Ugarit

Ancient port city in northern Syria

Ugarit

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Shown within Syria

Alternative name| Ras Shamra (Arabic: رأس شمرة)
Location| Latakia Governorate, Syria
Region| Fertile Crescent
Coordinates| 35°36′07″N 35°46′55″E﻿ / ﻿35.602°N 35.782°E﻿ / 35.602; 35.782
Type| settlement
History
Founded| c. 6000 BC
Abandoned| c. 1185 BC
Periods| Neolithic, Late Bronze Age, Hellenistic
Events| Bronze Age Collapse
Site notes
Excavation dates| 1928–1939, 1950-2008
Archaeologists| Claude F. A. Schaeffer Henri de Contenson, Jean Margueron, Marguerite Yon, Yves Calvet, Bassam Jamous
Condition| ruins
Ownership| Public
Public access| Yes

Ugarit (/juːˈɡɑːrɪt, uː-/; Ugaritic: 𐎜𐎂𐎗𐎚, ʾUgarītu) was an ancient port city in northern Syria, in the outskirts of modern Latakia. At its height it ruled an area roughly equivalent to the modern Latakia Governorate. It was discovered by accident in 1928 with the Ugaritic texts.[1] Its ruins are often called Ras Shamra (also Ras Shamrah) after the headland where they lie.

Ugarit saw its beginnings in the Neolithic period and continued as a settlement through the Chalcolithic and Bronze Ages.[2] The city had close connections to the Hittite Empire, sent tribute to Egypt at times, and maintained trade and diplomatic connections with Cyprus (then called Alashiya),[3] documented in the archives recovered from the site and corroborated by Mycenaean and Cypriot pottery found there. The polity was at its height from c. 1450 BC until its destruction in c. 1185 BC;[4] this destruction was possibly caused by the purported Sea Peoples, or an internal struggle. The kingdom would be one of the many dismantled during the Bronze Age Collapse. Gibala (Tell Tweini), the coastal city at the southern edge of the Ugarit kingdom was also destroyed at this time.[5]

## History[edit]

Based on archaeological soundings, the site was occupied beginning in the eighth millennium BC. Essentially all archaeology has focused on the Late Bronze levels, so little is known about earlier occupation.[6] Some Middle Bronze remains were found in the deep soundings including a bead inscribed with the name of Egyptian Pharaoh Sesostris I (1970–1936 BC).[7]

### Late Bronze Age[edit]

A tomb in the Royal palace's courtyard

The city reached its golden age between 1500 BC and 1200 BC, when it ruled a trade-based coastal kingdom, trading with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean (primarily Crete), Syria, the Hittites, cities of the Levant (including Ashkelon), and much of the eastern Mediterranean.[8] After a period of control by Egypt and a short period of control by Mitanni in much of that period, beginning during the reign of Niqmaddu II (c. 1350–1315 BC) Ugarit was a vassal of the Hittite Empire, mainly through the Hittite ruler's viceroy in Karkemiš and then, with the Hititte collapse, directly under Karkemiš.[9][10][11] The population of Ugarit in this period is estimated to be between 7,000 and 8,000 individuals.[12]

Evidence of the earliest Ugaritic contact with Egypt (and the first exact dating of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a carnelian bead identified with the Middle Kingdom pharaoh Senusret I, 1971–1926 BC. A stela and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and Amenemhet III have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments were brought to Ugarit. Amarna letters from Ugarit (EA46, EA47, EA48, EA49) c. 1350 BC record one letter each from Ammittamru I, Niqmaddu II, and his queen.[13] From the 16th to the 13th century BC, Ugarit remained in regular contact with Egypt and Alashiya (Cyprus).[citation needed]

The kingdom of Ugarit may have controlled about 2,000 km2 on average.[14]

### Destruction[edit]

See also: Bronze Age collapse

Ruins of Ugarit

From the late 13th century into the early 12th century BC, the entire region, based on contemporary texts, including Hititte areas, the Levant, and the eastern Mediteranean, faced severe and widespread food shortages, potentially from plant diseases. Ugarit received a number of desperate pleas for food from other realms. The food shortage eventually reached Ugarit, previously a major supplier and transporter of food supplies. A letter from Egyptian pharaoh Merenptah he referred to a missive sent by the ruler of Ugarit:

> "So you had written to me: “Could I not have demanded my needs [from] the Great King, the king of Egypt, my lord? I demand this request: [In] the land of Ugarit there is a severe hunger (bi-ru-ú dan-niš): May my lord save [the land of Ugarit], and may the king give grain (ZÍZ.AN.MEŠ) to save my life … and to save the citizens of the land of Ugarit."[15]

The last king of Ugarit, Ammurapi (circa 1215 to 1180 BC), was a contemporary of the last known Hittite king, Suppiluliuma II. The exact dates of his reign are unknown. However, a letter by the king is preserved, in which Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of the crisis faced by many Near Eastern states due to attacks.[16] At this time Ugarit possessed a large army and navy and both joined with Hittite forces to try and stem the oncoming enemy, eventually having to fall back from Anatolia to the Syrian border.[17][18] Ammurapi's response to an appeal for assistance from the king of Alashiya highlights the desperate situation that Ugarit and other cities faced:

> My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of Lukka? ... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.[19]

Eshuwara, the senior governor of Cyprus, responded:

> As for the matter concerning those enemies: (it was) the people from your country (and) your own ships (who) did this! And (it was) the people from your country (who) committed these transgression(s) ... I am writing to inform you and protect you. Be aware![16]

At the end Ammurapi begs for forces from the Hittite viceroy at Carchemish, the enemy having captured Ugarit's other port, Ra’šu, and was advancing on the city.

