Child labour

Exploitation of children through work

A Palestinian child labourer at the Kalya Junction, Lido beach, Delek petrol station, road 90 near the Dead Sea A child labourer in Dhaka, Bangladesh Child coal miners in Prussia, late 19th century A succession of laws on child labour, the Factory Acts, were passed in the UK in the 19th century. Children younger than 9 were not allowed to work, those aged 9–16 could work 12 hours per day per the Cotton Mills Act. In 1856, the law permitted child labour past age 9, for 60 hours per week, night or day. In 1901, the permissible child labour age was raised to 12.[1][2] A Chinese child repairing shoes, late 19th century Part of a series on

Organised labour

Labour movement

*     * Conflict theories
* Decent work
* Exploitation of labour
* Timeline
* New unionism
* Proletariat
* Sectoral collective bargaining
* Social movement unionism
* Social democracy
* Democratic socialism
* Socialism
* Communism
* Syndicalism
* Union busting
* Anarcho-syndicalism
* National-syndicalism
* Workplace democracy

Labour rights

* Annual leave
* Child labour
* Collective bargaining
* Diversity, equity, and inclusion
* Eight-hour day
* Employment discrimination
* Employment protection
* Equal pay
* Four-day week
* Freedom of association
* Legal working age
* Minimum wage
* Neurodiversity and labor rights
* Occupational safety and health
* Overwork
* Paid time off
* Professional abuse
* Right to rest and leisure
* Right to sit
* Sabbatical
* Sick leave
* Six-hour day
* Toxic workplace
* Unfree labour
* Workers' right to access the toilet

Trade unions

* Trade unions by country
* Trade union federations
* International comparisons
*     * ITUC
* WFTU

Strike action

* Chronological list of strikes
* Hartal
* General strike
* Bandh
* newspapers
* Green bans
* Lockouts
* Overtime bans
* Pen-down strikes
* Sitdown strikes
* Solidarity action
* Walkouts
* Whipsaw strikes
* Wildcat strikes
* Work-to-rule

Labour parties

* Australia
* Barbados
* Brazil
* Fiji
* Georgia
* Hong Kong
* Ireland
* Israel
* Malta
* New Caledonia
* New Zealand
* Netherlands
* Norway
* Portugal
* Singapore
* South Korea
* United Kingdom
* Sweden

Academic disciplines

* Critique of work
* Industrial relations
* Labour economics
* Labour history
* Labour law
* Post-work society
* Refusal of work

* v
* t
* e

Child labour in Nigeria

Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful.[3] Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation worldwide,[4][5] although these laws do not consider all work by children as child labour; exceptions include work by child artists, family duties, supervised training, and some forms of work undertaken by Amish children, as well as by Indigenous children in the Americas.[6][7][8]

Child labour has existed to varying extents throughout history. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, many children aged 5–14 from poorer families worked in Western nations and their colonies alike. These children mainly worked in agriculture, home-based assembly operations, factories, mining, and services such as news boys—some worked night shifts lasting 12 hours. With the rise of household income, availability of schools and passage of child labour laws, the incidence rates of child labour fell.[9][10][11]

As of 2023[update], in the world's poorest countries, around one in five children are engaged in child labour, the highest number of whom live in sub-saharan Africa, where more than one in four children are so engaged.[12] This represents a decline in child labour over the preceding half decade.[13] In 2017, four African nations (Mali, Benin, Chad and Guinea-Bissau) witnessed over 50 per cent of children aged 5–14 working.[13] Worldwide agriculture is the largest employer of child labour.[14] The vast majority of child labour is found in rural settings and informal urban economies; children are predominantly employed by their parents, rather than factories.[15] Poverty and lack of schools are considered the primary cause of child labour.[16] UNICEF notes that "boys and girls are equally likely to be involved in child labour", but in different roles, girls being substantially more likely to perform unpaid household labour.[12]

Globally the incidence of child labour decreased from 25% to 10% between 1960 and 2003, according to the World Bank.[17] Nevertheless, the total number of child labourers remains high, with UNICEF and ILO acknowledging an estimated 168 million children aged 5–17 worldwide were involved in child labour in 2013.[18]

## History

[edit]

### Preindustrial societies

[edit]

Child labour forms an intrinsic part of pre-industrial economies.[19][20] In pre-industrial societies, there is rarely a concept of childhood in the modern sense. Children often begin to actively participate in activities such as child rearing, hunting and farming as soon as they are competent. In many societies, children as young as 13 are seen as adults and engage in the same activities as adults.[19]

The work of children was important in pre-industrial societies, as children needed to provide their labour for their survival and that of their group.[21] Pre-industrial societies were characterised by low productivity and short life expectancy; preventing children from participating in productive work would be more harmful to their welfare and that of their group in the long run. In pre-industrial societies, there was little need for children to attend school. This is especially the case in non-literate societies. Most pre-industrial skill and knowledge were amenable to being passed down through direct mentoring or apprenticing by competent adults.[19]

* Child labourers, Macon, Georgia, 1909

* Children working in home-based assembly operations in United States (1923)

* Two girls protesting child labour (by calling it child slavery) in the 1909 New York City Labor Day parade.

* Arthur Rothstein, Child Labor, Cranberry Bog, 1939. Brooklyn Museum.

### Industrial Revolution

[edit]

Children going to a 12-hour night shift in the United States (1908) The early 20th century witnessed many home-based enterprises involving child labour. An example is shown above from New York in 1912.

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

"The Factory", a poem by L. E. L.

