Paleo-Balkan languages

Geographical grouping of Indo-European languages

Part of a series on

Indo-European topics

Languages

* * *

* List of Indo-European languages

* * *

Extant

* Albanoid
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Balto-Slavic
* Baltic
* Slavic
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Hellenic
* Greek
* Indo-Iranian
* Indo-Aryan
* Iranian
* Nuristani
* Italic
* Romance

Extinct

* Anatolian
* Tocharian
* Paleo-Balkan
* Dacian
* Illyrian
* Liburnian
* Messapic
* Mysian
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Thracian

* * *

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European language

* Phonology: Sound laws, Accent, Ablaut

* * *

Hypothetical

* Balkanic
* Daco-Thracian
* Graeco-Albanian
* Graeco-Armenian
* Graeco-Aryan
* Graeco-Phrygian
* Indo-Hittite
* Italo-Celtic
* Thraco-Illyrian

* * *

Grammar

* Vocabulary
* Root
* Verbs
* Nouns
* Pronouns
* Numerals
* Particles

* * *

Other

* Proto-Albanian
* Proto-Anatolian
* Proto-Armenian
* Proto-Germanic (Proto-Norse)
* Proto-Italo-Celtic (Proto-Celtic · Proto-Italic)
* Proto-Greek
* Proto-Balto-Slavic (Proto-Slavic · Proto-Baltic)
* Proto-Indo-Iranian (Proto-Iranian)

Philology

* Hittite inscriptions
* Hieroglyphic Luwian
* Linear B
* Rigveda
* Avesta
* Homer
* Behistun
* Gaulish epigraphy
* Latin epigraphy
* Runic epigraphy
* Ogham
* Gothic Bible
* Bible translations into Armenian
* Tocharian script
* Old Irish glosses

Origins

* Homeland
* Proto-Indo-Europeans
* Society
* Religion

* * *

Mainstream

* Kurgan hypothesis
* Indo-European migrations
* Eurasian nomads

* * *

Alternative and fringe

* Anatolian hypothesis
* Armenian hypothesis
* Beech argument
* Indigenous Aryanism
* Baltic homeland
* Paleolithic continuity theory

Archaeology

Chalcolithic (Copper Age)

Pontic Steppe

* Domestication of the horse
* Kurgan
* Kurgan stelae
* Kurgan culture
* Steppe cultures
* Bug–Dniester
* Sredny Stog
* Dnieper–Donets
* Samara
* Khvalynsk
* Yamnaya
* Mikhaylovka culture
* Novotitarovskaya culture

Caucasus

* Maykop

East Asia

* Afanasievo

Eastern Europe

* Usatovo
* Cernavodă
* Cucuteni

Northern Europe

* Corded ware
* Baden
* Middle Dnieper

* * *

Bronze Age

Pontic Steppe

* Chariot
* Yamnaya
* Catacomb
* Multi-cordoned ware
* Poltavka
* Srubnaya

Northern/Eastern Steppe

* Abashevo culture
* Andronovo
* Sintashta

Europe

* Globular Amphora
* Corded ware
* Bell Beaker
* Únětice
* Trzciniec
* Nordic Bronze Age
* Terramare
* Tumulus
* Urnfield
* Lusatian

South Asia

* BMAC
* Yaz
* Gandhara grave

* * *

Iron Age

Steppe

* Chernoles

Europe

* Thraco-Cimmerian
* Hallstatt
* Jastorf

Caucasus

* Colchian

India

* Painted Grey Ware
* Northern Black Polished Ware

Peoples and societies

Bronze Age

* Anatolian peoples (Hittites)

* Armenians
* Mycenaean Greeks
* Indo-Iranians

Iron Age

Indo-Aryans

* Indo-Aryans

Iranians

* Iranians

East Asia

* Wusun
* Yuezhi

Europe

* Celts
* Gauls
* Celtiberians
* Insular Celts
* Cimmerians
* Hellenic peoples
* Italic peoples
* Germanic peoples
* Paleo-Balkan/Anatolia
* Thracians
* Dacians
* Illyrians
* Paeonians
* Phrygians
* Scythians

