Zagros Mountains

Mountain range in Western Asia

Zagros

Highest point
Peak| Qash-Mastan (Dena)
Elevation| 4,409 m (14,465 ft)
Listing|

* Alpide belt

Coordinates| 30°57′N 51°26′E﻿ / ﻿30.950°N 51.433°E﻿ / 30.950; 51.433
Dimensions
Length| 1,600 km (990 mi)[1]
Width| 240 km (150 mi)[1]
Geography
Location| Iran, Iraq, and Turkey
Middle East or Western Asia
Range coordinates| 33°40′N 47°00′E﻿ / ﻿33.667°N 47.000°E﻿ / 33.667; 47.000
Geology
Age of rock| Carboniferous
Mountain type| Fold and thrust belt

The Zagros Mountains (Persian: کوه‌های زاگرس, romanized: Kuh hā-ye Zāgros; Arabic: جبال زاغروس, romanized: Jibal Zaghrus; Kurdish: چیاکانی زاگرۆس, romanized: Çiyakani Zagros;[2][3] Turkish: Zagros Dağları; Luri: Kuh hā-ye Zāgros کویا زاگرس or کوه یل زاگرس) are a long mountain range in Iran, northern Iraq, and southeastern Turkey. This mountain range has a total length of 1,600 km (990 mi). The Zagros mountain range begins in northwestern Iran and roughly follows Iran's western border while covering much of southeastern Turkey and northeastern Iraq. From this border region, the range continues to the southeast under also the waters of the Persian Gulf. It spans the southern parts of the Armenian highland, the whole length of the western and southwestern Iranian plateau, ending at the Strait of Hormuz. The highest point is Mount Dena, at 4,409 metres (14,465 ft).

## Geology[edit]

See also: Geology of Iran

SRTM shaded relief anaglyph of Zagros Mountains The Zagros Mountains from space, September 1992[4]

The Zagros fold and thrust belt was mainly formed by the collision of two tectonic plates, the Eurasian Plate and the Arabian Plate.[5] This collision mainly happened during the Miocene (about 25–5 million years ago or mya) and folded the entirety of the rocks that had been deposited from the Paleozoic (541–242 mya) to the Cenozoic (66 mya – present) in the passive continental margin on the Arabian Plate. However, the obduction of Neotethys oceanic crust during the Cretaceous (145–66 mya), and the continental arc collision in the Eocene (56–34 mya) both had major effects on uplifts in the northeastern parts of the belt.

The process of collision continues to the present, and as the Arabian Plate is being pushed against the Eurasian Plate, the Zagros Mountains and the Iranian plateau are getting higher and higher. Recent GPS measurements in Iran[6] have shown that this collision is still active and the resulting deformation is distributed non-uniformly in the country, mainly taken up in the major mountain belts like Alborz and Zagros. A relatively dense GPS network which covered the Iranian Zagros[7] also proves a high rate of deformation within the Zagros. The GPS results show that the current rate of shortening in the southeast Zagros is ~10 mm/a (0.39 in/year), dropping to ~5 mm/a (0.20 in/year) in the northwest Zagros. The north–south Kazerun strike-slip fault divides the Zagros into two distinct zones of deformation. The GPS results also show different shortening directions along the belt, normal shortening in the southeast, and oblique shortening in the northwest Zagros. The Zagros mountains were created around the time of the second ice age,[citation needed] which caused the tectonic collision, leading to its uniqueness.

The sedimentary cover in the SE Zagros is deforming above a layer of rock salt (acting as a ductile decollement with a low basal friction), whereas in the NW Zagros the salt layer is missing or is very thin.[8] This different basal friction is partly responsible for the different topographies on either side of the Kazerun fault. Higher topography and narrower zone of deformation in the NW Zagros is observed whereas in the SE, deformation was spread more and a wider zone of deformation with lower topography was formed.[9] Stresses induced in the Earth's crust by the collision caused extensive folding of the preexisting layered sedimentary rocks. Subsequent erosion removed softer rocks, such as mudstone (rock formed by consolidated mud) and siltstone (a slightly coarser-grained mudstone) while leaving harder rocks, such as limestone (calcium-rich rock consisting of the remains of marine organisms) and dolomite (rocks similar to limestone containing calcium and magnesium). This differential erosion formed the linear ridges of the Zagros Mountains.