With the onset of the Industrial Revolution in Britain in the late 18th century, there was a rapid increase in the industrial exploitation of labour, including child labour. Industrial cities such as Birmingham, Manchester, and Liverpool rapidly grew from small villages into large cities and improving child mortality rates. These cities drew in the population that was rapidly growing due to increased agricultural output. This process was replicated in other industrialising countries.[22]

The Victorian era in particular became notorious for the conditions under which children were employed.[23] Children as young as four were employed in production factories and mines working long hours in dangerous, often fatal, working conditions.[24] In coal mines, children would crawl through tunnels too narrow and low for adults.[25] Children also worked as errand boys, crossing sweepers, shoe blacks, or selling matches, flowers and other cheap goods.[26] Some children undertook work as apprentices to respectable trades, such as building or as domestic servants (there were over 120,000 domestic servants in London in the mid-18th century). Working hours were long: builders worked 64 hours a week in the summer and 52 hours in winter, while servants worked 80-hour weeks.[27]

Child labour played an important role in the Industrial Revolution from its outset, often brought about by economic hardship. The children of the poor were expected to contribute to their family income.[26] In 19th-century Great Britain, one-third of poor families were without a breadwinner, as a result of death or abandonment, obliging many children to work from a young age. In England and Scotland in 1788, two-thirds of the workers in 143 water-powered cotton mills were described as children.[28] A high number of children also worked as prostitutes.[29] The author Charles Dickens worked at the age of 12 in a blacking factory, with his family in a debtor's prison.[30]

Child wages were often low, the wages were as little as 10–20% of an adult male's wage.[31][better source needed] Karl Marx was an outspoken opponent of child labour,[32] saying British industries "could but live by sucking blood, and children's blood too", and that U.S. capital was financed by the "capitalized blood of children".[33][34] Letitia Elizabeth Landon castigated child labour in her 1835 poem "The Factory", portions of which she pointedly included in her 18th Birthday Tribute to Princess Victoria in 1837.

Throughout the second half of the 19th century, child labour began to decline in industrialised societies due to regulation and economic factors because of the Growth of trade unions. The regulation of child labour began from the earliest days of the Industrial Revolution. The first act to regulate child labour in Britain was passed in 1803. As early as 1802 and 1819 Factory Acts were passed to regulate the working hours of workhouse children in factories and cotton mills to 12 hours per day. These acts were largely ineffective and after radical agitation, by for example the "Short Time Committees" in 1831, a Royal Commission recommended in 1833 that children aged 11–18 should work a maximum of 12 hours per day, children aged 9–11 a maximum of eight hours, and children under the age of nine were no longer permitted to work. This act however only applied to the textile industry, and further agitation led to another act in 1847 limiting both adults and children to 10-hour working days. Lord Shaftesbury was an outspoken advocate of regulating child labour.[citation needed]

As technology improved and proliferated, there was a greater need for educated employees. This saw an increase in schooling, with the eventual introduction of compulsory schooling. Improved technology, automation and further legislation significantly reduced child labour particularly in western Europe and the U.S.[citation needed]

According to Colin Heywood, reform oriented historians on the left developed an interpretation of child labour in the industrial West along these line:[35]

> It begins with the dragooning of large numbers of young people into textile mills, mines, and factories spawned by early industrialization, with new machinery making it possible to substitute women and children for adult male workers. Conditions in the workshops were grim, with the familiar tale of long hours to match the relentless pace of the machines, a damp and dusty environment, and a heartless disciplinary regime. . . . A disparate group of reformers stepped forward at this point, to combat abuses with legislation, including hardheaded businessmen interested in maximizing profits, more philanthropically minded representatives of the landed gentry and professional classes, and, in the American case, leaders of organized labor. Gradually, by a process of trial and error, the state managed to curb some of the excesses of child labor, notably excluding younger age-groups from workshops, overcoming opposition from many industrialists and working-class parents in the process. Child labor thereby emerges as at its most abusive during the early, or “dirty,” phase of industrialization, and gradually disappears in developed economies as the state manages to force children out of the workshops and into schools.

### Early 20th century

[edit]

Percentage children working in England and Wales[36] Census year | % boys aged 10–14
as child labour

|

1881 | 22.9
1891 | 26.0
1901 | 21.9
1911 | 18.3
Note: These are averages; child labour in Lancashire was 80%
Source: Census of England and Wales

In the early 20th century, thousands of boys were employed in glass making industries. Glass making was a dangerous and tough job especially without the current technologies. The process of making glass includes intense heat to melt glass (3,133 °F (1,723 °C)). When the boys are at work, they are exposed to this heat. This could cause eye trouble, lung ailments, heat exhaustion, cuts, and burns. Since workers were paid by the piece, they had to work productively for hours without a break. Since furnaces had to be constantly burning, there were night shifts from 5:00 pm to 3:00 am. Many factory owners preferred boys under 16 years of age.[37]

An estimated 1.7 million children under the age of fifteen were employed in American industry by 1900.[38]

In 1910, over 2 million children in the same age group were employed in the United States.[39] This included children who rolled cigarettes,[40] engaged in factory work, worked as bobbin doffers in textile mills, worked in coal mines and were employed in canneries.[41] Lewis Hine's photographs of child labourers in the 1910s powerfully evoked the plight of working children in the American south. Hine took these photographs between 1908 and 1917 as the staff photographer for the National Child Labor Committee.[42]

#### Household enterprises

[edit]

Factories and mines were not the only places where child labour was prevalent in the early 20th century. Home-based manufacturing across the United States and Europe employed children as well.[9] Governments and reformers argued that labour in factories must be regulated and the state had an obligation to provide welfare for poor. Legislation that followed had the effect of moving work out of factories into urban homes. Families and women, in particular, preferred it because it allowed them to generate income while taking care of household duties.[citation needed]

Home-based manufacturing operations were active year-round. Families willingly deployed their children in these income generating home enterprises.[43] In many cases, men worked from home. In France, over 58% of garment workers operated out of their homes; in Germany, the number of full-time home operations nearly doubled between 1882 and 1907; and in the United States, millions of families operated out of home seven days a week, year round to produce garments, shoes, artificial flowers, feathers, match boxes, toys, umbrellas and other products. Children aged 5–14 worked alongside the parents. Home-based operations and child labour in Australia, Britain, Austria and other parts of the world was common. Rural areas similarly saw families deploying their children in agriculture. In 1946, Frieda S. Miller – then Director of the United States Department of Labor – told the International Labour Organization (ILO) that these home-based operations offered "low wages, long hours, child labour, unhealthy and insanitary working conditions".[9][44][45][46]