Middle Ages

East Asia

* Tocharians

Europe

* Albanians
* Balts
* Slavs
* Norsemen/Medieval Scandinavians
* Middle Ages

Indo-Aryan

* Medieval India

Iranian

* Greater Iran

Religion and mythology

Reconstructed

* Proto-Indo-European mythology
* Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism
* Historical Vedic religion
* Ancient Iranian religion

* * *

Historical

* Hittite

Indo-Aryan

* Vedic
* Hinduism
* Buddhism
* Jainism
* Sikhism

Iranian

* Persian
* Zoroastrianism
* Kurdish
* Yazidism
* Yarsanism
* Scythian
* Ossetian

Others

* Armenian

European

* Paleo-Balkan (Albanian · Illyrian · Thracian · Dacian)
* Greek
* Roman
* Celtic
* Irish
* Scottish
* Breton
* Welsh
* Cornish
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Continental
* Norse
* Baltic
* Latvian
* Lithuanian
* Slavic

Practices

* Fire sacrifice
* Horse sacrifice
* Sati
* Winter solstice/Yule

Indo-European studies

Scholars

* Marija Gimbutas
* J. P. Mallory

Institutes

* Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European

Publications

* Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture
* The Horse, the Wheel, and Language
* Journal of Indo-European Studies
* Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch
* Indo-European Etymological Dictionary

* v
* t
* e

The Paleo-Balkan languages are a geographical grouping of various Indo-European languages that were spoken in the Balkans and surrounding areas in ancient times. In antiquity, Dacian, Greek, Illyrian, Messapic, Paeonian, Phrygian and Thracian were the Paleo-Balkan languages which were attested in literature. They may have included other unattested languages.

Paleo-Balkan studies are obscured by the scarce attestation of these languages outside of Ancient Greek and, to a lesser extent, Messapic and Phrygian. Although linguists consider each of them to be a member of the Indo-European family of languages, the internal relationships are still debated. A Palaeo-Balkanic or Balkanic Indo-European branch has been proposed in recent research, comprising the Albanoid or Illyric (Albanian-Messapic), Armenian, and Graeco-Phrygian (Hellenic-Phrygian) subbranches.

Due to the processes of Hellenization, Romanization and Slavicization in the region, the only surviving representatives of the ancient languages of the Balkans are Greek and Albanian. The Albanian language evolved from either Illyrian, often supported for obvious geographic and historical reasons as well as for some fragmentary linguistic evidence,[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8] or an unmentioned language that was closely related to Illyrian and Messapic.[9][10][11][12]

## Classification

[edit]

* Proto-Indo-European
* Paleo-Balkan linguistic area[13]
* 'Albanoid', 'Illyric', 'Illyrian complex', 'Western Paleo-Balkan', or 'Adriatic Indo-European'[14]
* Albanian[15]
* Messapic[16]
* (?) Illyrian (onomastic areas)[17]
* Illyrian proper (or Southeast Dalmatian)[17][18]
* Central Dalmatian (or Dalmatian-Pannonic)[17][18]
* (?) Liburnian[17][18]
* (?) Daco-Thracian ('Daco-Thraco-Moesian complex')[19][20]
* Thracian
* (?) Daco-Moesian[21][22]
* Dacian, Moesian and Getic[23]
* (?) Mysian
* (?) Paeonian
* (?) Graeco-Phrygian[24]
* Hellenic[25]
* (?) Ancient Macedonian[26][27][28]
* Greek
* Ancient Greek (esp. northern dialects)[13]
* (?) Phrygian / Armeno-Phrygian (common ancestor of Phrygian and Armenian)[29]

### Subgrouping hypotheses

[edit]

Illyrian is a group of reputedly Indo-European languages whose relationship to other Indo-European languages as well as to the languages of the Paleo-Balkan group, many of which might be offshoots of Illyrian, is poorly understood due to the paucity of data and is still being examined. The centum or satem character of Illyrian is difficult to detect due to the paucity of the available 'Illyrian' linguistic material and to the dual nature of its interpretation. Today, the only source of information about the Illyrian language consists of a handful of Illyrian words cited in classical sources, and numerous examples of Illyrian anthroponyms, ethnonyms, toponyms and hydronyms.[30]

