Ocean exploration

Part of oceanography describing the exploration of ocean surfaces

Atlantic Ocean

Ocean exploration is a part of oceanography describing the exploration of ocean surfaces. Notable explorations were undertaken by the Greeks, the Romans, the Polynesians, the Phoenicians, Phytheas, Herodotus, the Vikings, the Portuguese and Muslims. Scientific investigations began with early scientists such as James Cook, Charles Darwin, and Edmund Halley. Ocean exploration itself coincided with the developments in shipbuilding, diving, navigation, depth, measurement, exploration, and cartography.

## Timeline

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### Early exploration

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* 4500 BC Around this time, cultures like those in Greece and Rome began diving into the sea as a source of food gathering, commerce, and possibly even warfare.
* 4000 BC Egyptians developed sailing vessels, which were probably used only in the eastern Mediterranean near the mouth of the Nile River.
* 4000 BC - 1000 AD Polynesian colonization of South Pacific Islands.
* 1800 BC Basic measuring of the depths is done in Egypt.
* 1500 BC Middle Eastern peoples explored the Indian Ocean
* 600 BC Phoenicians developed sea routes around the entire Mediterranean and into the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean. Going around Africa they reached England by sailing along the western European coast. Although they understood celestial navigation, they probably stayed within sight of land whenever possible.
* 500-200 BC Greeks developed trade routes in the Mediterranean using the length of the day (corrected for the time of the year) to estimate latitude.
* 450 BC Herodotus publishes a map of the Mediterranean region.
* 325 BC Pytheas, a Greek astronomer and geographer, sailed north out of the Mediterranean, reaching England and possibly even Iceland and Norway. He also developed the use of sightings on the North Star to determine latitude.
* c.240 BC Eratosthenes of Cyrene measures the circumference of Earth with a high precision.[1]
* 150 AD Ptolemy produces a map of the Roman world, including lines of latitude and longitude, the continents of Asia, Europe, and Africa and the surrounding oceans.
* 900-1430 Vikings explore and colonize Iceland, Greenland, Newfoundland.
* 1002 Leif Erikson reaches North America 500 years before Columbus.[2]
* 1405-1433 Chinese send seven voyages to extend Chinese influence and impress their neighbor states. These expensive voyages are ended after a short time. See Zheng He (1371–1433).

### From Age of Exploration to present

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Further information: European and American voyages of scientific exploration

* 1492-1504 Christopher Columbus reaches America looking for a searoute to the Indies; discovering various lands and islands and establishing a colony on Hispaniola
* 1498 Vasco da Gama sails around Africa from Portugal reaching India and establishing trade routes
* 1499-1504 Amerigo Vespucci explores New World
* 1519-1522 Ferdinand Magellan's ships circumnavigate the world.
* 1620 Dutch inventor Cornelis Drebbel builds the world's first submarine and makes several trips in the River Thames near London at a depth of about 12 or 15 feet.
* 1698-1700 Edmund Halley made probably the first primarily scientific voyage to study the variation of the magnetic compass, sailing as far as 52 deg S. in the Atlantic Ocean. On a previous expedition to St. Helena, he made an important contribution to knowledge of the trade winds.
* 1768-1780 James Cook explores the southern parts of the oceans looking for the southern continent. He was the first to use a marine chronometer to determine longitude.
* 1785 Benjamin Franklin writes Sundry Marine Observations on improvements to ships and the Gulf Stream.
* 1831-1836 Charles Darwin sails on the Beagle, exploring the Galapagos and many other areas. It is this work which led him to develop the concepts of natural selection and evolution.
* 1860 First chart of the Gulf Stream published by the United States Coast Survey.
* 1872-1876 H.M.S. Challenger travels around the world on a scientific mission taking sediment samples, water samples, soundings, and collecting many biological specimens.
* 1960 Bathyscaphe Trieste dives to what was believed to be the deepest point in the Mariana Trench. A depth of 10,915 meters was observed.
* 1969 The Ben Franklin (PX-15) drifts submerged for 30 days in the Gulf Stream.

#### Human-powered

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* The renaissance of ocean exploration occurred in the 20th century, when human-powered exploration became increasingly popular. Via this new medium, pioneering has once again become the goal of ocean explorers.[3]

## See also

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* Oceans portal

* Deep-sea exploration – Investigation of ocean conditions beyond the continental shelf
* Exploration – Process of investigating unfamiliar things
* List of explorers
* List of maritime explorers
* Ocean – Body of salt water covering most of Earth
* Oceanography – Study of physical, chemical, and biological processes in the ocean
* Office of Ocean Exploration – US government scientific agencyPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
* Timeline of maritime migration and exploration

## References

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1. ^ Russo, Lucio (2004). The Forgotten Revolution. Berlin: Springer. pp. 273–277.
2. ^ Sverdrup, Keith A.; Alyn C. Duxbury; Alison B. Duxbury (2005). An Introduction to the World's Oceans. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 4\. ISBN 0-07-252807-9.
3. ^ "Ocean Rowing Society International launches the first real adventure database". Guinness World Records. 2021-04-07. Retrieved 2021-08-12.