### 21st century

[edit]

See also: Children's rights

Map for child labour worldwide in the 10–14 age group, in 2003, per World Bank data.[47] The data is incomplete, as many countries do not collect or report child labour data (coloured gray). The colour code is as follows: yellow (<10% of children working), green (10–20%), orange (20–30%), red (30–40%) and black (>40%). Some nations such as Guinea-Bissau, Mali and Ethiopia have more than half of all children aged 5–14 at work to help provide for their families.[48]

Child labour is still common in many parts of the world. Estimates for child labour vary. It ranges between 250 and 304 million, if children aged 5–17 involved in any economic activity are counted. If light occasional work is excluded, ILO estimates there were 153 million child labourers aged 5–14 worldwide in 2008. This is about 20 million less than ILO estimate for child labourers in 2004. Some 60 per cent of the child labour was involved in agricultural activities such as farming, dairy, fisheries and forestry. Another 25% of child labourers were in service activities such as retail, hawking goods, restaurants, load and transfer of goods, storage, picking and recycling trash, polishing shoes, domestic help, and other services. The remaining 15% laboured in assembly and manufacturing in informal economy, home-based enterprises, factories, mines, packaging salt, operating machinery, and such operations.[49][50][51] Two out of three child workers work alongside their parents, in unpaid family work situations. Some children work as guides for tourists, sometimes combined with bringing in business for shops and restaurants. Child labour predominantly occurs in the rural areas (70%) and informal urban sector (26%).

Contrary to popular belief, most child labourers are employed by their parents rather than in manufacturing or formal economy. Children who work for pay or in-kind compensation are usually found in rural settings as opposed to urban centres. Less than 3% of child labour aged 5–14 across the world work outside their household, or away from their parents.[15]

Child labour accounts for 22% of the workforce in Asia, 32% in Africa, 17% in Latin America, 1% in the US, Canada, Europe and other wealthy nations.[52] The proportion of child labourers varies greatly among countries and even regions inside those countries. Africa has the highest percentage of children aged 5–17 employed as child labour, and a total of over 65 million. Asia, with its larger population, has the largest number of children employed as child labour at about 114 million. Latin America and the Caribbean region have lower overall population density, but at 14 million child labourers has high incidence rates too.[53]

A boy repairing a tire in Gambia

Accurate present day child labour information is difficult to obtain because of disagreements between data sources as to what constitutes child labour. In some countries, government policy contributes to this difficulty. For example, the overall extent of child labour in China is unclear due to the government categorising child labour data as "highly secret".[54] China has enacted regulations to prevent child labour; still, the practice of child labour is reported to be a persistent problem within China, generally in agriculture and low-skill service sectors as well as small workshops and manufacturing enterprises.[55][56]

In 2014, the U.S. Department of Labor issued a List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor, where China was attributed 12 goods, the majority of which were produced by both underage children and indentured labourers.[57] The report listed electronics, garments, toys, and coal, among other goods.

The Maplecroft Child Labour Index 2012 survey[58] reports that 76 countries pose extreme child labour complicity risks for companies operating worldwide. The ten highest risk countries in 2012, ranked in decreasing order, were: Myanmar, North Korea, Somalia, Sudan, DR Congo, Zimbabwe, Afghanistan, Burundi, Pakistan and Ethiopia. Of the major growth economies, Maplecroft ranked Philippines 25th riskiest, India 27th, China 36th, Vietnam 37th, Indonesia 46th, and Brazil 54th, all of them rated to involve extreme risks of child labour uncertainties, to corporations seeking to invest in developing world and import products from emerging markets.

## Causes

[edit]

Young girl working on a loom in Aït Benhaddou, Morocco, in May 2008 Agriculture deploys 70% of the world's child labour.[14] Above, child worker on a rice farm in Vietnam.

The ILO suggests that poverty is the greatest single cause behind child labour.[16] For impoverished households, income from a child's work is usually crucial for his or her own survival or for that of the household. Income from working children, even if small, may be between 25 and 40% of the household income. Other scholars such as Harsch on African child labour, and Edmonds and Pavcnik on global child labour have reached the same conclusion.[15][59][60]

While poverty is a significant factor, the relationship between poverty and child labor is complex. Research suggests that child labor generally decreases as household productive wealth (measured by agricultural per capita land holding in rural areas) increases. However, there can be a significant spike in the relationship between child labor and landholding at moderate levels of land per capita.[61]

Lack of meaningful alternatives, such as affordable schools and quality education, according to the ILO,[16] is another major factor driving children to harmful labour. Children work because they have nothing better to do. Many communities, particularly rural areas where between 60 and 70% of child labour is prevalent, do not possess adequate school facilities. Even when schools are sometimes available, they are too far away, difficult to reach, unaffordable or the quality of education is so poor that parents wonder if going to school is really worth it.[15][62]

### Cultural factors

[edit]

In European history when child labour was common, as well as in contemporary child labour of modern world, certain cultural beliefs have grounded it. Some view that work is good for the character-building and skill development of children. In many cultures, particular where the informal economy and small household businesses thrive, the cultural tradition is that children follow in their parents' footsteps; child labour then is a means to learn and practice that trade from a very early age. Similarly, in many cultures the education of girls is less valued or girls are simply not expected to need formal schooling, and these girls pushed into child labour such as providing domestic services.[16][63][64][65]

### Macroeconomics

[edit]