> "To the king, my lord say, thus Ammurapi, your servant.… I wrote you twice, thrice, [new]s regarding the enemy! … May my lord know that now the enemy forces are stationed at Ra’šu, and their avant-guard forces were sent to Ugarit. Now may my lord send me forces and chariots, and may my lord save me from the forces of this enemy!"[15]

The ruler of Carchemish sent troops to assist Ugarit, but Ugarit had been sacked. A letter sent after Ugarit had been destroyed said:

> When your messenger arrived, the army was humiliated and the city was sacked. Our food in the threshing floors was burnt and the vineyards were also destroyed. Our city is sacked. May you know it! May you know it![16]

Mycenaean ceramic imported to Ugarit, 14th–13th century BC

By excavating the highest levels of the city's ruins, archaeologists have studied various attributes of Ugaritic civilization just before their destruction and compared artifacts with those of nearby cultures to help establish dates. Ugarit contained many caches of cuneiform tablets inside of libraries that contained a wealth of valuable information. The destruction levels of the ruin contained Late Helladic IIIB pottery ware, but no LH IIIC (see Mycenaean period). Therefore, the date of the destruction of Ugarit is crucial for the dating of the LH IIIC phase in mainland Greece. Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah was found in the destruction levels, 1190 BC was taken as the date for the beginning of the LH IIIC. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed sometime after the death of Merneptah (1203 BC). It is generally agreed that Ugarit had already been destroyed by the eighth year of Ramesses III (1178 BC). Recent radiocarbon work, combined with other historical dates and the eclipse of January 21, 1192, indicates a destruction date between 1192 and 1190 BC.[20] Bay, an official of the Egyptian queen Twosret, in a tablet (RS 86.2230) found at Ras Shamra, was in communication with Ammurapi, the last ruler of Ugarit. Bay was in office from approximately 1194–1190 BC. This sets an upper limit on the destruction date of Ugarit. It is important to remember that the chronology of Egypt and that of the ancient Near East are not yet perfectly synchronized.[21]

A large number of arrowheads were recovered from the destruction level in 2021. Their typology has not been published as yet.[22]

## Rulers[edit]

Early in the excavations a partial text of the Ugarit King List, in Ugaritic, was found. Later, complete renditions in Akkadian were discovered. They list twenty six rulers, all deified. Only the later rulers are supported by texts or known synchronisms. Given that Ugarit was abandoned between the Middle and Late Bronze Ages it is thought that the earliest names on the list were more on the order of tribal chiefs than kings.[23][24][25][26][27]

Ruler | Reigned | Comments

|
|

Niqmaddu I |  | Known only from a damaged seal that mentions "Yaqarum, son of Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit".[28]
Yaqarum |  | Known only from a damaged seal that mentions "Yaqarum, son of Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit".[28]
Ammittamru I | c. 1350 BC | [29]
Niqmaddu II | c. 1350–1315 BC | Contemporary of Hittite ruler Suppiluliuma I
Arhalba | c. 1315–1313 BC | Contemporary of Hittite ruler Mursili II
Niqmepa | c. 1313–1260 BC | Treaty with Mursili II; Son of Niqmadu II; Queen was Ahatmilku
Ammittamru II | c. 1260–1235 BC | Contemporary of Amurru ruler Bentisina; Son of Niqmepa
Ibiranu | c. 1235–1225 BC | Addressee of the letter of Piha-walwi
Niqmaddu III | c. 1225–1215 BC |
Ammurapi | c. 1200 BC | Contemporary of Chancellor Bay of Egypt. Ugarit is destroyed in his reign.

## Archaeology[edit]

Entrance to the Royal Palace of Ugarit

After its destruction in the early 12th century BC, Ugarit's location was forgotten until 1928 when a peasant accidentally opened an old tomb while plowing a field. At that time the region was part of the Alawite State, not in Syria. The discovered area was the necropolis of Ugarit located in the nearby seaport of Minet el-Beida. Excavations have since revealed a city with a prehistory reaching back to c. 6000 BC.[30]

The site covers an area of about 28 hectares with a maxiumum height of 20 meters at the top of the acropolis. The site is surrounded by a city wall with one known fortified gate, though four gates are believed to have existed. Since the Late Bronze Age about 50 meters have been eroded from the north end of the site by the Nahr Chbayyeb river. The southern slope of the tell is covered by orange groves, preventing excavation.[31] A brief investigation of a looted tomb at the necropolis of Minet el-Beida was conducted by Léon Albanèse in 1928, who then examined the main mound of Ras Shamra.[32] Beginning in 1929 excavations of Ugarit were conducted by a French team called the Mission de Ras Shamra led by archaeologist Claude Schaeffer from the Musée archéologique in Strasbourg.[33][34][35][36] Work continued until 1949 when it was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II.[37][38][39]

The French excavation, now the Mission Archeologique Frangaise de Ras Shamra-Ougarit, resumed in 1950, led again by Claude Schaeffer until 1970.[40][41] At that point, directorship passed to Jean Margueron. [42][43][44][45][46][47][48] After 44 excavation seasons all of the numerous finds and their findspots were collated.[49][50] In 2005 the excavation became a joint French and Syrian effort led by Valérie Matoïan and Khozama Al-Bahloul.[51][52] These continued until being ended due to the Syrian Civil War.[6]

Archaeologists have defined a number of occupation strata at the site based on the excavations:[49]

* Strata 1 - 500-300 BC - Helenistic up thru Arabi
* Lacuna - 900-600 BC - no occupation
* Stratum 2 - 1100-900 BC - Iron Age
* Stratum 3 - 1365-1200 BC - Late Bronze 2 = RS 1/3 = UR 3
* Stratum 4 - 1450-1365 BC - Late Bronze 1-2 = RS 1/2 = UR 2
* Stratum 5 - 1550-1450 BC - Late Bronze 1 = RS 1/1 = UR 1
* Lacuna - 1650-1550 BC - no occupation
* Stratum 6 - 1750-1650 BC - Middle Bronze '3' = RS 2/3 = UM 2
* Stratum 7 - 1900-1750 BC - Middle Bronze '2' = RS 2/2 = UM 2 = Middle Minoan 2
* Stratum 8 - 2100-1900 BC - Middle Bronze = RS 2/1 = UM 1
* Stratum 9 - 2300-2100 BC - Early Bronze 4 = RS 3/3 or III A; = UA 3
* Stratum 10 - 2500-2300 BC - Early Bronze 3 = RS 3/2 or III A 2 + 3; = UA 2
* Stratum 11 - c. 2800 BC - Early Bronze 1 - 2 = RS 3/1 or III B-C; = UA 1
* Stratum 12 - c. 3300 BC - 'Ubayd chalcolithic = RS 4 A-B (with some RS 3)
* Stratum 13 - 4000 - 3400 BC - Halaf chalcolithic = RS 4-C (4 A-B)
* Stratum 14 - c. 4000 BC - Neolithic with pottery = RS 5 A-B
* Stratum 15 - c. 4500 BC - Pre-Pottery Neolithic = RS 5-C

A number of areas lay within the fortifications of Ugarit. In the northwest section was an acropolis with the temples of Dagon and Baal. In the west was the Royal Zone, including the Royal Palace. A fortress protecting the latter area was excavated, with the earliest elements dating back to the Middle Bronze Age. To the west of that lies the modern village of Ras Shamra. There were densely populated residential areas to the east of the Royal Zone and on the southern slope of the tell.[53][54]