The depositional environment and tectonic history of the rocks were conducive to the formation and trapping of petroleum, and the Zagros region is an important area for oil production. Salt domes and salt glaciers are a common feature of the Zagros Mountains. Salt domes are an important target for petroleum exploration, as the impermeable salt frequently traps petroleum beneath other rock layers. There is also much water-soluble gypsum in the region.[10]

### Type and age of rock[edit]

Glaciers on Dena

The mountains are completely of sedimentary origin and are made primarily of limestone. In the Elevated Zagros or the Higher Zagros, the Paleozoic rocks can be found mainly in the upper and higher sections of the peaks of the Zagros Mountains, along the Zagros main fault. On both sides of this fault, there are Mesozoic rocks, a combination of Triassic (252–201 mya) and Jurassic (201–145 mya) rocks that are surrounded by Cretaceous rocks on both sides. The Folded Zagros (the mountains south of the Elevated Zagros and almost parallel to the main Zagros fault) is formed mainly of Tertiary rocks, with the Paleogene (66–23 mya) rocks south of the Cretaceous rocks and then the Neogene (23–2.6 mya) rocks south of the Paleogene rocks. The mountains are divided into many parallel sub-ranges (up to 10 or 250 km (6.2 or 155.3 mi) wide), and orogenically have the same age as the Alps.[11]

Iran's main oilfields lie in the western central foothills of the Zagros mountain range. The southern ranges of the Fars Province have somewhat lower summits, reaching 4,000 metres (13,000 feet). They contain some limestone rocks showing abundant marine fossils.[9]

## Highest peaks[edit]

The peaks that are at least 3800 meters high and have a topographic prominence of at least 300 meters:

| Name | Sub-range | Height (m) | Prominence (m)

|
|
|
|

1  | Qash-Mastan  | Dena | 4409  | 2604
2  | Kale Qodveis  | Dena | 4341  | 424
3  | Pazane Pir  | Dena | 4250  | 1080
4  | Kuh-e Dama  | Dena | 4216  | 504
5  | Kolonchin  | Zard-Kuh | 4221  | 2095
6  | Chegaleh  | Zard-Kuh | 4134  | 594
7  | Haft Tanan  | Zard-Kuh | 4104  | 653
8  | San-Borān  | Oshtorankuh | 4150  | 1928
9  | Qalikuh  |  | 4078  | 1420
10  | Shahankuh  |  | 4038  | 1427
11  | Qanbarkosh  |  | 3982  | 316
12  | Haft Cheshmeh  |  | 3975  | 1545
13  | Cheshmeh Kuhrang  |  | 3969  | 360
14  | Karpush  |  | 3961  | 915
15  | Bel  |  | 3943  | 1563
16  | Khurbeh  |  | 3902  | 915
17  | Darab Shah  |  | 3900  | 1495
18  | Piaro Kamandan  |  | 3891  | 370
19  | Hezar Darreh  |  | 3890  | 1628
20  | Kuh-e Hashtad  |  | 3869  | 1248
21  | Chahardah Pahlu  |  | 3845  | 949
22  | Dome Qalikuh  |  | 3839  | 602
23  | Kule Jonou  |  | 3823  | 422

## History[edit]

See also: Durupınar site

Ancient cobblestoned pathway in Zagros, Behbahan A ceramic ware excavated in Zagros, Dalma Tepe

The Zagros Mountains have significant ancient history. They were occupied by early humans since the Lower Paleolithic Period. The earliest human fossils discovered in Zagros belongs to Neanderthals and come from Shanidar Cave, Bisitun Cave, and Wezmeh Cave. The remains of ten Neanderthals, dating from around 65,000–35,000 years ago, have been found in the Shanidar Cave.[12] The cave also contains two later "proto-Neolithic" cemeteries, one of which dates back about 10,600 years and contains 35 individuals.[13] Evidence from later Upper Paleolithic and Epipaleolithic occupations come from Yafteh Cave, Kaldar Cave near Khoramabad, and Warwasi, Malaverd near Kermanshah, Kenacheh Cave in Kurdistan, Boof Cave in Fars and a number of other caves and rock shelters.[14] Signs of early agriculture date back as far as 9000 BC in the foothills of the mountains.[15] Some settlements later grew into cities, eventually named Anshan and Susa; Jarmo is one archaeological site in this area. Some of the earliest evidence of wine production has been discovered in the mountains; both the settlements of Hajji Firuz Tepe and Godin Tepe have given evidence of wine storage dating between 3500 and 5400 BC.[16]