Biggeri and Mehrotra have studied the macroeconomic factors that encourage child labour. They focus their study on five Asian nations including India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines. They suggest[66] that child labour is a serious problem in all five, but it is not a new problem. Macroeconomic causes encouraged widespread child labour across the world, over most of human history. They suggest that the causes for child labour include both the demand and the supply side. While poverty and unavailability of good schools explain the child labour supply side, they suggest that the growth of low-paying informal economy rather than higher paying formal economy is amongst the causes of the demand side. Other scholars too suggest that inflexible labour market, size of informal economy, inability of industries to scale up and lack of modern manufacturing technologies are major macroeconomic factors affecting demand and acceptability of child labour.[67][68][69]

## By country

[edit]

See also: List of countries by child labour rate

Working children out of school vs hours worked by children[70]

### Colonial empires

[edit]

Systematic use of child labour was commonplace in the colonies of European powers between 1650 and 1950. In Africa, colonial administrators encouraged traditional kin-ordered modes of production, that is hiring a household for work not just the adults. Millions of children worked in colonial agricultural plantations, mines and domestic service industries.[71][72] Sophisticated schemes were promulgated where children in these colonies between the ages of 5 and 14 were hired as an apprentice without pay in exchange for learning a craft. A system of Pauper Apprenticeship came into practice in the 19th century where the colonial master neither needed the native parents' nor child's approval to assign a child to labour, away from parents, at a distant farm owned by a different colonial master.[73] Other schemes included 'earn-and-learn' programs where children would work and thereby learn. Britain for example passed a law, the so-called Masters and Servants Act of 1899, followed by Tax and Pass Law, to encourage child labour in colonies particularly in Africa. These laws offered the native people the legal ownership to some of the native land in exchange for making labour of wife and children available to colonial government's needs such as in farms and as picannins.[citation needed]

Beyond laws, new taxes were imposed on colonies. One of these taxes was the Head Tax in the British and French colonial empires. The tax was imposed on everyone older than 8 years, in some colonies. To pay these taxes and cover living expenses, children in colonial households had to work.[74][75][76]

In southeast Asian colonies, such as Hong Kong, child labour such as the Mui tsai (妹仔), was rationalised as a cultural tradition and ignored by British authorities.[77][78] The Dutch East India Company officials rationalised their child labour abuses with, "it is a way to save these children from a worse fate." Christian mission schools in regions stretching from Zambia to Nigeria too required work from children, and in exchange provided religious education, not secular education.[71] Elsewhere, the Canadian Dominion Statutes in form of so-called Breaches of Contract Act, stipulated jail terms for uncooperative child workers.[79]

Proposals to regulate child labour began as early as 1786.[80]

### Africa

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Africa

Child labour in the former German colony of Kamerun, 1919

Children working at a young age has been a consistent theme throughout Africa. Many children began first working in the home to help their parents run the family farm.[81] Children in Africa today are often forced into exploitative labour due to family debt and other financial factors, leading to ongoing poverty.[81] Other types of domestic child labour include working in commercial plantations, begging, and other sales such as boot shining.[82] In total, there is an estimated five million children who are currently working in the field of agriculture which steadily increases during the time of harvest. Along with 30% of children who are picking coffee, there are an estimated 25,000 school age children who work year round.[83]

Little girl carrying heavy items. Katanga region, DRC; Congo, Africa.

What industries children work in depends on whether they grew up in a rural area or an urban area. Children who were born in urban areas often found themselves working for street vendors, washing cars, helping in construction sites, weaving clothing, and sometimes even working as exotic dancers.[82] While children who grew up in rural areas would work on farms doing physical labour, working with animals, and selling crops.[82] Many children can also be found working in hazardous environments, with some using bare hands, stones and hammers to take apart CRT-based televisions and computer monitors.[84] Of all the child workers, the most serious cases involved street children and trafficked children due to the physical and emotional abuse they endured by their employers.[82] To address the issue of child labour, the United Nations Conventions on the Rights of the Child Act was implemented in 1959.[85] Yet due to poverty, lack of education and ignorance, the legal actions were not/are not wholly enforced or accepted in Africa.[86]

Young street vendors in Benin

Other legal factors that have been implemented to end and reduce child labour includes the global response that came into force in 1979 by the declaration of the International Year of the Child.[86] Along with the Human Rights Committee of the United Nations, these two declarations worked on many levels to eliminate child labour.[86] Although many actions have been taken to end this epidemic, child labour in Africa is still an issue today due to the unclear definition of adolescence and how much time is needed for children to engage in activities that are crucial for their development. Another issue that often comes into play is the link between what constitutes as child labour within the household due to the cultural acceptance of children helping run the family business.[87] In the end, there is a consistent challenge for the national government to strengthen its grip politically on child labour, and to increase education and awareness on the issue of children working below the legal age limit. With children playing an important role in the African economy, child labour still plays an important role for many in the 20th century.[citation needed]

### Australia

[edit]

From European settlement in 1788, child convicts were occasionally sent to Australia where they were made to work. Child labour was not as excessive in Australia as in Britain. With a low population, agricultural productivity was higher and families did not face starvation as in established industrialised countries. Australia also did not have significant industry until the later part of the 20th century, when child labour laws and compulsory schooling had developed under the influence of Britain. From the 1870s, child labour was restricted by compulsory schooling.[citation needed]

Child labour laws in Australia differ from state to state. Generally, children are allowed to work at any age, but restrictions exist for children under 15 years of age. These restrictions apply to work hours and the type of work that children can perform. In all states, children are obliged to attend school until a minimum leaving age, 15 years of age in all states except Tasmania and Queensland where the leaving age is 17.[88]

### Brazil

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Brazil

Child labour in Brazil, leaving after collecting recyclables from a landfill

Child labour has been a consistent struggle for children in Brazil ever since Portuguese colonisation in the region began in 1500.[89] Work that many children took part in was not always visible, legal, or paid. Free or slave labour was a common occurrence for many youths and was a part of their everyday lives as they grew into adulthood.[90] Yet due to there being no clear definition of how to classify what a child or youth is, there has been little historical documentation of child labour during the colonial period. Due to this lack of documentation, it is hard to determine just how many children were used for what kinds of work before the nineteenth century.[89] The first documentation of child labour in Brazil occurred during the time of indigenous societies and slave labour where it was found that children were forcibly working on tasks that exceeded their emotional and physical limits.[91] Armando Dias, for example, died in November 1913 whilst still very young, a victim of an electric shock when entering the textile industry where he worked. Boys and girls were victims of industrial accidents on a daily basis.[92]