### Cuneiform tablets[edit]

Main article: Ugarit texts

Text of Law in Akkadian by King Niqmepa with dynastic seal Ras Shamra Louvre Museum

Numerous cuneiform tablets have been found.[55][56][57][58][59] By the Late Bronze age Ugarit had a thriving dual-scribal system. Primarily it used the West Semitic Akkadian language which acted as the lingua franca throughout the region for diplomacy, business, and administrative purposes. In parallel, there was scribal activity in the local Northwest Semitic Ugaritic language.[60] A few scribes are known to have worked in both writing systems. A number of archives were found, the largest being that of the household of Urtēnu, a merchant with trading ties as far afield as Emar.[61] This area of the tell was under military control at the time and about 100 tablets were found in the rubble from military construction. Later excavtion found several hundred tablets in the actual home. One tablet mentions the enthronement of Kassite ruler Kadashman-Harbe II (c. 1223 BC) whose rule lasted less than a year, allowing a tight synchronism. The latest datable text was from the reign of Kassite ruler Meli-Shipak II (c. 1186–1172 BC) about the time of the destruction of Ugarit.[15] An example of the archive involving one ton of copper:

> "Thus Kušmešuša, king of Alašiya, say to Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit, my son. All is well with me, my households, my countries, my wives, my sons, my troops, my horses and my chariots.… In exchange of the gift which you had sent me, I sent to you thirty-three (ingots of) copper; their weight is thirty talents and six-thousand and five-hundred shekels."[62]

One small tablet written in Cypro-Minoan was found on the surface of the tell.[63] While it traditionally been assumed that syllabic texts are in the Akkadian language and alphabetic texts are in Ugaritic it has been suggested that much of the syllabic writing, especially in administrative documents, is actually in "a jargon where an Akkadian dialect is hard to detect given the great amount of Ugaritic elements it contained".[64][65]

### Royal palace[edit]

Main article: Royal Palace of Ugarit

The Royal Palace was constructed over several major phases between the 15th and 13th centuries BC. It comprised rooms arranged around courtyards, encompassing 6,500 square meters before the city's destruction in the early 12th century BC. A tablet from the 14th century BC found in the Amarna archives, EA 89, Rib-Hadda of Byblos likening the palace at Tyre to the grandeur found in the palace within Ugarit's walls.[66] The palace exhibited exceptional construction quality, predominantly crafted from stone, with preserved ashlar blocks reaching heights of up to 4 meters. Wooden crossbeams were also incorporated, inserted into slots within the stone masonry. A thick layer of plain plaster covered the walls. To the west of the palace was a set aside 10,000 square meter Royal Zone.[54][2]

Archaeological findings within the ruins have included a variety of artifacts such including ivory carvings, stone stele, figurines, and numerous tablets. These tablets were discovered in archives located across the palace; their contents encompass reports on outlying regions, judicial records—particularly from the south-central archives of the palace—and examples of practice writing by young scribes. Below ground, beneath two northern rooms, lay family tombs—three spacious chambers constructed with corbelled vaults—found devoid of any contents.[67] The vanished upper floor likely accommodated the private quarters of the royal family, accessed via twelve staircases.[2]

### Acropolis[edit]

The Acropolis, positioned in the Ugarit's northeastern section, housed the city's primary temples dedicated to Baal and his father, Dagan, both deities associated with vegetation. Though the existing remnants date to the Late Bronze Age, these temples might have their origins in the early second millennium BC. Stelai discovered in this area portray or name these gods, affirming their identification for the respective cults. Within the Temple of Baal, discoveries include a stele depicting Baal holding a club aloft, portrayed in a typical Near Eastern and Egyptian artistic style. Numerous statues, stelai—some offered by Egyptians—and sixteen stone anchors were found as votive offerings in this vicinity.[2]

The temple layouts share simplicity and resemblance. Each comprises a pronaos (porch) and a naos (sanctuary proper), aligned from north-northeast to south-southwest. The Temple of Dagan stands out for its 4–5-meter-thick foundation walls. Remnants of the Temple of Baal encompass sections of an enclosing wall, a likely courtyard altar, imposing steps leading to the elevated pronaos and naos, and another presumed altar within the naos. Marguerite Yon speculated that these elevated structures might have also served as lighthouses.[2] The temple was destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid 13th century and not rebuilt. The Temple of Dagan was also destroyed at that time but was rebuilt.[68]

Another significant structure within the Acropolis was the House of the High Priest, situated west of the Temple of Dagan. This large, two-story residence, largely well-constructed, garnered significance for housing tablets containing mythological poems. Some tablets demonstrated writing exercises and included syllabic and bilingual lexicons, implying the building's use as a center for scribe training. Its proximity to the primary temples and the discovery of bronze tools, particularly four small adzes and a dedicated hoe, hints at its potential role as the residence of the city's chief priest. Among a cache of seventy-four bronze items uncovered beneath a doorway threshold inside the house, was an elegant tripod adorned with pomegranate-shaped pendants.[2]

### Ras Ibn Hani and Minet el Beida[edit]

Two nearby areas, Ras Ibn Hani and Minet el Beida, parts of the city of Ugarit, have also been excavated. Ras Ibn Hani, on a promontory overlooking the Mediterranean 5 kilometers south of the city, was discovered during commercial construction in 1977. Salvage excavation occurred in 1977 followed by regular excavation which has continued to the present by a Syrian-French team led by A. Bounni and J. Lagarce.[69] Occupation began in the mid-13th century BC. Abandoned along with Ugarit, it was re-occupied in the Hellenistic period, including the construction of a defensive fortress. A "royal palace", elite housing, and tombs were found. About 169 cuneiform tablets, most in the Ugaritic language, were also found.[70][30]

One of the two ports of ancient Ugarit (the other, Ra’šu, is unlocated but suggested to be Ras Ibn Hani) was located 1.5 kilometers west of the main city, at the natural harbor of Minet el Beida (Arabic for "White Harbor"). The 28 hectare site was excavated between 1929 and 1935 by Claude Schaeffer. The site is currently a military port and unavailable for excavation.[71][72] Its name in the Late Bronze Age is believed to have been Maʾḫadu.[73] Archaeological excavations carried out on the southern side of the bay, now reduced in size due to alluvial fill, unveiled remnants of a settlement established in the 14th century BC, and perhaps earlier, in the late 15th century.[74] This port town, featuring an urban layout akin to the city of Ugarit, displays irregular street formations. Dwellings were structured around courtyards with adjacent rooms, including provisions like wells, ovens, and occasionally subterranean tombs. Besides residential spaces and shrines, warehouses were present for storing diverse goods earmarked for import or export. One of them was discovered still housing eighty shipping jars that remain remarkably intact.[75][76]