Messapian was spoken on the Italian peninsula, but is generally regarded an offshoot from the Paleo-Balkan language area. A grouping of Messapian with Illyrian has been proposed for about a century, but remains an unproven hypothesis due to the fragmentary attestation of Illyrian. The theory is based on classical sources, archaeology, as well as onomastic considerations. Messapian material culture bears a number of similarities to Illyrian material culture. Some Messapian anthroponyms have close Illyrian equivalents.[31]

A grouping of Illyrian with Venetic and Liburnian, once spoken in northeastern Italy and Liburnia respectively, is also proposed. The consensus now is that Illyrian was quite distinct from Venetic and Liburnian,[32] but a close linguistic relation has not been ruled out and is still being investigated.

Another hypothesis would group Illyrian with Dacian and Thracian into a Thraco-Illyrian branch,[33] and a competing hypothesis would exclude Illyrian from a Daco-Thracian grouping in favor of Mysian.[34] The classification of Thracian itself is a matter of contention and uncertainty.

The place of Paeonian remains unclear.[35] Not much has been determined in the study of Paeonian, and some linguists do not recognize a Paeonian area separate from Illyrian or Thracian. Phrygian, on the other hand, is considered to have been most likely a close relative of Greek.[36]

The classification of Ancient Macedonian and its relationship to Greek is also under investigation. Sources suggest that Macedonian is in fact a variation of Doric Greek, or alternatively a closely related sister language grouped together with Greek in a family called Hellenic.[37][38][39]

## Balkanic Indo-European

[edit]

| Balkanic |

|  |

Armenian

|

Graeco-Albanian |

| Graeco-Phrygian |

|  |

Greek

|

Phrygian
(extinct)

Illyric |

|  |

Messapic
(extinct)

|

Albanian

The Palaeo-Balkanic Indo-European branch based on the chapters "Albanian" (Hyllested & Joseph 2022) and "Armenian" (Olsen & Thorsø 2022) in Olander (ed.) The Indo-European Language Family

While "Paleo-Balkan" languages are conventionally understood as a linguistic areal grouping, in recent historical linguistic research scholars propose a distinct "Balkanic" (or "Paleo-Balkanic") Indo-European branch based on shared Indo-European morphological, lexical, and phonetic innovations, as well as shared lexical proto-forms from a common pre-Indo-European substratum.[40] The Balkanic subgroup comprises three branches of modern and well-attested ancient languages, viz. Armenian, Graeco-Phrygian (= Greek + Phrygian) and "Illyric" (= Albanian + Messapian).[41] Some scholars further propose that innovations exclusively shared by Greek and Albanian point to a closer link between the latter two branches, which can thus be unified to a "Graeco-Albanian" branch.[42][43]

Shared innovations include the first person singular mediopassive ending *-mai, and lexical innovations such as *ai̯ĝ- 'goat', dʰeh1s- 'god'.[44][45] The word for "goat" is a remarkable common proto-form of non-Indo-European origin exclusively shared between Albanian, Armenian, and Greek. It could have been borrowed at a pre-stage that was common to these languages from a pre-Indo-European substrate language that in turn had loaned the word from a third source, from which the pre-IE substrate of the proto-form that is shared between Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian could also have borrowed it. Hence it can be viewed as an old cultural word, which was slowly transmitted to two different pre-Indo-European substrate languages, and then independently adopted by two groups of Indo-European speakers, reflecting a post-Proto-Indo-European linguistic and geographic separation between the "Balkanic" group consisting of Albanian, Armenian, and Greek, and a group to the North of the Black Sea consisting of Balto-Slavic and Indo-Iranian.[46][47]