In Brazil, the minimum working age has been identified as fourteen due to constitutional amendments that passed in 1934, 1937, and 1946.[93] Yet due to a change in the dictatorship by the military in the 1980s, the minimum age restriction was reduced to twelve but was reviewed due to reports of dangerous and hazardous working conditions in 1988. This led to the minimum age being raised once again to 14. Another set of restrictions was passed in 1998 that restricted the kinds of work youth could partake in, such as work that was considered hazardous like running construction equipment, or certain kinds of factory work.[93] Although many steps were taken to reduce the risk and occurrence of child labour, there is still a high number of children and adolescents working under the age of fourteen in Brazil. It was not until recently in the 1980s that it was discovered that almost nine million children in Brazil were working illegally and not partaking in traditional childhood activities that help to develop important life experiences.[94]

Brazilian census data (PNAD, 1999) indicate that 2.55 million 10- to 14-year-olds were illegally holding jobs. They were joined by 3.7 million 15- to 17-year-olds and about 375,000 5- to 9-year-olds.[citation needed] Due to the raised age restriction of 14, at least half of the recorded young workers had been employed illegally, which led to many not being protected by important labour laws.[citation needed] Although substantial time has passed since the time of regulated child labour, there are still many children working illegally in Brazil. Many children are used by drug cartels to sell and carry drugs, guns, and other illegal substances because of their perception of innocence. This type of work that youth are taking part in is very dangerous due to the physical and psychological implications that come with these jobs. Yet despite the hazards that come with working with drug dealers, there has been an increase in this area of employment throughout the country.[95]

### Britain

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in the British Industrial Revolution

Many factors played a role in Britain's long-term economic growth, such as the Industrial Revolution in the late 1700s and the prominent presence of child labour during the industrial age.[96] Children who worked at an early age were often not forced; but did so because they needed to help their family survive financially. Due to poor employment opportunities for many parents, sending their children to work on farms and in factories was a way to help feed and support the family.[96] Child labour first started to occur in England when household businesses were turned into local labour markets that mass-produced the once homemade goods. Because children often helped produce the goods out of their homes, working in a factory to make those same goods was a simple change for many of these youths.[96] Although there are many counts of children under the age of ten working for factories, the majority of children workers were between the ages of ten and fourteen.

Another factor that influenced child labour was the demographic changes that occurred in the eighteenth century.[97] By the end of the eighteenth century, 20 per cent of the population was made up of children between the ages of 5 and 14. Due to this substantial shift in available workers, and the development of the industrial revolution, children began to work earlier in life in companies outside of the home.[98] Yet, even though there was an increase of child labour in factories such as cotton textiles, there were large numbers of children working in the field of agriculture and domestic production.[98]

With so many children working, little or no schooling increased child illiteracy.[99] More working class parents chose not to send their children to work. Economic changes — advancing technology, raised wages, more factory regulations — reduced number of child workers.[100]

In 1933, England and Wales adopted legislation restricting the use of children under 14 in employment. The Children and Young Persons Act 1933, defined the term child as anyone of compulsory school age (age sixteen). In general no child may be employed under the age of fifteen years, or fourteen years for light work.[101]

### Cambodia

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Cambodia

A little girl making money for her family by posing with a snake in a water village of Tonle Sap Lake

Significant levels of child labour appear to be found in Cambodia.[102] In 1998, ILO estimated that 24.1% of children in Cambodia aged between 10 and 14 were economically active.[102] Many of these children work long hours and Cambodia Human Development Report 2000 reported that approximately 65,000 children between the ages of 5 and 13 worked 25 hours a week and did not attend school.[103] There are also many initiative and policies put in place to decrease the prevalence of child labour such as the United States generalised system of preferences, the U.S.-Cambodia textile agreement, ILO Garment Sector Working Conditions Improvement Project, and ChildWise Tourism.[104][105]

### Ecuador

[edit]

Child labour in a quarry, Ecuador

An Ecuadorean study published in 2006 found child labour to be one of the main environmental problems affecting children's health. It reported that over 800,000 children are working in Ecuador, where they are exposed to heavy metals and toxic chemicals and are subject to mental and physical stress and the insecurity caused by being at risk of work-related accidents. Minors performing agricultural work along with their parents help apply pesticides without wearing protective equipment.[106]

### India

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in India

Working girl in India

In 2015, the country of India is home to the largest number of children who are working illegally in various industrial industries. Agriculture in India is the largest sector where many children work at early ages to help support their family.[93] Many of these children are forced to work at young ages due to many family factors such as unemployment, large families, poverty, and lack of parental education. This is often the major cause of the high rate of child labour in India.[92]

On 23 June 1757, the English East India Company defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, in the Battle of Plassey. The British thus became masters of east India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa) – a prosperous region with a flourishing agriculture, industry and trade.[95] This led to many children being forced into labour due to the increasing need of cheap labour to produce large numbers of goods. Many multinationals often employed children because that they can be recruited for less pay, and have more endurance to utilise in factory environments.[107] Another reason many Indian children were hired was because they lack knowledge of their basic rights, they did not cause trouble or complain, and they were often more trustworthy. The innocence that comes with childhood was utilised to make a profit by many and was encouraged by the need for family income.[107]

A sign at a construction site in Bangalore:
"Child labour prohibited"