Artifacts discovered in the port indicate the predominance of native Ugaritians within the local populace, accompanied by a significant presence of various foreign communities such as Egyptians, Cypriots, Hittites, Hurrians, and Aegean peoples.[73] Among the discoveries were Cypriot pottery (both imported and locally crafted), Mycenaean pottery, ivory cosmetic containers from Egypt, a terracotta depiction of Hathor, bronze tools and weaponry, cylinder seals, stone weights, remnants of banded dye-murex shells used in the production of purple dye, and inscribed tablets.[77][78]

The site is thought to have been largely evacuated before it was burned (resulting in a thick ash layer) and destroyed as few valuables were found in the residences or in the southern palace. About 130 cuneiform tablets were found in the northern palace. After the destruction the site was occupied by simple residences, termed a village by the excavators. Aegean style pottery and loom weights were found in this Iron Age I level.[5]

## Language and literature[edit]

Ugarit

Places

* Salhi
* Minet el-Beida
* Ras Ibn Hani
* Royal Palace

Kings

* Ammittamru I
* Niqmaddu II

* Arhalba
* Niqmepa

* Ammittamru II
* Ibiranu

* Niqmaddu III
* Ammurapi

Culture

* Alphabet
* Language
* Grammar
* Pantheon
* Hurrian songs
* Baal with Thunderbolt

Texts

* Baal Cycle
* Legend of Keret
* Tale of Aqhat

* v
* t
* e

### Alphabet[edit]

Main article: Ugaritic alphabet

Scribes in Ugarit appear to have originated the "Ugaritic alphabet" around 1400 BC: 30 letters, corresponding to sounds, were inscribed on clay tablets. Although they are cuneiform in appearance, the letters bear no relation to Mesopotamian cuneiform signs; instead, they appear to be somehow related to the Egyptian-derived Phoenician alphabet. While the letters show little or no formal similarity to the Phoenician, the standard letter order (seen in the Phoenician alphabet as ʔ, B, G, D, H, W, Z, Ḥ, Ṭ, Y, K, L, M, N, S, ʕ, P, Ṣ, Q, R, Š, T) shows strong similarities between the two, suggesting that the Phoenician and Ugaritic systems were not wholly independent inventions.[79] A Unicode block for Ugaritic has been defined.[80]

### Ugaritic language[edit]

Main articles: Ugaritic language and Ugaritic grammar

The existence of the Ugaritic language is attested to in texts from the 14th through the 12th century BC. Ugaritic is usually classified as a Northwest Semitic language and therefore related to Hebrew, Aramaic, and Phoenician, among others. Its grammatical features are highly similar to those found in Classical Arabic and Akkadian. It possesses two genders (masculine and feminine), three cases for nouns and adjectives (nominative, accusative, and genitive); three numbers: (singular, dual, and plural); and verb aspects similar to those found in other Northwest Semitic languages. The word order in Ugaritic is verb–subject–object, subject-object-verb (VSO)&(SOV); possessed–possessor (NG) (first element dependent on the function and second always in genitive case); and noun–adjective (NA) (both in the same case (i.e. congruent)).[81]

### Ugaritic literature[edit]

A Baal statuette from Ugarit

Apart from royal correspondence with neighboring Bronze Age monarchs, Ugaritic literature from tablets found in the city's libraries include mythological texts written in a poetic narrative, letters, legal documents such as land transfers, a few international treaties, and a number of administrative lists. Fragments of several poetic works have been identified: the "Legend of Keret", the "Legend of Danel", the Ba'al tales that detail Baal-Hadad's conflicts with Yam and Mot, among other fragments.[82][83]

## See also[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Ugarit.

* Asherah
* Cities of the ancient Near East
* Short chronology timeline
* List of Ugaritic deities
* Ugaritic Vintage Rites