During early ancient times, the Zagros was the home of peoples such as the later, the Kassites, Guti, Elamites and Mitanni, who periodically invaded the Sumerian and/or Akkadian cities of Mesopotamia. The mountains create a geographic barrier between the Mesopotamian Plain, which is in Iraq, and the Iranian plateau. A small archive of clay tablets detailing the complex interactions of these groups in the early second millennium BC has been found at Tell Shemshara along the Little Zab.[17] Tell Bazmusian, near Shemshara, was occupied between 5000 BCE and 800 CE, although not continuously.[18]

## Population[edit]

The Zagros mountains have been inhabited by different groups of pastoralists and farmers for thousands of years. Pastoralist groups such as Bakhtiaris, Kurds or Qashqais move from their herds from the east slopes in summer (Yeylāgh) to the west slopes in winter (Gheshlāgh). Some major cities are located on the foothills of the Zagros mountains, including Sulaymaniyah, Kermanshah, Khorramabad, and Shiraz.

### Bakhtiaris[edit]

The Bakhtiaris are a Lur tribe from Iran, primarily inhabiting the Central and South Zagros. Major cities inhabited by Bakhtiaris include Masjed Soleyman, Izeh and Shahr-e Kord. A significant number of Bakhtiari still practice nomadic pastoralism.

### Kurds[edit]

A Kurdish girl in the eastern Zagros village of Palangan celebrating Newroz

Kurds are an Iranian ethnic group native to the northwestern Zagros and the eastern Taurus mountain ranges, which spans southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, northern Iraq, and northern Syria. The high altitude of the Zagros mountains produces a series of choke points and valleys perfect for agriculture and human development.[19] It has also long defended the Kurds in times of war by acting as a natural barrier.[20]

### Qashqai[edit]

Qashqai people are a tribal confederation in Iran mostly of Turkic origin. Significant populations can be found in Central and South Zagros, especially around the city of Shiraz in the Fars province.

## Climate[edit]

The mountains contain several ecosystems. Prominent among them are the forest and forest steppe areas with a semi-arid climate. As defined by the World Wildlife Fund and used in their Wildfinder, the particular terrestrial ecoregion of the mid to high mountain area is Zagros Mountains forest steppe (PA0446). The annual precipitation ranges from 400–800 mm (16–31 in) and falls mostly in winter and spring. Winters are severe, with low temperatures often below −25 °C (−13 °F). The region exemplifies the continental variation of the Mediterranean climate pattern, with a snowy winter and mild, rainy spring, followed by a dry summer and autumn.[21]

Climate data for Amadiya District, Iraq

Month  | Jan  | Feb  | Mar  | Apr  | May  | Jun  | Jul  | Aug  | Sep  | Oct  | Nov  | Dec  | Year
Average high °C (°F)  | −0.2
(31.6)  | 1.4
(34.5)  | 6.4
(43.5)  | 12.2
(54.0)  | 19.3
(66.7)  | 24.8
(76.6)  | 29.7
(85.5)  | 29.6
(85.3)  | 25.6
(78.1)  | 17.7
(63.9)  | 9.7
(49.5)  | 2.7
(36.9)  | 14.9
(58.8)
Average low °C (°F)  | −8.0
(17.6)  | −6.8
(19.8)  | −2.0
(28.4)  | 3.5
(38.3)  | 8.8
(47.8)  | 13.0
(55.4)  | 17.3
(63.1)  | 16.9
(62.4)  | 13.0
(55.4)  | 7.2
(45.0)  | 2.1
(35.8)  | −4.3
(24.3)  | 5.1
(41.1)
Source: [22]

### Glaciation[edit]

The mountains of the East-Zagros, the Kuh-i-Jupar (4,135 m (13,566 ft)), Kuh-i-Lalezar (4,374 m (14,350 ft)) and Kuh-i-Hezar (4,469 m (14,662 ft)) do not currently have glaciers. Only at Zard Kuh and Dena some glaciers still survive. However, before the Last Glacial Period they had been glaciated to a depth in excess of 1,900 metres (1.2 miles), and during the Last Glacial Period to a depth in excess of 2,160 metres (7,090 feet). Evidence exists of a 20 km (12 mi) wide glacier fed along a 17 km (11 mi) long valley dropping approximately 1,600 m (5,200 ft) along its length on the north side of Kuh-i-Jupar with a thickness of 350–550 m (1,150–1,800 ft). Under conditions of precipitation comparable to current climatic record-keeping, this size of glacier could be expected to form where the annual average temperature was between 10.5 and 11.2 °C (50.9 and 52.2 °F), but since conditions are expected to have been dryer during the period in which this glacier was formed, the temperature must have been lower.[23][24][25][26]

## Flora and fauna[edit]

Main article: Zagros Mountains forest steppe

A view of Quercus brantii forests that dominate the Zagros Mountains

Men with a restrained lion in Iran. This photograph was taken by Antoin Sevruguin, c. 1880,[27] before the lion's extirpation in the country.

