebuilt the city as a regional center of the Euphrates valley. The Shakkanakkus ruled Mari until the second half of the 19th century BC, when the dynasty collapsed for unknown reasons. A short time later, Mari became the capital of the Amorite Lim dynasty. The Amorite Mari lasted only a short time before it was destroyed by Babylonia in c. 1761 BC, but it survived as a small settlement under the rule of the Babylonians and the Assyrians before being abandoned and forgotten during the Hellenistic period.

The Mariotes worshiped both Semitic and Sumerian deities and established their city as a major trading center. Although the pre-Amorite periods were characterized by heavy Sumerian cultural influence, Mari was not a city of Sumerian immigrants but a Semitic-speaking nation with a dialect similar to Eblaite. The Amorites were West Semites who began to settle the area before the 21st century BC; by the Lim dynasty (c. 1830 BC), they became the dominant population in the Fertile Crescent.

Mari's discovery in 1933 provided an important insight into the geopolitical map of ancient Mesopotamia and Syria, due to the discovery of more than 25,000 tablets explicating the state administration in the 2nd millennium BC and the nature of diplomatic relations among the political powers of the region. They also revealed the wide trading networks of the 18th century BC, which connected areas as far as Afghanistan in Southern Asia and Crete in the Mediterranean.

## Name

[edit]

The name of Mari (Cuneiform: 𒈠𒌷𒆠, ma-riki), on the statue of Iddi-Ilum, c. 2090 BC

Written in Cuneiform 𒈠𒌷𒆠 (ma-riki),[1] the name of the city can be traced to Itūr-Mēr, an ancient storm deity of northern Mesopotamia and Syria, who was considered the tutelary deity of the city,[2] Georges Dossin noted that the name of the city was spelled identically to that of the storm god and concluded that Mari was named after him.[3]

## History

[edit]

### Early Bronze Age

[edit]

#### First kingdom

[edit]

It is believed that Mari did not grow from a small settlement,[4] but was founded c. 2900 BC during the Mesopotamian Early Dynastic period I as a new city to control the waterways of the Euphrates trade routes connecting the Levant with the Sumerian south.[4][5] The city was built about 1 to 2 kilometers from the Euphrates river to protect it from floods,[4] and was connected to the river by an artificial canal 7 to 10 kilometers long whose route is hard to identify today.[6]

Mari's landmarks

The city is difficult to excavate as it is buried deep under later layers of habitation.[5] A circular flood embankment was unearthed,[5] containing an area 300 meters in length for gardens and craftsmen's quarters,[6] and a defensive circular internal rampart 6.7 m thick[5] and 8 to 10 meters high, strengthened by defensive towers.[6] Other findings include one of the city gates, a street beginning at the center and ending at the gate, and residential houses.[5] Mari had a central mound,[7] but no temple or palace has been unearthed there.[5] A large building was however excavated (with dimensions of 32 m x 25 m), seemingly with an administrative function. It had stone foundations and rooms up to 12 meters long and 6 meters wide.[8] The city was abandoned c. 2550 BC at the end of the Early Dynastic period II, for unknown reasons.[5]

#### Second kingdom

[edit]

Around the beginning of Early Dynastic period III (earlier than 2500 BC)[9] Mari was rebuilt and populated again.[5][10] The new city kept many of the first city's exterior features, including the internal rampart and gate.[5][11] Also kept was the outer circular embankment measuring 1.9 km in diameter, which was topped by a wall two meters thick capable of[11] protecting archers.[5]

Statue of Ebih-Il, a superintendent in Mari. (25th century BC)

However, the internal urban structure was completely changed[12] and the new city was carefully planned. First to be built were the streets that descended from the elevated center into the gates, ensuring the drainage of rain water.[5]

At the heart of the city, a royal palace was built that also served as a temple.[5] Four successive architectural levels from the second kingdom's palace have been unearthed (the oldest is designated P3, while the latest is P0). The last two levels are dated to the Akkadian period.[13] The first two levels were excavated;[13] the findings include a temple (Enceinte Sacrée or sacred enclosure) dedicated to an unknown deity,[13][14] a pillared throne room, and a hall with three double wood pillars leading to the temple.[13]

Six smaller temples were discovered in the city, including the temple called the Massif Rouge (unknown dedication), and temples dedicated to Ninni-Zaza [it] (INANA.ZA.ZA),[15] Ishtarat,[16] Ishtar, Ninhursag, and Shamash.[14] All the temples were located in the center of the city except for the Ishtar temple; the area between the Enceinte Sacrée and the Massif Rouge is considered to have been the administrative center of the high priest.[14]

The second kingdom appears to have been a powerful and prosperous political center,[9] its kings held the title of Lugal,[17] and many are attested in the city, the most important source being the letter of king Enna-Dagan c. 2350 BC,[note 2][19] which was sent to Irkab-Damu of Ebla,[note 3]. In it, the Mariote king mentions his predecessors and their military achievements.[21] However, the reading of this letter is still uncertain and many interpretations have been presented by scholars.[22][23][24]