## References[edit]

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27. ^ Schmidt, B., "A Re-evaluation of the Ugaritic King List", in Ugarit, Reli-gion, and Culture. Edited by N. Wyatt, W. Watson, and J. Lloyd, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, pp. 289–304, 1996
28. ^ a b Smith, Mark S., "The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 1. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2", Vetus Testamentum Supplements series, volume 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994 ISBN 9789004099951
29. ^ Heltzer, M., "Ammistamru I of Ugarit", NABU 2001/1, 2001
30. ^ a b Yon, Marguerite, "Introduction: History of Excavations", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2006, pp. 7-8, 2006
31. ^ Calvet, Yves, "Ugarit: The Kingdom and the City—Urban Features", Ugarit at Seventy-Five, edited by K. Lawson Younger Jr., University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 101-112, 2007 ISBN 1-57506-143-0
32. ^ Léon Albanèse, "Note sur Ras Shamra", Syria, vol. 10, pp.16–21, 1929
33. ^ Claude F. A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Sixième Campagne (Printemps 1934). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 141–76, 1935
34. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Septième Campagne (Printemps 1935) Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 105–49, 1936
35. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit Huitième Campagne (Printemps 1936): Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 125–54, 1937
36. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit: Neuvième Campagne (Printemps 1937). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 313–34, 1938
37. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Neuvième Campagne (Printemps 1937): Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 193–255, 1938
38. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Sharma-Ugarit: Dixième et Onzième Campagnes (Automne et Hiver 1938-39). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 277–95, 1939
39. ^ Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Nouvelles Campagnes de Fouilles à Ras Shamra-Ugarit (IX-X : 1938-1939)", Revue Archéologique, vol. 14, pp. 67–69, 1939
40. ^ Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Quinzième, Seizième et Dix-Septième Campagnes (1951, 1952 et 1953). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 31, no. 1/2, pp. 14–67, 1954
41. ^ Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Note Additionnelle Sur Les Fouilles Dans Le Palais Nord d’Ugarit", Syria, vol. 49, no. 1/2, pp. 27–33, 1972
42. ^ Contenson, Henri de, Jacques-Claude Courtois, Élisabeth Lagarce, Jacques Lagarce, and Rolf Stucky, "La XXXIIIe Campagne de Fouilles a Ras Shamra En 1972. Rapport Préliminaire", Syria 50, no. 3/4, pp. 283–309, 1973
43. ^ Contenson, Henri de, Jacques-Claude Courtois, Élisabeth Lagarce, Jacques Lagarce, and Rolf Stucky, "La XXXIVe Campagne de Fouilles a Ras Shamra En 1973 Rapport Préliminaire", Syria 51, no. 1/2, pp. 1–30, 1974
44. ^ Margueron, Jean, "Ras Shamra 1975 et 1976 Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Campagnes d'Automne", Syria 54, no. 3/4, pp. 151–88, 1977
45. ^ Yon, Marguerite, A. Caubet, J. Mallet, and Patrick Desfarges, "Ras Shamra-Ougarit, 38, 39 et 40e Campagnes (1978, 1979 et 1980)", Syria 59, no. 3/4, pp. 169–97, 1982
46. ^ Yon, Marguerite, A. Caubet, J. Mallet, P. Lombard, C. Doumet, and P. Desfarges, "Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ougarit 1981-1983 (41e, 42e et 43e Campagnes)", Syria 60, no. 3/4, pp. 201–24, 1983
47. ^ Yon, Marguerite, J. Gachet, and P. Lombard, "Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ougarit 1984-1987 (44e-47e Campagnes)", Syria 64, no. 3/4, pp. 171–91,1987
48. ^ Yon, Marguerite, J. Gachet, P. Lombard, and J. Mallet, "Fouilles de La 48e Campagne (1988) à Ras Shamra-Ougarit", Syria 67, no. 1, pp. 1–29, 1990
49. ^ a b North, Robert, "Ugarit Grid, Strata, and Find-Localizations", Zeitschrift Des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (1953-), vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 113–60, 1973
50. ^ Courtois, Jacques-Claude, "Ugarit Grid, Strata, and Find-Localizations: A Re-Assessment", Zeitschrift Des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (1953-), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 97–114, 1974
51. ^ Al-Maqdissi, Michel, Khozama Bahloul, Olivier Callot, Yves Calvet, Valérie Matoïan, and Caroline Sauvage, "Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Activités De La Mission Syro-Française De Ras Shamra-Ougarit en 2005 et 2006 (65e et 66e Campagnes)", Syria 84, pp. 33–55, 2007
52. ^ Al-Maqdissi, Michel, Yves Calvet, Valérie Matoïan, Khozama Al-Bahloul, Christophe Benech, Jean-Claude Bessac, Éric Coqueugniot, et al., "Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Activités De La Mission Syro-Française De Ras Shamra-Ougarit En 2007 et 2008 (67e Et 68e Campagnes)", Syria 87, pp. 21–51, 2010
53. ^ Yon, Marguerite, "Ugarit: The Urban Habitat The Present State of the Archaeological Picture", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 286, pp. 19–34, 1992
54. ^ a b Yon, Marguerite, "Description of the Tell", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 27-122, 2006
55. ^ Charles Virolleaud, "Les Inscriptions Cunéiformes de Ras Shamra", Syria, vol. 10, pp. 304–310, 1929
56. ^ Claude F. A. Schaeffer, "The Cuneiform Texts of Ras Shamra-Ugarit", 1939
57. ^ Claude F. A. Schaeffer, The Cuneiform Texts of Ras Shamra-Ugarit: The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy 1937, Periodicals Service Co., 1986. ISBN 3-601-00536-0.
58. ^ Claude F. A. Schaeffer et al., Le Palais Royal D'Ugarit III: Textes Accadiens et Hourrites Des Archives Est, Ouest et Centrales, Two Volumes (Mission De Ras Shamra Tome VI), Imprimerie Nationale, 1955.
59. ^ Sauvage, Caroline, and Christine Lorre, ed., "À la découverte du royaume d'Ougarit (Syrie du IIe millénaire). Les fouilles de C.F.A. Schaeffer à Minet el-Beida et Ras Shamra (1929‒1937)", Austrian Academy of Sciences Press (Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 7, 2023
60. ^ Hawley, Robert, Pardee, Dennis and Roche-Hawley, Carole, "The Scribal Culture of Ugarit", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 229-267, 2016
61. ^ Atwood, Roger, "The Ugarit Archives", Archaeology, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 24–31, 2021
62. ^ Lackenbacher, S./F. Malbran-Labat, "Lettres en akkadien de la “Maison d’Urtēnu”: fouilles de 1994 (RSOu. 23)", Leuven, 2016
63. ^ Yon, Marguerite, "Artifacts Illustrating Official and Everyday Life", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 123-172, 2006
64. ^ [8]Kottsieper, Ingo; Neumann, Hans (ed.), Literaturkontakte Ugarits, Wurzeln und Entfaltungen, Zaphon, pp. 189-198, 2021
65. ^ [9]Robert Hawley, "On the Alphabetic Scribal Curriculum at Ugarit", Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, and Martha T. Roth, eds., in Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 62, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, pp. 57-68, 2008 ISBN 978-1-885923-54-7
66. ^ Albright, W. F., and William L. Moran, "Rib-Adda of Byblos and the Affairs of Tyre (EA 89)", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 163–68, 1950
67. ^ Pitard, Wayne T., "The ‘Libation Installations’ of the Tombs at Ugarit", The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 20–37, 1994
68. ^ Boyes, Philip J., "Social Change in Late Bronze Age Ugarit", Script and Society: The Social Context of Writing Practices in Late Bronze Age Ugarit, Oxbow Books, pp. 225–44, 2021 ISBN 978-1789255836
69. ^ Bounni (A.) and Lagarce (E. and J.), "Ras Ibn Hani I: Le Palais Nord du Bronze Récent", BAH, Beirut, 1998
70. ^ [10]Vita, Juan-Pablo,Pierre Bordreuil, Dennis Pardee et Carole Roche-Hawley, "Ras Ibn Hani II. Les textes en écritures cunéiformes de l’âge du Bronze récent (fouilles 1977 à 2022)" Syria. Archéologie, art et histoire, 2023 ISBN 978-2-35159-756-9
71. ^ Morton, W. H., "Ras Shamra-Ugarit and Old Testament Exegesis", "Review & Expositor", 45(1), pp. 63-80, 1948
72. ^ Schaeffer, F. A., "The French Excavations at Minet el Beida and Ras Shamra in Syria", Antiquity, 4(16), pp. 460-466, 1930
73. ^ a b Astour, Michael C., "Maʾḫadu, the Harbor of Ugarit", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 113–27, 1970
74. ^ Curtis, A. H., "Ras Shamra, Minet el-Beida and Ras Ibn Hani: The Material Sources", In Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt (ed) Handbook of Ugaritic studies, Brill, pp. 5-27, 1999 ISBN 90-04-10988-9
75. ^ Sauvage, Caroline, "Nouvelle réflexion sur le "dépôt aux 80 jarres" de Minet el-Beida", De l'île d'Aphrodite au Paradis perdu, itinéraire d'un gentilhomme lyonnais. En hommage à Yves Calvet, hrsg. v. Bernard Geyer, Valérie Matoïan (Ras Shamra - Ougarit 22)., pp. 63-76, 2015
76. ^ Yon (M.), "Ougarit et le port de Mahadou–Minet el-Beida", in Res Maritimae, ed. S. Swiny, R. Hoh-felder, and L. Swiny, Atlanta, pp. 357–69, 1997
77. ^ Barber, E. J.W., "Dyes", in Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 223-244, 1991
78. ^ Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Les fouilles de Minet-el-Beida et de Ras Shamra. Troisieme campagne (printemps 1931). Rapport sommaire", Syria 13, pp. 1-27, 1932
79. ^ [11]Dennis Pardee, "The Ugaritic Alphabetic Cuneiform Writing System in the Context of Other Alphabetic Systems", Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Oriental Institute, vol. 60, pp. 181–200, 2007
80. ^ [12], Ugaritic Range: 10380–1039F, The Unicode Standard, Version 15.1
81. ^ [13]Stanislav Segert, "A basic Grammar of the Ugaritic Language: with selected texts and glossary", 1984 ISBN 9780520039995
82. ^ Wyatt, Nicolas, "Religious texts from Ugarit: the worlds of Ilimilku and his colleagues", The Biblical Seminar, volume 53. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998
83. ^ Bordreuil, Pierre and Pardee, Dennis, "A Manual of Ugaritic", University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2009