Although currently degraded through overgrazing and deforestation, the Zagros region is home to a rich and complex flora. Remnants of the originally widespread oak-dominated woodland can still be found, as can the park-like pistachio/almond steppelands. The ancestors of many familiar foods, including wheat, barley, lentil, almond, walnut, pistachio, apricot, plum, pomegranate and grape can be found growing wild throughout the mountains.[28] Quercus brantii (covering more than 50% of the Zagros forest area) is the most important tree species of the Zagros in Iran.[29]

Other floral endemics found within the mountain range include: Allium iranicum, Astragalus crenophila, Bellevalia kurdistanica, Cousinia carduchorum, Cousinia odontolepis, Echinops rectangularis, Erysimum boissieri, Iris barnumiae, Ornithogalum iraqense, Scrophularia atroglandulosa, Scorzonera kurdistanica, Tragopogon rechingeri, and Tulipa kurdica.[30] The Zagros are home to many threatened or endangered organisms, including the Zagros Mountains mouse-like hamster (Calomyscus bailwardi), the Basra reed-warbler (Acrocephalus griseldis) and the striped hyena (Hyena hyena). Luristan newt (Neurergus kaiseri) – vulnerable endemic to the central Zagros mountains of Iran. The Persian fallow deer (Dama dama mesopotamica), an ancient domesticate once thought extinct, was rediscovered in the late 20th century in Khuzestan Province, in the southern Zagros. Also, wild goats can be found almost all over the Zagros mountain range. In the late 19th century, the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica)[31] inhabited the southwestern part of the mountains. It is now extinct in this region.[32]

## Religion[edit]

The entrance to the ancient Mesopotamian underworld was believed to be located in the Zagros Mountains in the far east.[33] A staircase led down to the gates of the underworld.[33] The underworld itself is usually located even deeper below ground than the Abzu, the body of freshwater which the ancient Mesopotamians believed lay deep beneath the earth.[33]

## Gallery[edit]

* A road through the Zagros mountains in Kurdistan region, Iraq

* Wild goat herd, Zagros, Behbahan

* Fritillaria imperialis in Dena, Iranian Zagros

* Ancient pathway in Zagros, Behbahan

* Mount Oshtorankuh

## See also[edit]

### Parts of the Zagros Mountains[edit]

* Mount Alvand
* Mount Arbaba
* Mount Derak
* Nalishkêne
* Qaleh gorikhteh

### Other[edit]

* Alborz Mountains
* Al-Hajar Mountains, technically a continuation of the Zagros in the Arabian Peninsula
* Armenian highlands
* Battle of the Persian Gate
* Caucasus Mountains
* Corduene / Kurdistan
* Geography of Iran
* Geography of Iraq
* Geography of Turkey
* Iranian plateau
* Mountains of Ararat
* Mount Judi
* Silakhor Plain
* Tigris–Euphrates river system