A remarkable PIE root that underwent in Albanian, Armenian, and Greek a common evolution and semantic shift in the post PIE period is PIE *mel-i(t)- 'honey', from which Albanian bletë, Armenian mełu, and Greek μέλισσα, 'bee' derived.[48] However, the Armenian term features -u- through the influence of the PIE *médʰu 'mead', which constitutes an Armenian innovation that isolates it from the Graeco-Albanian word.[49] Innovative creations of agricultural terms shared only between Albanian and Greek were formed from non-agricultural PIE roots through semantic changes to adapt them for agriculture. Since they are limited only to Albanian and Greek, they could be traced back with certainty only to their last common IE ancestor, and not projected back into Proto-Indo-European.[50]

## See also

[edit]

* Balkan sprachbund
* Graeco-Armenian
* Origin of the Albanians
* Graeco-Albanian
* Paleo-Balkan mythology
* Philistine language
* Prehistory of Southeastern Europe
* Armeno-Phrygians

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Friedman 2022, pp. 189–231: "On the other hand, there is some evidence to argue that Albanian is descended from the Illyrian complex."
2. ^ Coretta et al. 2022, p. 1122: "Though the origin of the language has been debated, the prevailing opinion in the literature is that it is a descendant of Illyrian (Hetzer 1995)."
3. ^ Matasović 2019, p. 5: "Much has been written about the origin of the Albanian language. The most probable predecessor of Albanian was Illyrian, since much of the present-day Albania was inhabited by the Illyrians during the Antiquity, but the comparison of the two languages is impossible because almost nothing is known about Illyrian, despite the fact that two handbooks of that language have been published (by Hans Krahe and Anton Mayer)... examination of personal names and toponyms from Illyricum shows that several onomastic areas can be distinguished, and these onomastic areas just might correspond to different languages spoken in ancient Illyricum. If Illyrians actually spoke several different languages, the question arises -from which 'Illyrian' language did Albanian develop, and that question cannot be answered until new data are discovered.The single "Illyrian" gloss preserved in Greek (rhínon 'fog') may have the reflex in Alb. (Gheg) re͂ 'cloud' (Tosk re)< PAlb. *ren-."
4. ^ Parpola 2012, p. 131: "The poorly attested Illyrian was in antiquity an important Indo-European language in the Balkans, and it is widely believed to survive in the Albanian language (cf. Mallory 1989: 73–76; Fortson 2004: 405–406 and 390)."
5. ^ Beekes 2011, p. 25: "It is often thought (for obvious geographic reasons) that Albanian descends from ancient Illyrian (see above), but this cannot be ascertained as we know next to nothing about Illyrian itself."
6. ^ Fortson 2010, p. 446: "Albanian forms its own separate branch of Indo-European; it is the last branch to appear in written records. This is one of the reasons why its origins are shrouded in mystery and controversy. The widespread assertion that it is the modern–day descendant of Illyrian, spoken in much the same region during classical times ([...]), makes geographic and historical sense but is linguistically untestable since we know so little about Illyrian."