## Further reading[edit]

* Ugarit Forschungen (Neukirchen-Vluyn). UF-11 (1979) honors Claude Schaeffer, with about 100 articles in 900 pages. pp. 95, ff, "Comparative Graphemic Analysis of Old Babylonian and Western Akkadian", ( i.e. Ugarit and Amarna (letters), three others, Mari, OB,Royal, OB,non-Royal letters). See above, in text.
* Bourdreuil, P., "Une bibliothèque au sud de la ville : Les textes de la 34e campagne (1973)", in Ras Shamra-Ougarit, 7, Paris, 1991
* Caquot, André & Sznycer, Maurice, "Ugaritic Religion", Iconography of Religions, Section XV: Mesopotamia and the Near East; Fascicle 8; Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1980.
* Cornelius, Izak & Niehr, Herbert, "Götter und Kulte in Ugarit", Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2004, ISBN 3-8053-3281-5.
* Drews, Robert, "The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC", (Princeton University Press), 1995 ISBN 0-691-02591-6
* Gibson, J.C.L., originally edited by G.R. Driver. Canaanite Myths and Legends. Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, Ltd., 1956, 1977.
* Gordon, Cyrus H., "The Poetic Literature of Ugarit", Orientalia, vol. 12, pp. 31–75, 1943
* Gregorio Del Olmo Lete, "Canaanite Religion: According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit", 2004
* [14]H. H. Hardy II, Joseph Lam, and Eric D. Reymond, eds, "'Like 'Ilu Are You Wise': Studies in Northwest Semitic Languages and Literatures in Honor of Dennis G. Pardee", Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 73, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2022 ISBN 978-1-61491-075-6
* Kinet, Dirk, "Ugarit – Geschichte und Kultur einer Stadt in der Umwelt des Alten Testaments", Stuttgarter Bibelstudien vol. 104. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1981, ISBN 3-460-04041-6.
* L'Heureux, Conrad E., "Rank Among the Canaanite Gods: El, Ba'al, and the Repha'im", Harvard Semitic Museum, Harvard Semitic Monographs No. 21, Missoula MT: Scholars Press, 1979
* Loretz, Oswald, "Ugarit und die Bibel. Kanaanäische Götter und Religion im Alten Testament", Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1990 ISBN 3-534-08778-X.
* Mullen, E. Theodore, Jr. "The Assembly of the Gods: The Divine Council in Canaanite and Early Hebrew Literature", Harvard Semitic Museum, Harvard Semitic Monographs No. 24, Cambridge, MA: Harvard Press, 1980
* Owen, David, "An Akkadian Letter from Ugarit at Tel Aphek", Tel Aviv 8: 1–17, 1981
* Dennis Pardee, "Ritual and Cult at Ugarit", (Writings from the Ancient World), Society of Biblical Literature, 2002 ISBN 1-58983-026-1
* Saadé, Gabriel, "Ougarit et son royaume. Des origines à sa destruction", Bibliothèque archéologique et historique, vol. 193. Beyrouth: IFPO, 2011 ISBN 978-2-35159-180-2.
* Sauvage, Caroline, and Christine Lorre, ed., "Discovering the kingdom of Ugarit (Syria of the 2nd millennium). C.F.A. Schaeffer's excavations at Minet el-Beida and Ras Shamra (1929‒1937)", (Austrian Academy of Sciences Press (Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 7), 2023 ISBN 978-3-7001-7998-6
* William M. Schniedewind, Joel H. Hunt, "A primer on Ugaritic: language, culture, and literature", 2007 ISBN 0-521-87933-7
* Smith, Mark S. and Wayne Pitard, "The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 2. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.3–1.4", Vetus Testament Supplement series, volume 114; Leiden: Brill, 2008
* Smith, Mark S., "Beginnings: 1928–1945", in Untold Stories. The Bible and Ugaritic Studies in the Twentieth Century, p. 13-49, 1991 ISBN 1-56563-575-2

## External links[edit]

* Ugarit (Tell Shamra) 1999 application for UNESCO World Heritage Site
* RSTI. The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory: an online catalog of inscribed objects from Ras Shamra-Ugarit produced at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago.
* The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory Blog
* Ugarit and the Bible - Quartz Hill School of Theology
* Le Royaume d'Ougarit (in French)
* Dennis Pardee, Ugarit Ritual texts – Oriental Institute
* Pictures from 2009

* v
* t
* e

Ancient states and regions in the history of the Levant

Copper age|

* Kish civilization
* Tell Halaf
* Chagar Bazar
* Hamoukar
* Jericho
* Byblos
* Ebla
* Ugarit
* Urkesh