##### Mari–Ebla war

[edit]

Helmetted warrior with axe, Mari Ishqi-Mari, king of the Second Kingdom of Mari, circa 2300 BC

The earliest attested king in the letter of Enna-Dagan is Ansud, who is mentioned as attacking Ebla, the traditional rival of Mari with whom it had a long war,[25] and conquering many of Ebla's cities, including the land of Belan.[note 4][24] The next king mentioned in the letter is Saʿumu, who conquered the lands of Ra'ak and Nirum.[note 5][24] King Kun-Damu of Ebla defeated Mari in the middle of the 25th century BC.[28] The war continued with Išhtup-Išar of Mari's conquest of Emar[24] at a time of Eblaite weakness in the mid-24th century BC. King Igrish-Halam of Ebla had to pay tribute to Iblul-Il of Mari,[28][29] who is mentioned in the letter, conquering many of Ebla's cities and campaigning in the Burman region.[24]

Enna-Dagan also received tribute;[29] his reign fell entirely within the reign of Irkab-Damu of Ebla,[30] who managed to defeat Mari and end the tribute.[20] Mari defeated Ebla's ally Nagar in year seven of the Eblaite vizier Ibrium's term, causing the blockage of trade routes between Ebla and southern Mesopotamia via upper Mesopotamia.[31] The war reached a climax when the Eblaite vizier Ibbi-Sipish made an alliance with Nagar and Kish to defeat Mari in a battle near Terqa.[32] Ebla itself suffered its first destruction a few years after Terqa in c. 2300 BC,[33] during the reign of the Mariote king Hidar.[34] According to Alfonso Archi [de], Hidar was succeeded by Ishqi-Mari whose royal seal was discovered. It depicts battle scenes, causing Archi to suggest that he was responsible for the destruction of Ebla while still a general.[34][35]

##### Destruction of Mari by Sargon of Akkad

[edit]

Soldiers, shell inlay. Mari

Just a decade after Ebla's destruction (c. 2300 BC middle chronology), Mari itself was destroyed and burned by Sargon of Akkad, as shown by one of his year names ("Year in which Mari was destroyed").[36][37][38][32] Michael Astour proposed the date as c. 2265 BC (short chronology).[39] Ishqi-Mari was probably the last king of Mari before the conquests by the Akkadian Empire.[40] Sargon of Akkad collected tribute from Mari and Elam:[41]

> Sargon the King bowed down to Dagan in Tuttul. He (Dagan) gave to him (Sargon) the Upper Land: Mari, Iarmuti, and Ebla, as far as the Cedar Forest and the Silver Mountains

> — Nippur inscription of Sargon[42][43]

#### Third kingdom

[edit]

Mari was deserted for two generations before being restored by the Akkadian king Manishtushu.[44] A governor was appointed to govern the city who held the title Shakkanakku (military governor).[45] Akkad kept direct control over the city, which is evident by Naram-Sin of Akkad's appointment of two of his daughters to priestly offices in the city.[45]

##### Shakkanakku dynasty

[edit]

Puzur-Ishtar, Shakkanakku (Military Governor) of Mari, circa 2050 BC

The first member of the Shakkanakku dynasty on the lists is Ididish, who was appointed in c. 2266 BC.[note 6][47] According to the lists, Ididish ruled for 60 years[48] and was succeeded by his son=, making the position hereditary.[49]

The third Mari followed the second city in terms of general structure,[50] phase P0 of the old royal palace was replaced by a new palace for the Shakkanakku.[51] Another smaller palace was built in the eastern part of the city,[7] and contained royal burials that date to the former periods.[52] The ramparts were rebuilt and strengthened while the embankment was turned into a defensive wall that reached 10 meters in width.[51] The former sacred inclosure was maintained,[51] so was the temple of Ninhursag. However, the temples of Ninni-Zaza and Ishtarat disappeared,[51] while a new temple called the "temple of lions" (dedicated to Dagan),[53] was built by the Shakkanakku Ishtup-Ilum and attached to it, was a rectangular terrace that measured 40 x 20 meters for sacrifices.[51][7][54]

Akkad disintegrated during Shar-Kali-Sharri's reign,[55] and Mari gained its independence, but the use of the Shakkanakku title continued during the following Third Dynasty of Ur period.[56] A princess of Mari married the son of king Ur-Nammu of Ur,[57][58] and Mari was nominally under Ur hegemony.[59] However, the vassalage did not impede the independence of Mari,[60][61] and some Shakkanakkus used the royal title Lugal in their votive inscriptions, while using the title of Shakkanakku in their correspondence with the Ur's court.[62] The dynasty ended for unknown reasons not long before the establishment of the next dynasty, which took place in the second half of the 19th century BC.[63][64][65]