## Sources

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* NOAA, Interactive Timeline of significant and interesting events throughout the 200-year history of NOAA and its predecessor organizations.
* SeaSky.org - Ocean Exploration Timeline with Credits & Sources
* NOAA - Sounding Pole to Sea Beam
* History of Ocean Exploration
* USC Earth Sciences, History of Oceanography
* skb's virtual cave - Notable oceanographic expeditions

## External links

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* Ocean Explorer \- Public outreach site for explorations sponsored by the Office of Ocean Exploration.
* NOAA, Ocean Explorer History
* NOAA, Ocean Explorer Gallery \- A rich collection of images, video, audio and podcast.
* NOAA's Office of Ocean Exploration
* Deep-sea exploration

* v
* t
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Physical oceanography

Waves|

* Airy wave theory
* Ballantine scale
* Benjamin–Feir instability
* Boussinesq approximation
* Breaking wave
* Clapotis
* Cnoidal wave
* Cross sea
* Dispersion
* Edge wave
* Equatorial waves
* Gravity wave
* Green's law
* Infragravity wave
* Internal wave
* Iribarren number
* Kelvin wave
* Kinematic wave
* Longshore drift
* Luke's variational principle
* Mild-slope equation
* Radiation stress
* Rogue wave
* Rossby wave
* Rossby-gravity waves
* Sea state
* Seiche
* Significant wave height
* Soliton
* Stokes drift
* Stokes problem
* Stokes wave
* Swell
* Trochoidal wave
* Tsunami
* megatsunami
* Undertow
* Ursell number
* Wave action
* Wave base
* Wave height
* Wave nonlinearity
* Wave power
* Wave radar
* Wave setup
* Wave shoaling
* Wave turbulence
* Wave–current interaction
* Waves and shallow water
* one-dimensional Saint-Venant equations
* shallow water equations
* Wind fetch
* Wind setup
* Wind wave
* model

Circulation|

* Atmospheric circulation
* Baroclinity
* Boundary current
* Coriolis force
* Coriolis–Stokes force
* Craik–Leibovich vortex force
* Downwelling
* Eddy
* Ekman layer
* Ekman spiral
* Ekman transport
* El Niño–Southern Oscillation
* General circulation model
* Geochemical Ocean Sections Study
* Geostrophic current
* Global Ocean Data Analysis Project
* Gulf Stream
* Humboldt Current
* Hydrothermal circulation
* Langmuir circulation
* Longshore drift
* Loop Current
* Modular Ocean Model
* Ocean current
* Ocean dynamical thermostat
* Ocean dynamics
* Ocean gyre
* Overflow
* Princeton Ocean Model
* Rip current
* Subsurface ocean current
* Sverdrup balance
* Thermohaline circulation
* shutdown
* Upwelling
* Whirlpool
* Wind generated current
* World Ocean Circulation Experiment

Tides|

* Amphidromic point
* Earth tide
* Head of tide
* Internal tide
* Lunitidal interval
* Perigean spring tide
* Rip tide
* Rule of twelfths
* Slack tide
* Theory of tides
* Tidal bore
* Tidal force
* Tidal power
* Tidal race
* Tidal range
* Tidal resonance
* Tide gauge
* Tideline

Landforms|

* Abyssal fan
* Abyssal plain
* Atoll
* Bathymetric chart
* Carbonate platform
* Coastal geography
* Cold seep
* Continental margin
* Continental rise
* Continental shelf
* Contourite
* Guyot
* Hydrography
* Knoll
* Ocean bank
* Oceanic basin
* Oceanic plateau
* Oceanic trench
* Passive margin
* Seabed
* Seamount
* Submarine canyon
* Submarine volcano

Plate
tectonics|

* Convergent boundary
* Divergent boundary
* Fracture zone
* Hydrothermal vent
* Marine geology
* Mid-ocean ridge
* Mohorovičić discontinuity
* Oceanic crust
* Outer trench swell
* Ridge push
* Seafloor spreading
* Slab pull
* Slab suction
* Slab window
* Subduction
* Transform fault
* Vine–Matthews–Morley hypothesis
* Volcanic arc

Ocean zones|

* Benthic
* Deep ocean water
* Deep sea
* Littoral
* Mesopelagic
* Oceanic
* Pelagic
* Photic
* Surf
* Swash