## References[edit]

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2. ^ "Li Îranê 66 Kes di Ketina Firokeka Bazirganî de Têne Kuştin". VOA (Dengê Amerika) (in Kurdish). 18 February 2018. Retrieved 18 December 2019.
3. ^ "چەند دیمەنێکی زنجیرە چیاکانی زاگرۆس". Basnews (in Kurdish). Retrieved 18 December 2019.
4. ^ "Salt Dome in the Zagros Mountains, Iran". NASA Earth Observatory. Archived from the original on 1 October 2006. Retrieved 27 April 2006.
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8. ^ Jamalreyhani, Mohammadreza; Pousse‐Beltran, Léa; Büyükakpınar, Pınar; Cesca, Simone; Nissen, Edwin; Ghods, Abdolreza; López‐Comino, José Ángel; Rezapour, Mehdi; Najafi, Mahdi (December 2021). "The 2019–2020 Khalili (Iran) Earthquake Sequence—Anthropogenic Seismicity in the Zagros Simply Folded Belt?". Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth. 126 (12): e2021JB022797. doi:10.1029/2021JB022797. ISSN 2169-9313. PMC 9285018. PMID 35846502.
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11. ^ Forti, Luca; Perego, Alessandro; Brandolini, Filippo; Mariani, Guido S.; Zebari, Mjahid; Nicoll, Kathleen; Regattieri, Eleonora; Barbaro, Cecilia Conati; Bonacossi, Daniele Morandi; Qasim, Hasan Ahmed; Cremaschi, Mauro; Zerboni, Andrea (1 December 2021). "Geomorphology of the northwestern Kurdistan Region of Iraq: landscapes of the Zagros Mountains drained by the Tigris and Great Zab Rivers". Journal of Maps. 17 (2): 225–236. doi:10.1080/17445647.2021.1906339. S2CID 234879238.
12. ^ Murray, Tim (2007). Milestones in Archaeology: A Chronological Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 454\. ISBN 9781576071861.
13. ^ Ralph S. Solecki; Rose L. Solecki & Anagnostis P. Agelarakis (2004). The Proto-Neolithic Cemetery in Shanidar Cave. Texas A&M University Press. pp. 3–5. ISBN 9781585442720.
14. ^ Shidrang S, (2018) The Middle to Upper Paleolithic Transition in the Zagros: The Appearance and Evolution of the Baradostian, In The Middle and Upper Paleolithic Archeology of the Levant and Beyond, Y. Nishiaki, T. Akazawa (eds.), pp. 133–156, Replacement of Neanderthals by Modern Humans Series, Tokyo.
15. ^ La Mediterranée, Braudel, Fernand, 1985, Flammarion, Paris
16. ^ Phillips, Rod. A Short History of Wine. New York: Harper Collins. 2000.
17. ^ Eidem, Jesper; Læssøe, Jørgen (2001), The Shemshara archives 1. The letters, Historisk-Filosofiske Skrifter, vol. 23, Copenhagen: Kongelige Danske videnskabernes selskab, ISBN 87-7876-245-6
18. ^ Al-Soof, Behnam Abu (1970). "Mounds in the Rania Plain and excavations at Tell Bazmusian (1956)". Sumer. 26: 65–104. ISSN 0081-9271.
19. ^ Wright, H. E. (1980). "Climatic Change and Plant Domestication in the Zagros Mountains". Iran. 18: 145–148. doi:10.2307/4299696. JSTOR 4299696 - via JSTOR.
20. ^ Settlement continuity in Kurdistan Yaghoub Mohammadifar & Abbass Motarjem, Antiquity Vol 82 Issue 317 September 2008
21. ^ Frey, W.; W. Probst (1986). Kurschner, Harald (ed.). "A synopsis of the vegetation in Iran". Contributions to the Vegetation of Southwest Asia. Wiesbaden, Germany: L. Reichert: 9–43. ISBN 3-88226-297-4.
22. ^ "Climate statistics for Amadiya". Meteovista. Retrieved 6 September 2014.
23. ^ Kuhle, M. (1974): Vorläufige Ausführungen morphologischer Feldarbeitsergebnisse aus den SE-Iranischen Hochgebirgen am Beispiel des Kuh-i-Jupar. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie N.F., 18, (4), pp. 472–483.
24. ^ Kuhle, M. (1976): Beiträge zur Quartärgeomorphologie SE-Iranischer Hochgebirge. Die quartäre Vergletscherung des Kuh-i-Jupar. Göttinger Geographische Abhandlungen, 67, Vol. I, pp. 1–209; Vol. II, pp. 1–105.
25. ^ Kuhle, M. (2007): The Pleistocene Glaciation (LGP and pre-LGP, pre-LGM) of SE-Iranian Mountains exemplified by the Kuh-i-Jupar, Kuh-i-Lalezar and Kuh-i-Hezar Massifs in the Zagros. Polarforschung, 77, (2–3), pp. 71–88. (Erratum/ Clarification concerning Figure 15, Vol. 78, (1–2), 2008, p. 83.
26. ^ Elsevier: Ehlers. "Quaternary Glaciations – Extent and Chronology Volume 15: A closer look Welcome". booksite.elsevier.com.
27. ^ Sevruguin, A. (1880). "Men with live lion". National Museum of Ethnology in Leiden, The Netherlands; Stephen Arpee Collection. Retrieved 26 March 2018.
28. ^ Miller, Naomi F. (2006). "The Origins of Plant Cultivation in the Near East". In Cowan, C. Wesley; Watson, Patty Jo; Benco, Nancy L. (eds.). The origins of Agriculture: An International Perspective ([New ed.]. ed.). Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press. p. 41\. ISBN 0-8173-5349-6. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
29. ^ M. Heydari; H. Poorbabaei; T. Rostami; M. Begim Faghir; A. Salehi; R. Ostad Hashmei (2013). "Plant species in Oak (Quercus brantii Lindl.) understory and their relationship with physical and chemical propertiesof soil in different altitude classes in the Arghvan valley protected area, Iran" (PDF). Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences, 2013, Vol. 11 No.1, pp. 97~110. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 April 2015. Retrieved 10 April 2014.
30. ^ "Haji Omran Mountain (IQ018)" (PDF). natrueiraq.org. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
31. ^ Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News. Special Issue 11.
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33. ^ a b c Black, Jeremy; Green, Anthony (1992), Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press, p. 180, ISBN 0714117056