### Middle Bronze Age

[edit]

#### Lim dynasty

[edit]

The second millennium BC in the Fertile Crescent was characterized by the expansion of the Amorites, which culminated with them dominating and ruling most of the region,[66] including Mari which in c. 1830 BC, became the seat of the Amorite Lim dynasty under king Yaggid-Lim.[65][67] However, the epigraphical and archaeological evidences showed a high degree of continuity between the Shakkanakku and the Amorite eras.[note 7][57]

Yaggid-Lim was the ruler of Suprum before establishing himself in Mari,[note 8][note 9][70] he entered an alliance with Ila-kabkabu of Ekallatum, but the relations between the two monarchs changed to an open war.[69][71] The conflict ended with Ila-kabkabu capturing Yaggid-Lim's heir Yahdun-Lim and according to a tablet found in Mari, Yaggid-Lim who survived Ila-kabkabu was killed by his servants.[note 10][69] However, in c. 1820 BC Yahdun-Lim was firmly in control as king of Mari.[note 11][71]

Goddess of the vase, Mari, 18th century BC

Yahdun-Lim started his reign by subduing seven of his rebelling tribal leaders, and rebuilding the walls of Mari and Terqa in addition to building a new fort which he named Dur-Yahdun-Lim.[73] He then expanded west and claimed to have reached the Mediterranean,[74][75] however he later had to face a rebellion by the Banu-Yamina nomads who were centered at Tuttul, and the rebels were supported by Yamhad's king Sumu-Epuh, whose interests were threatened by the recently established alliance between Yahdun-Lim and Eshnunna.[60][74] Yahdun-Lim defeated the Yamina but an open war with Yamhad was avoided,[76] as the Mariote king became occupied by his rivalry with Shamshi-Adad I of Shubat-Enlil, the son of the late Ila-kabkabu.[77] The war ended in a defeat for Mari,[77][78] and Yahdun-Lim was assassinated in c. 1798 BC by his possible son Sumu-Yamam,[79][80] who himself got assassinated two years after ascending the throne while Shamshi-Adad advanced and annexed Mari.[81]

#### Shamshi-Adad of Assyria and Yasmah-Adad

[edit]

Shamshi-Adad (r. 1809-1775 BC) appointed his son Yasmah-Adad on the throne of Mari, the new king married Yahdun-Lim's daughter,[82][83] while the rest of the Lim family took refuge in Yamhad,[84] and the annexation was officially justified by what Shamshi-Adad considered sinful acts on the side of the Lim family.[85] To strengthen his position against his new enemy Yamhad, Shamshi-Adad married Yasmah-Adad to Betlum, the daughter of Ishi-Addu of Qatna.[83] However, Yasmah-Adad neglected his bride causing a crisis with Qatna, and he proved to be an unable leader causing the rage of his father who died in c. 1776 BC,[83][86][87] while the armies of Yarim-Lim I of Yamhad were advancing in support of Zimri-Lim, the heir of the Lim dynasty.[note 12][87]

Investiture of Zimri-Lim (18th century BC)

#### Zimri-Lim of Mari

[edit]

As Zimri-Lim advanced, a leader of the Banu-Simaal (Zimri-Lim's tribe) overthrew Yasmah-Adad,[89] opening the road for Zimri-Lim who arrived a few months after Yasmah-Adad's escape,[90] and married princess Shibtu the daughter of Yarim-Lim I a short time after his enthronement in c. 1776 BC.[87] Zimri-Lim's ascension to the throne with the help of Yarim-Lim I affected Mari's status, Zimri-Lim referred to Yarim-Lim as his father, and the Yamhadite king was able to order Mari as the mediator between Yamhad's main deity Hadad and Zimri-Lim, who declared himself a servant of Hadad.[91]

Zimri-Lim started his reign with a campaign against the Banu-Yamina, he also established alliances with Eshnunna and Hammurabi of Babylon,[84] and sent his armies to aid the Babylonians.[92] The new king directed his expansion policy toward the north in the Upper Khabur region, which was named Idamaraz [ca],[93] where he subjugated the local petty kingdoms in the region such as Urkesh,[94] and Talhayum [ca], forcing them into vassalage.[95] The expansion was met by the resistance of Qarni-Lim, the king of Andarig,[96] whom Zimri-Lim defeated, securing the Mariote control over the region in c. 1771 BC,[97] and the kingdom prospered as a trading center and entered a period of relative peace.[87] Zimri-Lim's greatest heritage was the renovation of the Royal Palace, which was expanded greatly to contain 275 rooms,[7][98] exquisite artifacts such as The Goddess of the Vase statue,[99] and a royal archive that contained thousands of tablets.[100]

#### Babylonian period

[edit]

The relations with Babylon worsened with a dispute over the city of Hīt that consumed much time in negotiations,[101] during which a war against Elam involved both kingdoms in c. 1765 BC.[102] Finally, the kingdom was invaded by Hammurabi who defeated Zimri-Lim in battle in c. 1761 BC and ended the Lim dynasty,[103] while Terqa became the capital of a rump state named the Kingdom of Hana.[104] In the south, the region of Suhum became a Babylonian province.