7. ^ Holst 2009, p. 65–66: ""Illyrisch" möchte ich nicht klassifizieren, da hierüber nicht einmal klar ist, ob es sich tatsächlich um eine Sprache handelt und nicht Ma-terial aus mehreren Sprachen, die auf albanischem Boden Spuren hinterlassen haben. Falls man jedoch Illyrisch als die Vorläufersprache des Albanischen definiert (wofür einiges spricht), ist Illyrisch automatisch im Zweig des Albani-schen enthalten." ["I don't want to classify "Illyrian" because it is not even clear whether it is actually one language and not material from several languages that have left traces on Albanian soil. However, if Illyrian is defined as the precursor language to Albanian (which there is some evidence for), Illyrian is automatically included in the branch of Albanian."]
8. ^ Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 11: "Although there are some lexical items that appear to be shared between Romanian (and by extension Dacian) and Albanian, by far the strongest connections can be argued between Albanian and Illyrian. The latter was at least attested in what is historically regarded as Albanian territory and there is no evidence of any major migration into Albanian territory since our records of Illyrian occupation. The loan words from Greek and Latin date back to before the Christian era and suggest that the ancestors of the Albanians must have occupied Albania by then to have absorbed such loans from their histori-cal neighbors. As the Illyrians occupied Albanian territory at this time, they are the most likely recipients of such loans."
9. ^ Friedman 2020, p. 388.
10. ^ Matzinger 2017, p. 1790.
11. ^ Ismajli 2015, p. 45.
12. ^ Hamp & Adams 2013, p. 8.
13. ^ a b Giannakis, Georgios; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (2017-12-18). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Greece to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. p. 8\. ISBN 978-3-11-053213-5.
14. ^ Filos 2023, pp. 86–88; Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 235; Friedman 2022; Coretta et al. 2022, p. 1122; Demiraj 2020, p. 33; Friedman 2020, p. 388; Majer 2019, p. 258; Matasović 2019, p. 5; Trumper 2018, pp. 383–386; Baldi & Savoia 2017, p. 46; Yntema 2017, p. 337; Matzinger 2017, p. 1790; Ismajli 2015, pp. 36–38, 45; Hamp & Adams 2013, p. 8; Parpola 2012, p. 131; Holst 2009, pp. 65–66; Schaller 2008, p. 27; Demiraj 2004, pp. 58–59; Mallory & Adams 1997, p. 11; Huld 1986, pp. 245–250; Huld 1984, p. 158.
15. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 235.
16. ^ Matzinger 2015, pp. 65–66.
17. ^ a b c d De Simone 2017, p. 1868.
18. ^ a b c Beekes, Robert S. P. (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 24\. ISBN 978-90-272-1185-9.
19. ^ Friedman 2022.
20. ^ Edwards, I. E. S.; Gadd, C. J.; Hammond, N. G. L. (1970). Cambridge ancient history. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. p. 840. ISBN 978-0-521-07791-0.
21. ^ Boardman, John; Edwards, I. E. S.; Hammond, N. G. L.; Sollberger, E. (1970). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. pp. 876. ISBN 978-0-521-22496-3. "Such a lexical difference would, however, be hardly enough evidence to separate Daco-Moesian from Thracian [...]"
22. ^ Georgiev, Vladimir Ivanov (1977). Trakite i technijat ezik [Thacian and their Languages] (in Bulgarian). Bulgarian Academy of Sciences. p. 282.
23. ^ Price, Glanville (2000). Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-22039-9., p. 120
24. ^ Brixhe, Claude (2002). "Interactions between Greek and Phrygian under the Roman Empire". In Adams, J. N.; Janse, M.; Swaine, S. (eds.). Bilingualism in Ancient Society: Language Contact and the Written Text. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-924506-2.