## External links[edit]

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* Proto-Elamite civilization (3100–2700 BC)
* Elamite dynasties (2700–540 BC)
* Akkadian Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)
* Lullubi (c.2300–675 BC)
* Kassites (c.1595–c.1155 BC)
* Kingdom of Mannai (10th–7th century BC)
* Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BC)
* Urartu (860 BC–590 BC)
* Median Empire (678–549 BC)
* Scythian Kingdom (652–625 BC)
* Neo-Babylonian Empire (626–539 BC)

|

550 BC–AD 224|

* Achaemenid Empire (550–330 BC)
* Atropatene (c.323 BC–AD 226)
* Kingdom of Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)
* Kingdom of Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)
* Seleucid Empire (312–63 BC)
* Frataraka (c.295–220 BC)
* Kingdom of Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)
* Parthian Empire (247 BC–AD 224)
* Kings of Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)

AD 224–651|

* Sasanian Empire (AD 224–651)

Medieval and
early modern|

| 632–1090|

* Rashidun Caliphate (632–661)
* Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
* Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)
* Samanid dynasty (819–999)
* Tahirid dynasty (821–873)
* Alavid dynasty (864–928)
* Saffarid dynasty (861–1003)
* Ziyarid dynasty (931–1090)
* Buyid dynasty (934–1062)

|

977–1432|

* Ghaznavid Empire (977–1186)
* Ghurid dynasty (1011–1215)
* Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)
* Anushtegin dynasty (1077–1231)
* Eldiguzids (1135/36-1225)
* Kart dynasty (1244–1381)
* Ilkhanate (1256–1335)
* Muzaffarid dynasty (1314–1393)
* Jalayirid Sultanate dynasty (1335–1432)
* Chobanid dynasty (1338–1357)

1370–1925|

* Timurid Empire (1370–1507)
* Qara Qoyunlu Turcomans (1374–1468)
* Aq Qoyunlu Turcomans (1378–1508)
* Safavid Empire (1501–1736)
* Afsharid Empire (1736–1796)
* Zand Dynasty (1751–1794)
* Qajar Empire (1789–1925)
* Khanates of the Caucasus (18th–20th centuries)
* Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)
* 1908 bombardment of the Majlis
* Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)
* 1921 Persian coup d'état
* Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)

Modern|

| 1925–1979|

* Pahlavi dynasty (1925–1979)
* Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)
* Iran crisis of 1946
* Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)
* 1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election
* 1953 coup d'état
* Iranian Revolution (1979)

|

Islamic Republic
1979–present|

* History (1979–)
* Interim Government (1979)
* March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum
* 1979 Khuzestan insurgency
* Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)
* December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum
* Iranian Embassy siege (1980)
* Nojeh coup plot (1980)
* Iran–Iraq War (1980–88)
* Interim Government of Iran (1981)
* 1987 Mecca incident
* Iran Air Flight 655 shootdown (1988)
* KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)
* PJAK conflict (2004–)
* 2009 Iranian presidential election protests
* Syrian civil war (2011–)
* International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)
* Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)
* United States withdrawal (2018)
* 2017–2018 Iranian protests
* 2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests
* COVID-19 pandemic
* 2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
* 2019–2020 Iranian protests
* 2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests
* 2021–2022 Iranian protests

See also|

* Ancient Persians
* Greater Iran
* Persianization
* Persianate society
* Turco-Persian
* Indo-Persian
* Iranic peoples
* languages
* Jiroft culture
* Aryans
* Azerbaijanis
* Peoples of the Caucasus
* Persians
* Monarchs of Persia
* Heads of state of Iran
* History of democracy in classical Iran
* Military history
* Electric history
* Years in Iran