Mari survived the destruction and rebelled against Babylon in c. 1759 BC, causing Hammurabi to destroy the whole city.[105] However, by an act of mercy Hammurabi may have allowed Mari to survive as a small village under Babylonian administration (according to Marc Van De Mieroop).[105]

### Late Bronze Age

[edit]

Later, Mari became part of Assyria and was listed among the territories conquered by the Assyrian king Tukulti-Ninurta I (reigned 1243–1207 BC).[106] Afterward, Mari constantly changed hands between Assyria and Babylon.[106]

### Iron Age

[edit]

In the middle of the eleventh century BC, Mari became part of Hana whose king Tukulti-Mer took the title king of Mari and rebelled against Assyria, causing the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala (r. 1074-1056 BC) to attack the city.[106] Mari came firmly under the authority of the Neo-Assyrian Empire, and was assigned in the first half of the 8th century BC to a certain Nergal-Erish to govern under the authority of king Adad-Nirari III (r. 810–783 BC).[106]

Shamash-Risha-Usur (c. 760 BC)

In c. 760 BC, Shamash-Risha-Usur,[107] an autonomous governor ruling parts of the upper middle Euphrates under the nominal authority of Ashur-dan III, styled himself the governor of the lands of Suhu and Mari, so did his son Ninurta-Kudurri-Usur.[106] However, by that time, Mari was known to be located in the so-called Land of Laqe,[note 13] making it unlikely that the Usur family actually controlled it, and suggesting that the title was employed out of historical reasons.[106]

The city continued as a small settlement until the Hellenistic period before disappearing from records.[106]

### Modern history

[edit]

By 2015, ISIS devastated and looted systematically the site and specially the royal palace.[109] It was one of the first archaeological sites to be occupied by this group.[110]

## People, language and government

[edit]

Further information: List of kings of Mari

A Mariote from the second kingdom. (25th century BC)

The founders of the first city may have been Sumerians or more probably East Semitic speaking people from Terqa in the north.[4] I. J. Gelb relates Mari's foundation with the Kish civilization,[111] which was a cultural entity of East Semitic speaking populations, that stretched from the center of Mesopotamia to Ebla in the western Levant.[112]

At its height, the second city was the home of about 40,000 people.[113] This population was East-Semitic speaking one, and used a dialect much similar to the language of Ebla (the Eblaite language),[10][114] while the Shakkanakku period had an East-Semitic Akkadian speaking population.[115] West Semitic names started to be attested in Mari from the second kingdom era,[116] and by the middle Bronze-Age, the west Semitic Amorite tribes became the majority of the pastoral groups in the middle Euphrates and Khabur valleys.[117] Amorite names started to be observed in the city toward the end of the Shakkanakku period, even among the ruling dynasty members.[118]

Statues from Mari in the National Museum of Aleppo

During the Lim era, the population became predominantly Amorite but also included Akkadian named people,[note 14] and although the Amorite language became the dominant tongue, Akkadian remained the language of writing.[119][120][121] The pastoral Amorites in Mari were called the Haneans, a term that indicate nomads in general,[122] those Haneans were split into the Banu-Yamina (sons of the right) and Banu-Simaal (sons of the left), with the ruling house belonging to the Banu-Simaal branch.[122] The kingdom was also a home to tribes of Suteans who lived in the district of Terqa.[123]

Mari was an absolute monarchy, with the king controlling every aspect of the administration, helped by the scribes who played the role of administrators.[124][125] During the Lim era, Mari was divided into four provinces in addition to the capital, the provincial seats were located at Terqa, Saggaratum, Qattunan and Tuttul. Each province had its own bureaucracy,[125] the government supplied the villagers with ploughs and agricultural equipments, in return for a share in the harvest.[126]

## Culture and religion

[edit]

A Mariote woman. (25th century BC)

The first and second kingdoms were heavily influenced by the Sumerian south.[127] The society was led by an urban oligarchy,[128] and the citizens were well known for elaborate hair styles and dress.[129][130] The calendar was based on a solar year divided into twelve months, and was the same calendar used in Ebla "the old Eblaite calendar".[131][132] Scribes wrote in Sumerian language and the art was indistinguishable from Sumerian art, so was the architectural style.[133]