25. ^ Blažek 2005.
26. ^ Brixhe 2017, p. 1863.
27. ^ Philipp Strazny ed., Encyclopedia of Linguistics, Routledge, 2013, ISBN 1135455228, p. 116.
28. ^ Olga M. Tomic, Balkan Sprachbund Morpho-Syntactic Features, Volume 67, Springer, 2006, ISBN 1402044887, p. 38.
29. ^ I. M. Diakonoff The Problem of the Mushki Archived August 25, 2011, at the Wayback Machine in The Prehistory of the Armenian People
30. ^ West, M. L. (2007-05-24). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. OUP Oxford. p. 15\. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9.
31. ^ Matzinger, Joachim (2019). Messapisch. Kurzgrammatiken indogermanischer Sprachen und Sprachstufen (in German). Vol. 2\. Dr Ludwig Reichert Verlag. pp. 19–20. ISBN 978-3954903986.
32. ^ Wilkes, J. J. The Illyrians, 1992, ISBN 0631198075, p. 183,"We may begin with the Venetic peoples, Veneti, Carni, Histri and Liburni, whose language set them apart from the rest of the Illyrians...."
33. ^ Cf. Paglia, Sorin (2002),"Pre-Slavic and Pre-Romance Place-Names in Southeast Europe." 'Proceedings of the 8th International Congress of Thracology', Sofia, Bulgarian Institute of Thracology – Europa Antiqua Foundation – Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, I, 219–229, who states: "According to the available data, we may surmise that Thracian and Illyrian were mutually understandable, e.g. like Czech and Slovak, in one extreme, or like Spanish and Portuguese, at the other."
34. ^ Vladimir Georgiev (1960), Raporturile dintre limbile dacă, tracă şi frigiană, "Studii Clasice" Journal, II, 1960, 39–58.
35. ^ "Paeonia | historical region". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-05-03.
36. ^ Brixhe, Cl. "Le Phrygien". In Fr. Bader (ed.), Langues indo-européennes, pp. 165–178, Paris: CNRS Editions.
37. ^ Beekes, R.S.P.; de Vaan, M. (2011). Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction (in Estonian). John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 978-90-272-1185-9. Retrieved 2024-01-29.
38. ^ Masson, Olivier (2003) [1996]. "[Ancient] Macedonian language". In Hornblower, S.; Spawforth A. (eds.). The Oxford Classical Dictionary (revised 3rd ed.). USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 905–906. ISBN 0-19-860641-9.
39. ^ Joseph, Brian D. (2001). "Ancient Greek". In Garry, Jane; Rubino, Carl; Bodomo, Adams B.; Faber, Alice; French, Robert (eds.). Facts about the World's Languages: An Encyclopedia of the World's Major Languages, Past and Present. H. W. Wilson Company. p. 256\. ISBN 9780824209704.
40. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241; Olsen & Thorsø 2022, p. 209; Thorsø 2019, p. 258; Kroonen 2012, p. 246; Holst 2009, pp. 65–66.
41. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022.
42. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, pp. 231–237.
43. ^ Holst 2009, pp. 65–66.
44. ^ Olsen, Birgit Anette; Thorsø, Rasmus (2022). "Armenian". In Thomas Olander (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family. Cambridge University Press. p. 202\. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.012. ISBN 9781108499798.
45. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, pp. 237–241.
46. ^ Thorsø 2019, p. 255.
47. ^ Kroonen 2012, p. 246.
48. ^ van Sluis 2022, p. 16; Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 238.
49. ^ Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 238.
50. ^ Kroonen et al. 2022, pp. 11, 26, 28