Bronze Age|

* Akkadian Empire
* Amorite states
* Amurru
* Andarig
* Apum
* First Babylon
* Third Ebla
* Ekallatum
* Kurda
* Third Mari
* Mukish
* Qatna
* Ṭābetu
* Kingdom of Upper Mesopotamia
* Yamhad
* Amqu
* Barga
* Canaanite city-states
* Ascalon
* Arqa
* Arwad
* Azzati
* Beruta
* Gebal
* Gezer
* Hazor
* Jerusalem
* Kumidi
* Lakisha
* Megiddo
* Phoenicia
* Qadesh
* Shechem
* Sidon
* Tyre
* Dimasqu
* Hittite Empire
* Hurrians
* Urshu
* Nuhašše
* Mitanni
* Naziba
* Niya
* Ib'al confederacy
* Paleo-Syrian states
* Armi
* Ebla
* Emar
* Khana/Terqa
* Mari
* Nagar
* Suhum
* Suteans
* Ahlamu
* Tadmor
* Tunip
* Ugarit

Iron Age|

* Achaemenid Empire
* Aramaean states
* Aram-Damascus
* Aram Rehob
* Bit-Adini
* Bit Agusi
* Bit Bahiani
* Geshur
* Hamath
* Sam'al
* Zobah
* Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Canaan
* Ammon
* Edom
* Israel (Samaria)
* Israel (united)
* Judah
* Moab
* Philistia
* Ashdod
* Ascalon
* Ekron
* Gath
* Gaza
* Phoenicia
* Amrit
* Arwad
* Gebal
* Tartus
* Tyre
* Sidon
* New Kingdom of Egypt
* Arabs
* Itureans?
* Nabataeans
* Qedarites
* Luwian-Aramaean states
* Carchemish
* Kummuh
* Luhuti
* Palistin
* Pattin

Classical Age|

* Ancient Rome (Roman Republic \- Roman Empire \- Byzantine Empire)
* Commagene
* Ghassanid Kingdom
* Hasmonean dynasty
* Herodian kingdom
* Herodian Tetrarchy
* Iturea
* Macedonia
* Nabataean Kingdom
* Osroene
* Palmyrene Empire
* Parthian Empire
* Seleucid Empire
* Sasanian Empire
* Tanukhid confederacy

Sources|

* Amarna letters
* Canaanite and Aramaic inscriptions

* v
* t
* e

Rulers of the Ancient Near East

|  | Territories/
dates
[1][2][3][4][5] | Egypt | Canaan | Ebla | Mari | Kish/
Assur | Akshak/
Akkad | Uruk | Adab | Umma
| Lagash | Ur | Elam

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

4000–3200 BCE  | Naqada I
Naqada II
| Egypt-Mesopotamia relations | Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE)  | Susa I

Uruk period
(4000–3100 BCE)

(Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE)

(Anonymous "King-priests")  | Susa II

(Uruk influence or control)
3200–3100 BCE  | Proto-Dynastic period
(Naqada III)
Early or legendary kings:
Upper Egypt
Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes | Lower Egypt
Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash

3100–2900 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period
First Dynasty of EgyptNarmer Palette
Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird | Canaanites | Jemdet Nasr period
(3100–2900 BCE)  | Proto-Elamite
period
(Susa III)
(3100–2700 BCE)
2900 BCE  | Second Dynasty of Egypt

Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy
| Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE)
First Eblaite
Kingdom
| First kingdom of Mari
| Kish I dynasty
Jushur, Kullassina-bel
Nangishlishma,
En-tarah-ana
Babum, Puannum, Kalibum
2800 BCE

| Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab
Mashda Arwium Etana
Balih En-me-nuna
Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna | Uruk I dynasty
Mesh-ki-ang-gasher
Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta")
2700 BCE  | Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE)
|  | Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku
Iltasadum | Lugalbanda
Dumuzid, the Fisherman
Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6]
Aga of Kish | Gilgamesh | Old Elamite period
(2700–1500 BCE)

Indus-Mesopotamia relations
2600 BCE  | Third Dynasty of Egypt

Djoser

(First Egyptian pyramids)
Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni | Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE)
Sagisu
Abur-lim
Agur-lim
Ibbi-Damu
Baba-Damu |  | Kish II dynasty
(5 kings)
Uhub
Mesilim | Ur-Nungal
Udulkalama
Labashum | Lagash
En-hegal
Lugal-
shaengur | Ur
A-Imdugud
Ur-Pabilsag
Meskalamdug
(Queen Puabi)
Akalamdug
Enun-dara-anna
Mes-he
Melamanna
Lugal-kitun | Adab
Nin-kisalsi
Me-durba
Lugal-dalu |
2575 BCE  | Old Kingdom of Egypt
Fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Snefru Khufu

Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis | Ur I dynasty
Mesannepada
"King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk
2500 BCE  | Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE)  | Second kingdom of Mari

Ikun-Shamash
Iku-Shamagan

Ansud
Sa'umu
Ishtup-Ishar
Ikun-Mari
Iblul-Il
Nizi | Kish III dynasty
Ku-Baba♀ | Akshak dynasty
Unzi
Undalulu | Uruk II dynasty
Ensha-
kushanna | Mug-si | Umma I dynasty

Pabilgagaltuku | Lagash I dynasty

Ur-Nanshe

Akurgal | A'annepada
Meskiagnun
Elulu
Balulu | Awan dynasty
Peli
Tata
Ukkutahesh
Hishur
2450 BCE  | Fifth Dynasty of Egypt

Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas | Enar-Damu
Ishar-Malik | Ush
Enakalle
Elamite invasions
(3 kings)[6] | Shushun-
tarana
Napilhush
2425 BCE  | Kun-Damu | Eannatum
(King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam)
2400 BCE  | Adub-Damu
Igrish-Halam
Irkab-Damu | Kish IV dynasty
Puzur-Suen
Ur-Zababa | Urur | Lugal-kinishe-dudu
Lugal-kisalsi | E-iginimpa'e
Meskigal | Ur-Lumma

Gishakidu
(Queen Bara-irnun)  | Enannatum
Entemena
Enannatum II
Enentarzi | Ur II dynasty
Nanni
Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II | Kiku-siwe-tempti
2380 BCE  | Sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah
| Adab dynasty
Lugalannemundu
"King of the four quarters of the world"
2370 BCE  | Isar-Damu | Enna-Dagan
Ikun-Ishar
Ishqi-Mari | Invasion by Mari
Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] | Ukush | Lugalanda
Urukagina | Luh-ishan
2350 BCE  |  | Puzur-Nirah
Ishu-Il
Shu-Sin | Uruk III dynasty
Lugalzagesi
(Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer)
2340 BCE  |  | Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE)
Akkadian Empire

Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu | Akkadian Governors:
Eshpum
Ilshu-rabi
Epirmupi
Ili-ishmani
2250 BCE  | Naram-Sin | Lugal-ushumgal
(vassal of the Akkadians)
2200 BCE  | First Intermediate Period
Seventh Dynasty of Egypt
Eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare | Second Eblaite
Kingdom | Third kingdom of Mari
(Shakkanakku
dynasty)

Ididish
Shu-Dagan
Ishma-Dagan
(Vassals of the Akkadians)  |
Shar-Kali-Sharri
Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years)
Dudu
Shu-turul | Uruk IV dynasty
Ur-nigin
Ur-gigir |  | Lagash II dynasty
Puzer-Mama
Ur-Ningirsu I
Pirig-me
Lu-Baba
Lu-gula
Ka-ku
| Hishep-Ratep
Helu
Khita
Puzur-Inshushinak
2150 BCE  | Ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut | Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE)
Nûr-Mêr
Ishtup-Ilum

Ishgum-Addu
Apil-kin | Gutian dynasty
(21 kings)

La-erabum
Si'um | Kuda (Uruk)
Puzur-ili
Ur-Utu |  | Umma II dynasty
Lugalannatum
(vassal of the Gutians)  | Ur-Baba
Gudea
Ur-Ningirsu
Ur-gar
Nam-mahani

Tirigan
2125 BCE  | Tenth Dynasty of Egypt
Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare

| Uruk V dynasty
Utu-hengal
2100 BCE  | (Vassals of UR III)  | Iddi-ilum
Ili-Ishar
Tura-Dagan
Puzur-Ishtar
(Vassals of Ur III)[7] | Ur III dynasty
"Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad"
Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin
2025-1763 BCE  | Amorite invasions | Ibbi-Sin | Elamite invasions
Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty)
Middle Kingdom of Egypt
Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt
Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV
Third Eblaite
Kingdom
(Amorites)
Ibbit-Lim

Immeya Indilimma | (Amorite Shakkanakkus)
Hitial-Erra
Hanun-Dagan
(...)

Lim Dynasty
of Mari
(Amorites)
Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu)  | Old Assyria
Puzur-Ashur I
Shalim-ahum
Ilu-shuma
Erishum I
Ikunum
Sargon I
Puzur-Ashur II
Naram-Sin
Erishum II | Isin-Larsa period
(Amorites)
Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu
Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II
Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu  | Sukkalmah dynasty

Siwe-Palar-Khuppak
Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt
Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀
1800–1595 BCE  | Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt | Abraham
(Biblical)
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Yamhad
(Yamhad dynasty)
(Amorites)  | Old Assyria

(Shamshi-Adad dynasty
1808–1736 BCE)
(Amorites)
Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Non-dynastic usurpers
1735–1701 BCE)
Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi

(Adaside dynasty
1700–722 BCE)
Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II

| First Babylonian dynasty
("Old Babylonian Period")
(Amorites)
Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana

Early Kassite rulers |

Second Babylonian dynasty
("Sealand Dynasty")
Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu
Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar
mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama
Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil

Second Intermediate Period
Sixteenth
Dynasty
Abydos
Dynasty
Seventeenth
Dynasty

| Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt
("Hyksos")
Pharaoh Ahmose I slaying a Hyksos
Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi | Mitanni
(1600–1260 BCE)
Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar
1531–1155 BCE  | TutankhamunNew Kingdom of Egypt
Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ahmose I Amenhotep I | Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites)
Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi | Middle Elamite period

(1500–1100 BCE)
Kidinuid dynasty
Igehalkid dynasty
Untash-Napirisha

Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III
Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb | Hittite Empire

Ugarit
Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt
Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ | Elamite Empire
Shutrukid dynasty
Shutruk-Nakhunte
1155–1025 BCE  | Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt

Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI

Third Intermediate Period

Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt
Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II

| Phoenicia
Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon

Kingdom of Israel
Saul
Ish-bosheth
David
Solomon | Syro-Hittite states | Middle Assyria
Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II | Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin")
Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur | Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE)
1025–934 BCE  | Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos")
Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli
911–745 BCE  | Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt
Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV

Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt
Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini

Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt
Tefnakht Bakenranef

| Kingdom of Samaria

Kingdom of Judah | Neo-Assyrian Empire
Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V | Ninth Babylonian Dynasty
Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri
| Humban-Tahrid dynasty

Urtak
Teumman
Ummanigash
Tammaritu I
Indabibi
Humban-haltash III
745–609 BCE  | Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt
Taharqa("Black Pharaohs")
Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun | Neo-Assyrian Empire

(Sargonid dynasty)
Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II

Assyrian conquest of Egypt | Assyrian conquest of Elam
626–539 BCE  | Late Period
Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt
Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III | Neo-Babylonian Empire
Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus | Median Empire
Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages
539–331 BCE  | Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt
(First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt)  | Kings of Byblos
Kings of Tyre
Kings of Sidon | Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III
Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt
Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt
Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt
331–141 BCE  | Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt
Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ | Hellenistic Period
Seleukos I Nikator Tetradrachm from BabylonArgead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV
Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I
Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes
141–30 BCE  | Kingdom of Judea
Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias | Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus | Parthian Empire
Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I
30 BCE–116 CE  | Roman Empire
(Roman conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt | Judea | Syria
116–117 CE  | Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan | Parthamaspates of Parthia
117–224 CE  | Syria Palaestina | Province of Mesopotamia | Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV
224–270 CE  | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Coin of Ardashir I, Hamadan mint.Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm
270–273 CE  | Palmyrene Empire
Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus
273–395 CE  | Roman Empire
Province of Egypt | Syria Palaestina | Syria | Province of Mesopotamia
395–618 CE  | Byzantine Empire
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
618–628 CE  | (Sasanian conquest of Egypt)
Province of Egypt
Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz | Sasanian Empire
Province of Asoristan
Khosrow II Kavad II
628–641 CE  | Byzantine Empire | Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh
Byzantine Egypt | Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda | Byzantine Syria | Byzantine Mesopotamia
639–651 CE  | Muslim conquest of Egypt | Muslim conquest of the Levant | Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia
Chronology of the Neolithic period |  Rulers of Ancient Central Asia

1. ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional.
2. ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49.
3. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS.
4. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2.
5. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7.
6. ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List
7. ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5\. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.

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