Mesopotamian influence continued to affect Mari's culture during the Amorite period,[134] which is evident in the Babylonian scribal style used in the city.[135] However, it was less influential than the former periods and a distinct Syrian style prevailed, which is noticeable in the seals of kings, which reflect a clear Syrian origin.[134] The society was a tribal one,[136] it consisted mostly of farmers and nomads (Haneans),[137] and in contrast to Mesopotamia, the temple had a minor role in everyday life as the power was mostly invested in the palace.[138] Women enjoyed a relative equality to men,[139] queen Shibtu ruled in her husband's name while he was away, and had an extensive administrative role and authority over her husband's highest officials.[140]

The Pantheon included both Sumerian and Semitic deities,[141] and throughout most of its history, Dagan was Mari's head of the Pantheon,[142] while Mer was the patron deity.[143] Other deities included the Semitic deities; Ishtar the goddess of fertility,[141] Athtar,[144] and Shamash, the Sun god who was regarded among the city most important deities,[145] and believed to be all-knowing and all-seeing.[146] Sumerian deities included Ninhursag,[141] Dumuzi,[147] Enki, Anu, and Enlil.[148] Prophecy had an important role for the society, temples included prophets,[149] who gave council to the king and participated in the religious festivals.[150]

## Economy

[edit]

The first Mari provided the oldest wheel workshop yet discovered in Syria,[151] and was a center of bronze metallurgy.[4] The city also contained districts devoted to smelting, dyeing, and pottery manufacture,[13] using charcoal brought by river boats from the upper Khabur and Euphrates area.[4]

The second kingdom's economy was based on both agriculture and trade.[120] It was centralized and directed through a communal organization,[120] with grain stored in communal granaries and distributed according to social status.[120] The organization also controlled the animal herds in the kingdom.[120] Some groups were direct beneficiaries of the palace instead of the communal organization, including the metal and textile producers and military officials.[120] Ebla was an important trading partner and rival,[152] Mari's position made it an important trading center astride the road linking the Levant and Mesopotamia.[153]

The Amorite Mari maintained the older aspects of the economy, still largely based on irrigated agriculture along the Euphrates valley.[120] The city remained a trading center for merchants from Babylonia and other kingdoms,[154] with goods from the south and east transported on riverboats bound for the north, northwest and west.[155] The main trade was metals and tin from the Iranian Plateau exported west as far as Crete. Other goods included copper from Cyprus, silver from Anatolia, wood from Lebanon, gold from Egypt, olive oil, wine, and textiles, and even precious stones from modern Afghanistan.[155]

## Excavations and archive

[edit]

Excavations by the archaeological team of André Parrot in 1936. Discovery of the statue of military Governor Ishtup-Ilum

Mari was discovered in 1933, on the eastern flank of Syria, near the Iraqi border.[156] A Bedouin tribe was digging through a mound called Tell Hariri for a gravestone that would be used for a recently deceased tribesman, when they came across a headless statue.[156] After the news reached the French authorities currently in control of Syria, the report was investigated, and digging on the site was started on December 14, 1933 by archaeologists from the Louvre in Paris.[156] The location of the fragment was excavated, revealing the temple of Ishtar, which led to the commencing of the full scale excavations.[157] Mari was classified by the archaeologists as the "most westerly outpost of Sumerian culture".[158]

Since the beginning of excavations, over 25,000 clay tablets in Akkadian language written in cuneiform were discovered.[159] Finds from the excavation are on display in the Louvre,[160] the National Museum of Aleppo,[161] the National Museum of Damascus,[146] and the Deir ez-Zor Museum. In the latter, the southern façade of the Court of the Palms room from Zimri-Lim's palace has been reconstructed, including the wall paintings.[162]

Mari has been excavated in annual campaigns in 1933–1939, 1951–1956, and since 1960.[163] André Parrot conducted the first 21 seasons up to 1974,[164] and was followed by Jean-Claude Margueron [fr] (1979–2004),[165] and Pascal Butterlin (starting in 2005).[163] A journal devoted to the site, released in 8 volumes between 1982 and 1997, was Mari: Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires.[166][167] Archaeologists have tried to determine how many layers the site descends, according to French archaeologist André Parrot, "each time a vertical probe was commenced in order to trace the site's history down to virgin soil, such important discoveries were made that horizontal digging had to be resumed."[168]

### Mari tablets

[edit]

Over 25,000 tablets were found in the burnt library of Zimri-Lim written in Akkadian[169] from a period of 50 years between circa 1800 – 1750 BC.[170] They give information about the kingdom, its customs, and the names of people who lived during that time.[67] More than 3000 are letters, the remainder includes administrative, economic, and judicial texts.[171] Almost all the tablets found were dated to the last 50 years of Mari's independence,[171] and most have now been published.[172] The language of the texts is official Akkadian, but proper names and hints in syntax show that the common language of Mari's inhabitants was Northwest Semitic.[173] Six of the tablets found were in the Hurrian language.[174]

## Current situation

[edit]