## Sources

[edit]

* Baldi, Benedetta; Savoia, Leonardo M. (2017). "Cultura e identità nella lingua albanese" [Culture and Identity in the Albanian Language]. LEA - Lingue e Letterature d'Oriente e d'Occidente. 6 (6): 45–77. doi:10.13128/LEA-1824-484x-22325. ISSN 1824-484X.
* Blažek, Václav (2005). "Paleo-Balkanian Languages I: Hellenic Languages" (PDF). Sborník prací Filozofické fakulty brněnské univerzity. Vol. 10\. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. pp. 15–33. ISBN 80-210-3784-9.
* Brixhe, Claude (2017). "Macedonian". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Vol. 3\. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1.
* Coretta, Stefano; Riverin-Coutlée, Josiane; Kapia, Enkeleida; Nichols, Stephen (16 August 2022). "Northern Tosk Albanian". Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 53 (3): 1122–1144. doi:10.1017/S0025100322000044. hdl:20.500.11820/ebce2ea3-f955-4fa5-9178-e1626fbae15f.
* Crossland, R.A.; Boardman, John (1982). "Linguistic problems of the Balkan area in the late prehistoric and early Classical period" in The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 3, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-22496-3.
* De Simone, Carlo (2017). "Illyrian". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Vol. 3\. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1.
* Demiraj, Shaban (2004). "Gjendja gjuhësore e Gadishullit Ballkanik në lashtësi" [The linguistic situation of the Balkan Peninsula in antiquity]. Gjuhësi Ballkanike [Balkan Linguistics] (in Albanian). Academy of Sciences of Albania. ISBN 9789994363001.
* Demiraj, Bardhyl (2020). "The Evolution of Albanian". Studia Albanica (2). Academy of Sciences of Albania: 33–40. ISSN 0585-5047.
* Filos, Panagiotis (2023). "Onomastic Formulae from N. Epirus and S. Illyria: Lingustic and Sociocultural Connotations". In Albio Cesare Cassio, Sara Kaczko (ed.). Alloglо̄ssoi: Multilingualism and Minority Languages in Ancient Europe. Trends in Classics – Greek and Latin Linguistics. Vol. 2\. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 83–113. ISBN 9783110779684.
* Fortson, Benjamin Wynn IV (2010). Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction (2nd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 978-1-4443-5968-8.
* Friedman, Victor A. (2020). "The Balkans". In Evangelia Adamou, Yaron Matras (ed.). The Routledge Handbook of Language Contact. Routledge Handbooks in Linguistics. Routledge. pp. 385–403. ISBN 9781351109147.
* Friedman, Victor (2022). "The Balkans". In Salikoko Mufwene, Anna Maria Escobar (ed.). The Cambridge Handbook of Language Contact: Volume 1: Population Movement and Language Change. Cambridge Handbooks in Language and Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781009115773.
* Hamp, Eric; Adams, Douglas (August 2013). "The Expansion of the Indo-European Languages: An Indo-Europeanist's Evolving View" (PDF). Sino-Platonic Papers. 239.
* Harmatta, János (1967). "Zum Illyrischen". Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 15: 231–234.
* Holst, Jan Henrik (2009). Armenische Studien (in German). Otto Harrassowitz Verlag. ISBN 9783447061179.
* Huld, Martin E. (1984). Basic Albanian Etymologies. Columbus, OH: Slavica Publishers. ISBN 9780893571351.
* Huld, Martin E. (1986). "Accentual Stratification of Ancient Greek Loanwords in Albanian". Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung. 99 (2). Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht (GmbH & Co. KG): 245–253. JSTOR 40848841.
* Hyllested, Adam; Joseph, Brian D. (2022). "Albanian". In Olander, Thomas (ed.). The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective. Cambridge University Press. pp. 223–245. doi:10.1017/9781108758666.013. ISBN 9781108758666. S2CID 161016819.
* Ismajli, Rexhep (2015). Eqrem Basha (ed.). Studime për historinë e shqipes në kontekst ballkanik [Studies on the History of Albanian in the Balkan context] (in Albanian). Prishtinë: Kosova Academy of Sciences and Arts, special editions CLII, Section of Linguistics and Literature.
* Katicic, Radoslav (2012). Ancient Languages of the Balkans. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3111568874.
* Krahe, Hans (1929). Lexikon altillyrischen Personennamen. Heidelberg.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Krahe, Hans (1950). "Das Venetische: seine Stellung im Kreise der verwandten Sprachen". Sitzungsberichte der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften, Philosophisch-Historische Klasse. 3: 1–37.
* Kroonen, Guus (2012). "Non-Indo-European root nouns in Germanic: evidence in support of the Agricultural Substrate Hypothesis". In Riho Grünthal, Petri Kallio (ed.). A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia = Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. Vol. 266\. Société Finno-Ougrienne. pp. 239–260. ISBN 9789525667424. ISSN 0355-0230.