A variety of Indian social scientists as well as the non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have done extensive research on the numeric figures of child labour found in India and determined that India contributes to one-third of Asia's child labour and one-fourth of the world's child labour.[95] Due to many children being illegally employed, the Indian government began to take extensive actions to reduce the number of children working, and to focus on the importance of facilitating the proper growth and development of children.[95] International influences help to encourage legal actions to be taken in India, such as the Geneva Declaration of the Right of Children Act was passed in 1924. This act was followed by The Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948 to which incorporated the basic human rights and needs of children for proper progression and growth in their younger years.[108] These international acts encouraged major changes to the workforce in India which occurred in 1986 when the Child Labour (Prohibition and Regulation) Act was put into place. This act prohibited hiring children younger than the age of 14, and from working in hazardous conditions.[95]

Due to the increase of regulations and legal restrictions on child labour, there has been a 64 per cent decline in child labour from 1993 to 2005.[109] Although this is a great decrease in the country of India, there is still high numbers of children working in the rural areas of India. With 85 per cent of the child labour occurring in rural areas, and 15 per cent occurring in urban areas, there are still substantial areas of concern in the country of India.[109]

India has legislation since 1986 which allows work by children in non-hazardous industry. In 2013, the Punjab and Haryana High Court gave a landmark order that directed that there shall be a total ban on the employment of children up to the age of 14 years, be it hazardous or non-hazardous industries. However, the Court ruled that a child can work with his or her family in family based trades/occupations, for the purpose of learning a new trade/craftsmanship or vocation.[citation needed]

### Iran

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Iran

The phenomenon of children labour is one of the social issues of Iranian society, which has taken on serious and diverse dimensions over time. Researches and official and unofficial data show that this social damage is more common in big cities. Also, research data shows that most of the working children in Tehran province are related to Afghan children who have immigrated to Iran legally or illegally.[110][111][112][113][114]

Kameel Ahmady, a social researcher and winner of the Literature and Humanities award from the World Peace Foundation, while emphasizing the fact that most of the children labour in Tehran province are Afghan children, along with his colleagues believes that with the continuation of Iran's economic crisis, the lack of proper mechanisms to manage and control the phenomenon and absence of legal working visa scheme for Afghan immigrants have caused this social harm to spread.[115][116][117][118][119]

Abdolreza Rahmani Fazli, the Minister of Interior at the time in August 2019, while analysing and describing the situation of working children in Tehran, said: "Reports show that street children live in poor conditions and are exploited." One thing that should be noted is that up to 80% of these children are non-Iranian. Considering that some of these children were Afghan nationals, we have raised the issue with the embassy of this country. If other institutions cooperate, we can take appropriate measures to organise street children, but if they do not cooperate. It has also been decided to issue arrest warrants for gangs exploiting children with the cooperation of the police force and the judicial system.[120][121][122]

In Isfahan province, the Iranian Department of State Welfare (behzisti) keeps a database of the scanned retina irises of a number of working street kids, and have put "child friendly" measures in place to support them, reduce the social harm from their presence, and improve their quality of life.[123]

Only Tehran as of June 2023 has seventy thousand working children they also collect recycles.[124][125]

As of July 2023  of children are child labour, 8% do not have a residence. 10 per cent of children are not in school.[126]

### Ireland

[edit]

In post-colonial Ireland, the rate of child exploitation was extremely high as children were used as farm labourers once they were able to walk, these children were never paid for the labour that they carried out on the family farm. Children were wanted and desired in Ireland for the use of their labour on the family farm. Irish parents felt that it was the children's duty to carry out chores on the family farm.[127]

### Japan

[edit]

Though banned in modern Japan, shonenko (child labourers) were a feature of the Imperial era until its end in 1945. During World War II labour recruiting efforts targeted youths from Taiwan (Formosa), then a Japanese territory, with promises of educational opportunity. Though the target of 25,000 recruits was never reached, over 8,400 Taiwanese youths aged 12 to 14 relocated to Japan to help manufacture the Mitsubishi J2M Raiden aircraft.[128][129][130]

### Pakistan

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Pakistan

### The Netherlands

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in the Netherlands

Child labour existed in the Netherlands up to and through the Industrial Revolution. Laws governing child labour in factories were first passed in 1874, but child labour on farms continued to be the norm up until the 20th century.[131]

### Soviet Union and successor states

[edit]

Although formally banned since 1922, child labour was widespread in the Soviet Union, mostly in the form of mandatory, unpaid work by schoolchildren on Saturdays and holidays. The students were used as a cheap, unqualified workforce on kolhoz (collective farms) as well as in industry and forestry. The practice was formally called "work education".[132]

From the 1950s on, the students were also used for unpaid work at schools, where they cleaned and performed repairs.[133] This practice has continued in the Russian Federation, where up to 21 days of the summer holidays is sometimes set aside for school works. By law, this is only allowed as part of specialised occupational training and with the students' and parents' permission, but those provisions are widely ignored.[134][better source needed] In 2012 there was an accident near the city of Nalchik where a car killed several pupils cleaning up a highway shoulder during their "holiday work", as well as their teacher, who was supervising them.[135]

Out of former Soviet Union republics Uzbekistan continued and expanded the program of child labour on industrial scale to increase profits on the main source of Islam Karimov's income, cotton harvesting. In September, when school normally starts, the classes are suspended and children are sent to cotton fields for work, where they are assigned daily quotas of 20 to 60 kg of raw cotton they have to collect. This process is repeated in spring, when collected cotton needs to be hoed and weeded. In 2006 it is estimated that 2.7 million children were forced to work this way.[136]

### Switzerland

[edit]

Main article: Child labour in Switzerland

As in many other countries, child labour in Switzerland affected among the so-called Kaminfegerkinder ("chimney sweep children") and children working p.e. in spinning mills, factories and in agriculture in 19th-century Switzerland,[137] but also to the 1960s so-called Verdingkinder (literally: "contract children" or "indentured child laborers") were children who were taken from their parents, often due to poverty or moral reasons – usually mothers being unmarried, very poor citizens, of Gypsy–Yeniche origin, so-called Kinder der Landstrasse,[138] etc. – and sent to live with new families, often poor farmers who needed cheap labour.[139]