Excavations stopped from 2011 as a result of the Syrian Civil War and have not restarted.[175] The site came under the control of armed gangs and suffered large scale looting. A 2014 official report revealed that robbers were focusing on the royal palace, the public baths, the temple of Ishtar, and the temple of Dagan.[176] Based on satellite imagery, looting continued until at least 2017.[177]

## See also

[edit]

* Asia portal

* Tourism in Syria
* Cities of the Ancient Near East
* Short chronology timeline
* Statue of Iddi-Ilum
* Ornina

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Dates are estimated according to the Middle chronology unless otherwise stated.
2. ^ In old readings, it was thought that Enna-Dagan was a general of Ebla. However, the deciphering of Ebla's tablets showed him in Mari and receiving gifts from Ebla during the reigns of his Mariote predecessors.[18]
3. ^ Irkab-Damu is not named in the letter but it is almost certain that he was the recipient.[20]
4. ^ Located 26 km west of Raqqa.[26]
5. ^ Located in the Euphrates middle valley close to Sweyhat.[27]
6. ^ According to Jean-Marie Durand, this Shakkanakku was appointed by Manishtushu, other opinions consider Naram-Sin as the appointer of Ididish.[46]
7. ^ This ruled out the former theory that there was an abandonment of Mari during the transition period.[57]
8. ^ Suprum is 12 kilometers upstream from Mari, perhaps the modern Tel Abu Hasan.[68]
9. ^ It is not certain that Yaggid-Lim controlled Mari, however he is traditionally considered the first king of the dynasty.[69]
10. ^ The credibility of the tablet is doubted as it was written by Yasmah-Adad who was Ila-kabkabu grandson.[69]
11. ^ The transition of the Lim family from Suprum to Mari could have been the work of Yahdun-Lim after the war with Ila-kabkabu.[72]
12. ^ Although officially a son of Yahdun-Lim, in reality he was a grandchild or nephew.[88]
13. ^ An ancient designation for the land that include the confluence of the Khabur and the Euphrates rivers.[108]
14. ^ Jean-Marie Durand, although not speculating the fate of the East-Semitic population, believe that the Akkadians during the Lim dynasty are not descended from the East-Semites of the Shakkanakku period.[115]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Tinney et al. 2020.
2. ^ Paul-Alain Beaulieu (20 November 2017). A History of Babylon, 2200 BC - AD 75. John Wiley & Sons. p. 106\. ISBN 978-1-119-45907-1. OCLC 1010542283.
3. ^ Oldenburg 1969, p. 60.
4. ^ a b c d e f Viollet 2007, p. 36.
5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Margueron 2003, p. 136.
6. ^ a b c Margueron 2013, p. 520.
7. ^ a b c d Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 286.
8. ^ Margueron 2013, p. 522.
9. ^ a b Akkermans & Schwartz 2003, p. 267.
10. ^ a b Liverani 2013, p. 117.
11. ^ a b Margueron 2013, p. 523.
12. ^ Margueron 2013, p. 524.
13. ^ a b c d e Margueron 2003, p. 137.
14. ^ a b c Margueron 2013, p. 527.
15. ^ Parrot, André, "Les Temples d’Ishtarat et de Ninni-zaza", Mission Archéologique de Mari, vol. 3, Librairie Orientaliste. Paris: Paul Geuthner, 1967
16. ^ Aruz & Wallenfels 2003, p. 531.
17. ^ Nadali 2007, p. 354.
18. ^ Frayne 2008, p. 335.
19. ^ Michalowski 2003, p. 463.
20. ^ a b Podany 2010, p. 26.
21. ^ Roux 1992, p. 142.
22. ^ Astour 2002, p. 57.
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* Strommenger, Eva (1964) [1962]. 5000 Years of the Art of Mesopotamia. Translated by Haglund, Christina. Harry N. Abrams. OCLC 505796.
* Suriano, Matthew J. (2010). The Politics of Dead Kings: Dynastic Ancestors in the Book of Kings and Ancient Israel. Vol. 48\. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-150473-0. ISSN 1611-4914. `{{cite book}}`: `|journal=` ignored (help)
* Teissier, Beatrice (1996) [1995]. Egyptian Iconography on Syro-Palestinian Cylinder Seals of the Middle Bronze Age. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis- Series Archaeologica. Vol. 11\. University Press Fribourg Switzerland. ISBN 978-3-525-53892-0. ISSN 1422-4399.
* Tetlow, Elisabeth Meier (2004). Women, Crime and Punishment in Ancient Law and Society: The Ancient Near East. Vol. 1\. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-1628-5.
* Thompson, Thomas L. (2007). "A Testimony of the Good King: Reading the Mesha Stela". In Grabbe, Lester L. (ed.). Ahab Agonistes: The Rise and Fall of the Omri Dynasty. T&T Clark International. ISBN 978-0-567-04540-9.
* Tinney, Steve; Novotny, Jamie; Robson, Eleanor; Veldhuis, Niek, eds. (2020). "Mari [1] (SN)". Oracc (Open Richly Annotated Cuneiform Corpus). Oracc Steering Committee.
* Van De Mieroop, Marc (2002). "Foreign Contacts and the Rise of an Elite in Early Dynastic Babylonia". In Ehrenberg, Erica (ed.). Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen. Eisenbrauns. ISBN 978-1-57506-055-2.
* Van De Mieroop, Marc (2007) [2005]. King Hammurabi of Babylon: A Biography. Blackwell Ancient Lives. Vol. 19\. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 978-0-470-69534-0.
* Van De Mieroop, Marc (2011) [2003]. A History of the Ancient Near East ca. 3000 - 323 BC. Blackwell History of the Ancient World. Vol. 6 (2 ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-2709-0.
* Van Der Meer, Petrus (1955) [1947]. The Chronology of Ancient Western Asia and Egypt. Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui. Vol. 2 (2 ed.). Brill. OCLC 4727997.
* Van Der Toorn, Karel (1996). Family Religion in Babylonia, Ugarit and Israel: Continuity and Changes in the Forms of Religious Life. Studies in the History of the Ancient Near East. Vol. 7\. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10410-5. ISSN 0169-9024.
* Viollet, Pierre-Louis (2007) [2005]. Water Engineering in Ancient Civilizations: 5,000 Years of History. IAHR Monographs. Vol. 7\. Translated by Holly, Forrest M. CRC Press. ISBN 978-90-78046-05-9.
* Walton, John H. (1990) [1989]. Ancient Israelite Literature in Its Cultural Context: A Survey of Parallels Between Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Texts. Zondervan Publishing House. ISBN 978-0-310-36591-4.
* Wossink, Arne (2009). Challenging Climate Change: Competition and Cooperation Among Pastoralists and Agriculturalists in Northern Mesopotamia (c. 3000–1600 BC). Sidestone Press. ISBN 978-90-8890-031-0.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mari.