* Kroonen, Guus; Jakob, Anthony; Palmér, Axel I.; van Sluis, Paulus; Wigman, Andrew (12 October 2022). "Indo-European cereal terminology suggests a Northwest Pontic homeland for the core Indo-European languages". PLOS ONE. 17 (10): e0275744. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1775744K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0275744. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 9555676. PMID 36223379.
* Majer, Marek (2019). "Parahistoria indoevropiane e fjalës shqipe për 'motrën'" [Indo-European Prehistory of the Albanian Word for 'Sister']. Seminari Ndërkombëtar për Gjuhën, Letërsinë dhe Kulturën Shqiptare [International Seminar for Albanian Language, Literature and Culture] (in Albanian). 1 (38). University of Prishtina: 252–266. ISSN 2521-3687.
* Mallory, J. P.; Adams, Douglas Q. (1997). Encyclopedia of Indo-European culture. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-884964-98-5.
* Matasović, Ranko (2019). A Grammatical Sketch of Albanian for Students of Indo European (PDF). Zagreb. p. 39.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
* Matzinger, Joachim (2015). "Messapico e illirico". Idomeneo. 19. University of Salento: 57–66. doi:10.1285/i20380313v19p57. ISSN 2038-0313.
* Matzinger, Joachim (2017). "The Lexicon of Albanian". In Klein, Jared; Joseph, Brian; Fritz, Matthias (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Vol. 3\. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-054243-1.
* Polomé, Edgar Charles (1982). "Balkan Languages (Illyrian, Thracian and Daco-Moesian)". Cambridge Ancient History. Vol. III.1. pp. 866–888.
* Parpola, Asko (2012). "Formation of the Indo-European and Uralic (Finno-Ugric) language families in the light of archaeology: Revised and integrated 'total' correlations". In Riho Grünthal, Petri Kallio (ed.). A Linguistic Map of Prehistoric Northern Europe. Suomalais-Ugrilaisen Seuran Toimituksia / Mémoires de la Société Finno-Ougrienne. Vol. 266\. Helsinki: Société Finno-Ougrienne. pp. 119–184. ISBN 9789525667424. ISSN 0355-0230.
* Rusakov, Alexander (2017). "Albanian". In Kapović, Mate; Giacalone Ramat, Anna; Ramat, Paolo (eds.). The Indo-European Languages. Routledge. pp. 552–602. ISBN 9781317391531.
* Schaller, Helmut (2008). "Balkanromanischer Einfluss auf das Bulgarische". In Biljana Sikimić, Tijana Ašić (ed.). The Romance Balkans. Institute for Balkan Studies (Serbia). pp. 27–36. ISBN 9788671790604.
* Thorsø, Rasmus (2019). "Two Balkan Indo-European Loanwords". In Matilde Serangeli; Thomas Olander (eds.). Dispersals and Diversification: Linguistic and Archaeological Perspectives on the Early Stages of Indo-European. Brill's Studies in Indo-European Languages & Linguistics. Vol. 19\. Brill. pp. 251–262. ISBN 9789004416192.
* Tovar, Antonio (1977). Krahes alteuropäische Hydronymie und die westindogermanischen Sprache. Winter. ISBN 3-533-02586-1.
* Trumper, John (2018). "Some Celto-Albanian isoglosses and their implications". In Grimaldi, Mirko; Lai, Rosangela; Franco, Ludovico; Baldi, Benedetta (eds.). Structuring Variation in Romance Linguistics and Beyond: In Honour of Leonardo M. Savoia. John Benjamins Publishing Company. ISBN 9789027263179.
* van Sluis, P. S. (2022). "Beekeeping in Celtic and Indo-European". Studia Celtica. 56 (1): 1–28. doi:10.16922/SC.56.1. hdl:1887/3655383.
* Villar, Francisco (1996). Los indoeuropeos y los orígenes de Europa (in Spanish). Madrid: Gredos. p. 316\. ISBN 84-249-1787-1.
* Wilkes, J. J. (1995), The Illyrians, Oxford, United Kingdom: Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 0-631-19807-5
* Yntema, Douwe (2017). "The Pre-Roman Peoples of Apulia (1000-100 BC)". In Gary D. Farney, Guy Bradley (ed.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. De Gruyter Reference. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. pp. 337–. ISBN 9781614513001.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Grbić, Dragana. "Greek, Latin and Palaeo-Balkan Languages in Contact". In: Rhesis International Journal of Linguistics, Philology and Literature Linguistics and Philology 7.1. Atti del Workshop Internazionale “Contact Phenomena Between Greek and Latin and Peripheral Languages in the Mediterranean Area (1200 B.C. – 600 A.D.)” Associazione Culturale Rodopis – Università degli Studi di Cagliari, Dipartimento di Filologia Letteratura e Linguistica, 13–14 aprile 2015, 2016, 7.1, pp. 56–65.

* v
* t
* e

Paleo-Balkan languages

* Dacian
* Hellenic
* Illyrian
* Messapic
* Paeonian
* Phrygian
* Proto-Albanian
* Thracian

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[viz.]: namely