Sea level|

* Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
* Global Sea Level Observing System
* North West Shelf Operational Oceanographic System
* Sea-level curve
* Sea level drop
* Sea level rise
* World Geodetic System

Acoustics|

* Deep scattering layer
* Ocean acoustic tomography
* Sofar bomb
* SOFAR channel
* Underwater acoustics

Satellites|

* Jason-1
* OSTM/Jason-2
* Jason-3

Related|

* Acidification
* Argo
* Benthic lander
* Color of water
* DSV Alvin
* Marginal sea
* Marine energy
* Marine pollution
* Mooring
* National Oceanographic Data Center
* Ocean
* Explorations
* Observations
* Reanalysis
* Ocean surface topography
* Ocean temperature
* Ocean thermal energy conversion
* Oceanography
* Outline of oceanography
* Pelagic sediment
* Sea surface microlayer
* Sea surface temperature
* Seawater
* Science On a Sphere
* Stratification
* Thermocline
* Underwater glider
* Water column
* World Ocean Atlas

* Category
* Commons
* Oceans portal

* v
* t
* e

Ancient seafaring

Vessels

| Types|

* Balangay
* Bangka
* Coracle
* Dhow
* Dragon boat
* Dugout canoe
* Galley
* Penteconter
* Kunlun ship
* Liburna
* Longship
* Multihull
* Navis lusoria
* Obelisk ship
* Outriggers
* Single-outrigger
* Catamaran
* Trimaran
* Polyremes
* Bireme
* Oared warships
* Trireme
* Quadrireme
* Quinquereme
* Hexareme
* Tessarakonteres
* Raft
* Reed boat
* Sailing ship
* Tomol

|

Propulsion|

* Paddling
* Sailing
* Towing
* Poling

Components|

* Anchor
* Bow
* Cabin
* Deck
* Figurehead
* Hull
* Planking
* Keel
* Mast
* Oar
* Paddle
* Rope
* Rudder
* Steering oar
* Sail
* Sail components
* Stem
* Sternpost
* Strake
* Tiller

Construction|

* Boat building
* Careening
* Carvel built
* Clinker built
* Mortise and tenon
* Lashed-lug
* Sewn-plank
* Shipbuilding
* By region:
* Egypt

Rigging|

* Crab claw
* Fore-and-aft
* Lateen
* Settee
* Tanja
* Triangular sail
* Junk
* Mast-aft
* Spritsail
* Square

Armaments|

* Ballista
* Catapult
* Corvus
* Dolphin
* Harpax
* Ram
* Sambuca

Navigation, and ports and harbors

| Navigation|

* Celestial
* Charts
* Portolan chart
* Rutter (nautical)
* Coastal
* Lighthouses
* History
* Piloting
* Pilot boat
* Maritime pilot
* By region:
* Inuit
* Micronesian
* Polynesia

|

Ports and
harbors|

* Aden
* Adulis
* Alexandria
* Arikamedu (Podouke)
* Arsinoe
* Avalites
* Barbarikon
* Barygaza
* Basra
* Berenice Troglodytica
* Canopus
* Chittagong
* Essina
* Giao Chỉ
* Godavaya
* Guangzhou (Canton)
* Jambukola
* Jeddah
* Kaveri Poompattinam
* Kedah (Kadaram)
* Korkai
* Lothal
* Manthai
* Madurai
* Malao
* Myos Hormos
* Martaban
* Mueang Phra Rot
* Muscat
* Muziris
* Óc Eo (Cattigara)
* Opone
* Ostia Antica
* Palembang
* Piraeus
* Prosphorion
* Ptolemais Theron
* Qandala
* Quilon
* Rhacotis
* Sarapion
* Satingpra
* Sidon
* Socotra
* Sounagoura
* Trincomalee
* Tulum
* Tyndis
* Tyre
* Wadi al-Jarf
* Zanzibar

History

| Prehistory|

* Timeline
* Britain
* Oceania
* Remote
* Near
* Ubaid period

|

Civilizations|

* Ancient Egypt
* Old Kingdom
* Austronesia
* Philippines
* Sa Huỳnh
* Lapita
* Micronesia
* Langkasuka
* Kedah
* Champa
* Kutai
* Tarumanagara
* Kalingga
* Srivijaya
* Sunda
* Polynesia
* Minoan
* Indus Valley
* Tamilakam
* Chola
* Chera
* Pandya
* Somalia
* Maya
* Nuragic
* Mycenaean
* Phoenicia
* Olmecs
* Carthage
* Greece
* Archaic
* Classical
* Achaemenid
* Nabatea
* Aksum
* Rome