Geography

* Borders
* Cities
* largest
* twin towns and sister cities
* Earthquakes
* Environmental issues
* Climate change
* Iranian Azerbaijan
* Iranian Balochistan
* Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests
* Caucasus
* Iranian Kurdistan
* Iranian plateau
* Lake Urmia
* Islands
* Mountains
* Provinces
* Wildlife

Politics

| General|

* Censorship
* Constitution (Persian Constitutional Revolution)
* Corruption
* Elections (2009 presidential)
* Foreign relations
* Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran
* Human rights
* Children's rights
* LGBT
* Women's rights
* Judicial system
* Military (Army
* Air Force
* Navy)
* Ministry of Intelligence
* Cyberwarfare
* Nuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)
* Political parties
* Principlists
* Propaganda
* Reformists
* Terrorism (state-sponsorship allegations)
* White Revolution (1963)
* Women's rights movement

|

Councils|

* Assembly (or Council) of Experts
* Expediency Discernment Council
* Guardian Council
* Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)
* Local councils
* Supreme National Security Council

Officials|

* Ambassadors
* President
* Provincial governors
* Rahbar

Economy

| General|

* Bonyad (charitable trust)
* Brain drain
* Companies (Automotive industry)
* Corruption
* Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
* Economic history
* Economic Reform Plan
* Energy
* Environmental issues
* Foreign direct investment
* Intellectual property
* International oil bourse
* International rankings
* Iran and the World Trade Organization
* Taxation
* Main economic laws
* Economy of the Middle East
* Milad Tower and complex
* Military equipment manufactured
* Nuclear program (UN Security Council Resolution 1747)
* Privatization
* Rial (currency)
* Space Agency
* Setad
* Supreme Audit Court
* Tehran Stock Exchange
* Venture capital (Technology start-ups)

|

Sectors|

* Agriculture (fruit)
* Banking and insurance
* Central Bank
* Shetab Banking System
* Construction
* Defense
* Health care (Pharmaceuticals)
* Industry
* Mining
* Petroleum (Anglo-Persian Oil Company)
* Telecommunications and IT (TCI)
* Transport (airlines
* metro
* railways
* shipping)
* Tourism

State-owned
companies|

* Defense Industries Organization (DIO)
* Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)
* Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)
* Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)
* National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)
* National Development Fund

Places|

* Asaluyeh industrial corridor
* Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone
* Kish Island Free Trade Zone
* Research centers

Society

| Demographics|

| Languages|

* Persian (Farsi)
* Armenian
* Azerbaijani
* Kurdish
* Hebrew
* Georgian
* Neo-Aramaic
* Iranian languages

|

Peoples|

* Iranian citizens (abroad)
* Ethnic minorities
* Armenians
* Assyrians
* Azerbaijanis
* Circassians
* Georgians
* Kurds
* Jews
* Turkmen

Religion|

* Islam
* Baháʼí Faith (persecution)
* Christianity
* Zoroastrians (persecution)
* Freedom of religion

Other|

* Corruption
* Crime
* Education (higher
* scientists and scholars
* universities)
* International rankings
* Nationality
* Water supply and sanitation
* Women

Culture|

* Architecture (Achaemenid
* architects)
* Art (modern / contemporary)
* Astronomy
* Blogs
* Calendars (Persian New Year (Nowruz))
* Fashion
* Chicago Persian antiquities dispute
* Cinema
* Cuisine (wine)
* Folklore
* Intellectual movements
* Iranians
* Iranian studies
* Islam (Islamization)
* Literature
* Media (news agencies (student)
* newspapers)
* Mythology
* National Jewels
* National symbols (Imperial Anthem)
* Opium consumption
* Persian gardens
* Persian name
* Philosophy
* Public holidays
* Scouting
* Sport (football)

Music|

* Folk
* Jazz
* Pop
* Rap and hip-hop
* Rock
* Traditional
* Ey Iran

Other topics|

* Science and technology
* Anti-Iranian sentiment
* Tehrangeles

* Category
* Portal
* WikiProject
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Iraq topics