There were even Verdingkinder auctions where children were handed over to the farmer asking the least money from the authorities, thus securing cheap labour for his farm and relieving the authority from the financial burden of looking after the children. In the 1930s 20% of all agricultural labourers in the Canton of Bern were children below the age of 15. Swiss municipality guardianship authorities acted so, commonly tolerated by federal authorities, to the 1960s, not all of them of course, but usually communities affected of low taxes in some Swiss cantons[140] Swiss historian Marco Leuenberger investigated, that in 1930 there were some 35,000 indentured children, and between 1920 and 1970 more than 100,000 are believed to have been placed with families or homes. 10,000 Verdingkinder are still alive.[140][141] Therefore, the so-called Wiedergutmachungsinitiative was started in April 2014. In April 2014 the collection of targeted at least authenticated 100,000 signatures of Swiss citizens has started, and still have to be collected to October 2015.[citation needed]

### United States

[edit]

Main article: Child labor in the United States

Missouri Governor Joseph W. Folk inspecting child labourers in 1906 in an image drawn by journalist Marguerite Martyn

Child labour laws in the United States are found at the federal and state levels. The most sweeping federal law that restricts the employment and abuse of child workers is the Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA). Child labour provisions under FLSA are designed to protect the educational opportunities of youth and prohibit their employment in jobs that are detrimental to their health and safety. FLSA restricts the hours that youth under 16 years of age can work and lists hazardous occupations too dangerous for young workers to perform.

Under the FLSA, for non-agricultural jobs, children under 14 may not be employed, children between 14 and 16 may be employed in allowed occupations during limited hours, and children between 16 and 17 may be employed for unlimited hours in non-hazardous occupations.[142] A number of exceptions to these rules exist, such as for employment by parents, newspaper delivery, and child actors.[142] The regulations for agricultural employment are generally less strict.

States have varying laws covering youth employment. Each state has minimum requirements such as, earliest age a child may begin working, number of hours a child is allowed to be working during the day, number of hours a child is allowed to be worked during the week. The United States Department of Labor lists the minimum requirements for agricultural work in each state.[143] Where state law differs from federal law on child labour, the law with the more rigorous standard applies.[142]

Individual states have a wide range of restrictions on labour by minors, often requiring work permits for minors who are still enrolled in high school, limiting the times and hours that minors can work by age and imposing additional safety regulations.

## Laws and initiatives

[edit]

Main article: Child labour law

See also: Legal working age

Almost every country in the world has laws relating to and aimed at preventing child labour. International Labour Organization has helped set international law, which most countries have signed on and ratified. According to ILO minimum age convention (C138) of 1973, child labour refers to any work performed by children under the age of 12, non-light work done by children aged 12–14, and hazardous work done by children aged 15–17. Light work was defined, under this convention, as any work that does not harm a child's health and development, and that does not interfere with his or her attendance at school. This convention has been ratified by 171 countries.[144]

The United Nations adopted the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1990, which was subsequently ratified by 193 countries.[145] Article 32 of the convention addressed child labour, as follows:

> ...Parties recognise the right of the child to be protected from economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to interfere with the child's education, or to be harmful to the child's health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development.[4]

Under Article 1 of the 1990 Convention, a child is defined as "every human being below the age of eighteen years unless, under the law applicable to the child, a majority is attained earlier." Article 28 of this Convention requires States to, "make primary education compulsory and available free to all."[4]

As of 2024, 196 countries are party to the convention; the only nation that has not ratified the treaty is the United States.[146]

In 1999, ILO helped lead the Worst Forms Convention 182 (C182),[147] which has so far been signed upon and domestically ratified by 151 countries including the United States. This international law prohibits worst forms of child labour, defined as all forms of slavery and slavery-like practices, such as child trafficking, debt bondage, and forced labour, including forced recruitment of children into armed conflict. The law also prohibits the use of a child for prostitution or the production of pornography, child labour in illicit activities such as drug production and trafficking; and in hazardous work. Both the Worst Forms Convention (C182) and the Minimum Age Convention (C138) are examples of international labour standards implemented through the ILO that deal with child labour.

In addition to setting the international law, the United Nations initiated International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in 1992.[148] This initiative aims to progressively eliminate child labour through strengthening national capacities to address some of the causes of child labour. Amongst the key initiative is the so-called time-bounded programme countries, where child labour is most prevalent and schooling opportunities lacking. The initiative seeks to achieve amongst other things, universal primary school availability. The IPEC has expanded to at least the following target countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, China, Egypt, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Nigeria, Pakistan, Democratic Republic of Congo, El Salvador, Nepal, Tanzania, Dominican Republic, Costa Rica, Philippines, Senegal, South Africa and Turkey.

Targeted child labour campaigns were initiated by the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) in order to advocate for prevention and elimination of all forms of child labour. The global Music against Child Labour Initiative was launched in 2013 in order to involve socially excluded children in structured musical activity and education in efforts to help protect them from child labour.[149]

### Exceptions granted

[edit]

The United States has passed a law that allows Amish children older than 14 to work in traditional wood enterprises with proper supervision.

In 2004, the United States passed an amendment to the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938. The amendment allows certain children aged 14–18 to work in or outside a business where machinery is used to process wood.[150] The law aims to respect the religious and cultural needs of the Amish community of the United States. The Amish believe that one effective way to educate children is on the job.[6] The new law allows Amish children the ability to work with their families, once they are past eighth grade in school.