* Mari Mari passage on the Syrian ministry of culture website (in Arabic).
* Syrie - Mari Mari page on Britannica.
* Mari (Tell Hariri) Suggestion to have Mari (Tell Hariri) recognized as a UNESCO world heritage site, in 1999

* v
* t
* e

Ancient states and regions in the history of the Levant

Copper Age|

* Kish civilization
* Tell Halaf
* Chagar Bazar
* Hamoukar
* Jericho
* Byblos
* Ebla
* Ugarit
* Urkesh

Bronze Age|

* Akkadian Empire
* Alashiya
* Amorite states
* Alalakh
* Amurru
* Andarig
* Apum
* First Babylon
* Third Ebla
* Ekallatum
* Emar
* Kurda
* Third Mari
* Mukish
* Palmyra
* Qatna
* Ṭābetu
* Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia
* Yamhad
* Amqu
* Aram
* Barga
* Canaanite city-states
* Amalek
* Arqa
* Arwad
* Ascalon
* Aštartu
* Azzati
* Bashan/Hauran
* Beruta
* Gebal
* Dimasqu
* Gezer
* Gibeon
* Hazor
* Jericho
* Jerusalem
* Kenites
* Kumidi
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* Megiddo
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* Qadesh
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* Hurrians
* Urshu
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* Mitanni
* Tell Hadidi
* Naziba
* Niya
* Ib'al Confederacy
* Paleo-Syrian states
* Armi
* Aleppo
* Armanum/Tall Bazi
* Ebla
* Emar
* Khana/Terqa
* Mari
* Nagar
* Tuttul
* Suhum
* ʿApiru
* Aḫlamū
* Suteans
* Amqu
* ʿApiru
* Shasu
* Shutu
* Tadmor
* Tunip
* Ugarit
* Upu
* Nuhašše
* Niya

Iron Age|

* Achaemenid Empire
* Aramaean states
* Aram-Damascus
* Aram Rehob
* Bit-Adini
* Bit Agusi
* Bit Bahiani
* Geshur
* Hamath
* Sam'al
* Zobah
* Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Canaan
* Ammon
* Edom
* Israel (Samaria)
* Israel (united)
* Jericho
* Judah
* Moab
* Philistia
* Ashdod
* Ascalon
* Ekron
* Gath
* Gaza
* Phoenicia
* Amrit
* Arwad
* Gebal
* Tartus
* Tyre
* Sidon
* New Kingdom of Egypt
* Arabs
* Itureans?
* Nabataeans
* Qedarites
* Luwian-Aramaean states
* Carchemish
* Kummuh
* Luhuti
* Palistin
* Pattin

Classical Age|

* Ancient Rome (Roman Republic \- Roman Empire \- Byzantine Empire)
* Commagene
* Emesene Dynasty
* Ghassanid Kingdom
* Hasmonean dynasty
* Herodian kingdom
* Herodian Tetrarchy
* Iturea
* Macedonia
* Nabataean Kingdom
* Osroene
* Palmyrene Empire
* Parthian Empire
* Seleucid Empire
* Sasanian Empire
* Tanukhid confederacy