History

| Chronology|

* Ubaid period
* Hassuna culture
* Halaf culture
* Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period
* Samarra culture
* Uruk period
* Jemdet Nasr period
* Sumer
* Subartu
* Akkadian Empire
* Gutian dynasty
* Neo-Sumerian Empire
* Isin-Larsa period
* First Babylonian Empire
* Old Assyrian Period
* Middle Assyrian Empire
* Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire
* Simurrum culture
* Babylonia
* Assyria
* Neo-Assyrian Empire
* Neo-Babylonian Empire
* Fall of Babylon
* Achaemenid Assyria
* Seleucid Babylonia
* Parthian Babylonia
* Sassanid Asorestan

|

638–1958|

* Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia
* Umayyad Caliphate
* Abbasid Caliphate
* Buyid dynasty
* Qara Qoyunlu
* Aq Qoyunlu
* Safavids
* Ottoman Iraq (incl. Mamluk dynasty)
* Mandate for Mesopotamia
* Mandatory Iraq
* Kingdom of Iraq
* Kings
* Arab Federation

Republic|

* 1958–1968
* 1968–2003
* 2003–2011
* 2011–present

* Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region (National Command)
* Saddam Hussein
* Iraqi–Kurdish conflict
* 1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes
* 1977 Shia uprising in Iraq
* 1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq
* Weapons of mass destruction
* Iran–Iraq War
* Operation Opera
* Invasion of Kuwait
* Gulf War
* 1991 uprisings
* Sanctions
* Iraq War
* U.S. invasion
* Iraqi insurgency
* U.S. troop withdrawal
* Insurgency (2011–2013)
* War (2014–2017)
* Mosul liberation
* Insurgency
* 2019–2021 protests
* 2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis

Geography

* Faw peninsula
* Upper Mesopotamia
* Lower Mesopotamia
* Borders
* Euphrates river
* Hamrin Mountains
* Iraqi Kurdistan
* Lakes
* Islands
* Mesopotamia
* Mesopotamian Marshes
* Persian Gulf
* Places
* Shatt al-Arab
* Syrian Desert
* Tigris river
* Umm Qasr
* Zagros Mountains
* Wildlife
* Sinjar Mountains

Politics

* Administrative divisions
* Constitution
* Council of Representatives (legislative)
* Democracy
* Elections
* Foreign aid
* Foreign relations
* Government
* Council of Ministers
* Presidency Council
* President
* List
* Prime Minister
* List
* Human rights
* in pre-Saddam Iraq
* in Saddam Hussein's Iraq
* in post-invasion Iraq
* in ISIL-controlled territory
* LGBT
* Freedom of religion
* Women
* Law
* Military
* Police
* Political parties
* Judiciary
* Wars and conflicts

Economy

* Banks
* Central Bank
* Companies
* Corruption
* Dinar (currency)
* Infrastructure
* Foregin Investment
* Oil Industry
* Oil reserves
* Reconstruction
* Stock Exchange
* Telecommunications
* Transportation
* Airlines
* Railways
* Tourism

Society

| Demographics|

* Iraqis
* Languages
* Mesopotamian Arabic
* Aramaic
* Kurdish
* Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects
* Persian
* Minorities
* Armenians
* Assyrians
* Circassians
* Kurds
* Mandaeans
* Marsh Arabs
* Persians
* Solluba
* Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman
* Jews
* Religion
* Islam
* Christianity
* Mandaeism
* Yazidis
* Irreligion

|

General|

* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Culture
* Literature
* Education
* Health
* Media
* Television
* Music
* Smoking
* Sports
* Squatting
* Public holidays
* Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu)
* Mandaean New Year

* Category
* Portal
* WikiProject
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Palearctic temperate broadleaf and mixed forests ecoregions

Western Europe|

* Apennine
* Atlantic
* Azores
* Baltic
* Cantabrian
* Celtic
* English Lowlands
* Madeira
* North Atlantic
* Po Basin
* Pyrenees
* Western European

Eastern Europe|

* Balkan
* Central European
* Crimean Submediterranean
* Dinaric Mountains
* East European forest steppe
* Pannonian
* Rodope
* Sarmatic

Central Asia|

* Caspian Hyrcanian
* Caucasus
* Central Anatolian
* Eastern Anatolian
* Euxine–Colchic
* Zagros Mountains

East Asia|

* Central China loess plateau
* Central Korean
* Changbai Mountains
* Changjiang Plain
* Daba Mountains
* Hokkaidō
* Huang He Plain
* Manchurian
* Nihonkai evergreen
* Nihonkai montane
* Northeast China Plain
* Qin Ling Mountains
* Sichuan Basin
* South Sakhalin–Kurile
* Southern Korea
* Taiheiyo evergreen
* Taiheiyo montane
* Tarim Basin
* Ussuri
* West Siberian

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany

Geographic|

* Pleiades

*[c.]: circa
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