Migration and
exploration|

* Austronesian Expansion
* Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
* Ocean exploration
* Phoenician maritime expansion
* Sardinia
* Circumnavigation of Africa
* Pytheas' voyage to Britain
* Roman circumnavigation of Britain
* Timeline

Military|

| Navies|

* Egyptian
* Achaemenid
* Greek
* Roman

|

Battles|

* Mediterranean: Alashiya
* Nile Delta
* Salamis
* Artemisium
* Eurymedon
* Naupactus
* Olpae
* Syracuse
* Cynossema
* Arginusae
* Mytilene
* Hellespont
* Echinades
* Salamis II
* Mylae
* Cape Hermaeum
* Ecnomus
* Drepana
* Aegates
* Lake Trasimene
* Chios
* Myonessus
* Nile
* Naulochus
* Mycale
* Actium

* Boarding
* Grappling
* Incendiaries
* Oared vessels
* Sailing ships
* Greek navy
* Ramming

By region|

* India
* Odisha
* Japan
* Rome
* South America
* Rafts

Economy and trade

* Whaling
* Fishing
* Indus–Mesopotamia relations
* Meluhha
* Maritime Jade Route
* Tin
* Spice trade
* Iron Age Britain
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay
* Incense trade
* Maritime Silk Road
* Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
* Maya
* Egypt
* Greece
* shipping
* Rome
* Indo-Roman

Piracy

* History
* Mediterranean piracy
* Ameinias the Phocian
* Cilician pirates
* Jewish pirates
* Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
* Pompey's campaign against the pirates

Research and education

| Scholars|

| Historians|

* David Blackman
* Lionel Casson
* Fik Meijer
* John Sinclair Morrison
* William L. Rodgers
* Chester G. Starr

|

Archaeologists|

* George Bass
* Jean-Yves Empereur
* Boris Rankov
* J. Richard Steffy
* Peter Throckmorton
* Shelley Wachsmann

Topics
and theories|

* Coastal defence and fortification
* Grave goods
* Lighthouses
* Alexandria
* Marine art
* Marine navigation
* Maritime archaeology
* Naval warfare
* Maritime temples
* Temple of Isthmia
* Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
* Samothrace temple complex
* Nusantao network
* Phoenician discovery of America
* Pre-Columbian theories
* Sea Peoples
* Shipbuilding
* Shell middens
* Ship burial
* Tacking
* Thalassocracy
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater exploration

Wrecks
and relics|

* Earliest:
* Pesse canoe
* Dufuna canoe
* Abydos
* Moor Sand
* Dokos
* Khufu ship
* Dover Bronze Age Boat
* Uluburun
* Canaanite
* Cape Gelidonya
* Rochelongue
* Hjortspring
* Austronesia
* Pontian boat
* Butuan boats
* Black Sea‎
* Sinop D
* Marsala
* Greek:
* Ashkelon
* Kyrenia
* Leontophoros
* Syracusia
* Phoenician:
* Gozo
* Bajo de la Campana
* Punic:
* Marsala Punic shipwreck
* Roman:
* Alkedo
* Arles Rhône 3
* Blackfriars I
* Caligula's Giant Ship
* De Meern ships
* Isis
* Madrague de Giens
* Nemi ships
* Marausa
* Yassi Ada
* Lists:
* Oldest surviving
* Museum ships
* Surviving ancient ships

Sites|

* H3

Experimental
archaeology|

* Heyerdahl expeditions
* Kon-Tiki
* Ra and Ra II
* Austronesian replicas
* Hōkūleʻa
* Sarimanok
* Te Au o Tonga
* Hawaiʻiloa
* Samudra Raksa
* Alingano Maisu
* Saina
* Balangay Voyage
* Faʻafaite
* Gaualofa
* Marumaru Atua
* Aotearoa One
* Mediterranean
* Olympias
* Regina
* Phoenician Ship Expedition
* Viking replicas
* Viking
* Others
* Vital Alsar
* Ivlia
* Abora
* Viracocha
* Tangaroa

Institutes and
conferences|

* Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
* Archaeological Institute of America
* European Association of Archaeologists
* Institute of Nautical Archaeology
* International Congress of Maritime Museums
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* RPM Nautical Foundation
* Sea Research Society
* Society for American Archaeology

Museums and
memorials|

* Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
* Giza Solar boat museum
* Grand Egyptian Museum
* Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
* Museum of Ancient Seafaring
* Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
* National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
* Viking ship museums:
* Oslo
* Roskilde

Legend and literature

* Legend:
* Ark of bulrushes
* Flood myths
* Genesis
* Gilgamesh
* Greek
* Literature:
* Odyssey
* The Histories (Herodotus)
* On the Ocean
* Argonautica
* The Histories (Polybius)
* Metamorphoses
* Geography
* Aeneid
* Tākitimu

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