Sources|

* Amarna letters
* Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions

* v
* t
* e

Syria articles

History|

* Timeline
* Years in Syria

Prehistorical Syria|

* Levantine corridor
* Natufian culture
* Halaf culture
* Uruk period
* Abu Hureyra
* Aswad
* Yarmukian culture

Ancient Syria|

* Amorites
* Akkadian Empire
* Arameans
* Canaanites
* Middle Assyrian Empire
* Ebla
* Yamhad
* Qatna
* Mari
* Ugarit
* Aram-Damascus
* Syro-Hittite states
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* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Achaemenid Syria
* Seleucid Syria
* Roman Syria
* Palmyrene Empire
* Byzantine Syria

Medieval Syria|

* Muslim conquest (636)
* Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham)
* Tulunid dynasty
* Ikhshidid dynasty
* Zangid dynasty
* Hamdanid dynasty
* Mirdasid dynasty
* Fatimid Syria
* Saljuqid Syria
* Crusader states
* County of Edessa
* Principality of Antioch
* County of Tripoli
* Ayyubid Syria (1174–1260)
* Mamluk Syria (1260–1516)

Early modern Syria|

* Ottoman Syria (1516–1918)

Modern Syria|

* Arab kingdom (1920)
* Haj Fadel Government
* French Mandate
* Syrian Federation (1922–25)
* State of Syria (1925–30)
* Mandatory Republic (1930–46)
* independent First Republic (1946–50)
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* Civil war

Geography|

* Borders
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* Governorates
* Rivers
* Volcanoes

Features|

* Al-Jazira
* Anti-Lebanon Mountains
* Euphrates
* Golan Heights
* Hauran
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* Syrian Desert

Related|

* Syria (region)
* Southern Syria
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* Levant

Politics|

* Constitution
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* list
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* list
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Military|

* Army
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Economy|

* Agriculture
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Infrastructure|

* Energy and mineral resources
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Society|

* Censorship
* Demographics
* Education
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* Hunger
* People
* diaspora
* refugees (2011-present)
* women
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Culture|

* Anthem
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* Films
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* State
* television
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* Outline
* Index

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Deir ez-Zor Governorate

Capital: Deir ez-Zor

Deir ez-Zor District

* Deir ez-Zor
* al-Abed
* Abu Khashab
* al-Ali
* Ayyash
* Barihah
* al-Bughayliyah
* al-Busayrah
* al-Dahlah
* al-Hajnah
* al-Hariji
* al-Harijiyah
* al-Harmushiyah
* Hatla
* Hawayij Bumasaa
* al-Jafrah
* Jarwan
* Jazrat al-Buhamid
* Jazrat Milaj
* al-Kasrah
* al-Kharitah
* Khasham
* al-Ji'ah
* Judaydat Bakkarah
* Judaydat Akaidat
* Maadan Atiq
* al-Maaishiyah
* Marat
* al-Masrab
* al-Muhasan
* Muhaymidah
* al-Murayiyah
* al-Muwaylih
* al-Qasbi
* Qitaat al-Bulil
* Ruwayshid
* al-Saawah
* al-Sabhah
* Safirah Fawqani
* Safirah Tahtani
* al-Shate'
* al-Shuhayl
* al-Shumaytiyah
* al-Suwar
* al-Tabni
* al-Tarif
* al-Tub
* Zaghir Jazirah
* Zaghir Shamiyah
* al-Zir

Abu Kamal District

* Abu Kamal
* al-Abbas
* Abu Hamam
* al-Baghuz Fawqani
* al-Bahrah
* al-Bubadran
* Gharanij
* al-Ghbrah
* Hajin
* al-Hara
* Hasrat
* al-Jalaa
* al-Kishkiyah
* al-Marashidah
* Muaiyzila
* al-Qitaa
* al-Ramadi
* al-Salihiyah
* al-Sayyal
* al-Shaafah
* al-Sukkariya
* al-Susah
* al-Suwayiyah
* al-Tawtahiyah

Mayadin District

* Mayadin
* al-Asharah
* Abu Hardub
* Dablan
* Diban
* al-Duwayr
* Baqras Fawqani
* Baqras Tahtani
* Darnaj
* Gharibah
* al-Hawayij
* Hawi Thiban
* al-Jurthah al-Sharqi
* al-Karamah
* al-Kishmah
* Mahkan
* al-Quriyah
* al-Raghib
* Saalo
* Sabikhan
* Suwaydan Jazirah
* al-Tayanah
* al-Taybah
* Tishrin
* al-Zabara

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the Ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt-Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash

3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mes-he
Melamanna
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-
tarana
Napilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugalannemundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugalzagesi
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(Vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-Ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(Vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire

Ugarit
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Eight Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of Ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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