Similarly, in 1996, member countries of the European Union, per Directive 94/33/EC,[8] agreed to a number of exceptions for young people in its child labour laws. Under these rules, children of various ages may work in cultural, artistic, sporting or advertising activities if authorised by the competent authority. Children above the age of 13 may perform light work for a limited number of hours per week in other economic activities as defined at the discretion of each country. Additionally, the European law exception allows children aged 14 years or over to work as part of a work/training scheme. The EU Directive clarified that these exceptions do not allow child labour where the children may experience harmful exposure to dangerous substances.[151] Nonetheless, many children under the age of 13 do work, even in the most developed countries of the EU. For instance, a recent study showed over a third of Dutch twelve-year-old kids had a job, the most common being babysitting.[152]

### More laws vs. more freedom

[edit]

> Very often, however, these state laws were not enforced... Federal legislation was passed in 1916 and again in 1919, but both laws were declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. Although the number of child workers declined dramatically during the 1920s and 1930s, it was not until the Fair Labor Standards Act in 1938 that federal regulation of child labor finally became a reality.

> — Smithsonian, on child labour in early 20th century United States[153]

Scholars disagree on the best legal course forward to address child labour. Some suggest the need for laws that place a blanket ban on any work by children less than 18 years old. Others suggest the current international laws are enough, and the need for more engaging approach to achieve the ultimate goals.[154]

Some scholars[who?] suggest any labour by children aged 18 years or less is wrong since this encourages illiteracy, inhumane work and lower investment in human capital. These activists claim that child labour also leads to poor labour standards for adults, depresses the wages of adults in developing countries as well as the developed countries, and dooms the third world economies to low-skill jobs only capable of producing poor quality cheap exports. More children that work in poor countries, the fewer and worse-paid are the jobs for adults in these countries. In other words, there are moral and economic reasons that justify a blanket ban on labour from children aged 18 years or less, everywhere in the world.[155][156]

Child labour in Bangladesh

Other scholars[who?] suggest that these arguments are flawed and ignore history, and that more laws will do more harm than good. According to them, child labour is merely the symptom of poverty. If laws ban all lawful work that enables the poor to survive, informal economy, illicit operations and underground businesses will thrive. These will increase abuse of the children. In poor countries with very high incidence rates of child labour – such as Ethiopia, Chad, Niger and Nepal – schools are not available, and the few schools that exist offer poor quality education or are unaffordable. The alternatives for children who currently work, claim these studies, are worse: grinding subsistence farming, militia or prostitution. Child labour is not a choice, it is a necessity, the only option for survival. It is currently the least undesirable of a set of very bad choices.[157][158] Traidcraft Exchange and Homeworkers Worldwide argue that attempts to eliminate child labour without addressing the level of adult earnings may lead to children being engaged in labour in "less visible and more hazardous occupations".[159]

Nepali girls working in brick factory

These scholars suggest, from their studies of economic and social data, that early 20th-century child labour in Europe and the United States ended in large part as a result of the economic development of the formal regulated economy, technology development and general prosperity. Child labour laws and ILO conventions came later. Edmonds suggests, even in contemporary times, the incidence of child labour in Vietnam has rapidly reduced following economic reforms and GDP growth. These scholars suggest economic engagement, emphasis on opening quality schools rather than more laws and expanding economically relevant skill development opportunities in the third world. International legal actions, such as trade sanctions increase child labour.[154][160][161][162]

The Incredible Bread Machine, a book published by "World Research, Inc." in 1974, stated:

> Child labour was a particular target of early reformers. William Cooke Tatlor wrote at the time about these reformers who, witnessing children at work in the factories, thought to themselves: 'How much more delightful would have been the gambol of the free limbs on the hillside; the sight of the green mead with its spangles of buttercups and daisies; the song of the bird and the humming bee...' But for many of these children the factory system meant quite literally the only chance for survival. Today we overlook the fact that death from starvation and exposure was a common fate before the Industrial Revolution, for the pre-capitalist economy was barely able to support the population. Yes, children were working. Formerly they would have starved. It was only as goods were produced in greater abundance at a lower cost that men could support their families without sending their children to work. It was not the reformer or the politician that ended the grim necessity for child labour; it was capitalism.

## Incidents

[edit]

Part of a series on

Forced labour and slavery

Contemporary

* Child labour
* Child soldiers
* Conscription
* CSEC
* Debt bondage
* India
* Forced marriage
* Bride buying
* Child marriage
* Wife selling
* Forced prostitution
* Human trafficking
* Child
* China
* Cybersex
* Europe
* Fraud factory
* India
* United States
* Involuntary servitude
* ... in 21st-century jihadism
* ... in Africa
* Peonage
* Penal labour
* Sex trafficking
* China
* Europe
* United States
* Sexual slavery
* Wage slavery

Historical

Antiquity

* Babylonia
* Egypt
* Greece
* Rome

Medieval Europe

* Ancillae
* Black Sea slave trade
* Byzantine Empire
* Genoese slave trade
* Kholop
* Prague slave trade
* Serfs
* History
* In Russia
* Emancipation
* Thrall
* Venetian slave trade
* Balkan slave trade

Muslim world

* Baqt
* Barbary Coast
* slave trade
* pirates
* Sack of Baltimore
* Slave raid of Suðuroy
* Turkish Abductions
* Bukhara slave trade
* Concubinage
* history
* Ma malakat aymanukum
* Avret Pazarları
* Harem
* Abbasid harem
* Ottoman Imperial Harem
* Safavid imperial harem
* Qajar harem
* Jarya/Cariye
* Odalisque
* Qiyan
* Umm al-walad
* Circassian slave trade
* Contract of manumission
* Crimean slave trade
* Kafala system
* Khazar slave trade
* Khivan slave trade
* Ottoman Empire
* Avret Pazarları
* Saqaliba
* Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
* Slavery in al-Andalus ‎
* Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate
* Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate
* Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate
* Volga Bulgarian slave trade
* 21st century

Atlantic slave trade

* Brazil
* Bristol
* Database
* Dutch
* Middle Passage
* Nantes
* New France
* Panyarring
* Spanish Empire
* Slave Coast
* Thirteen colonies

Topics and practice

* Blackbirding
* Child soldiers
* Conscription
* Devshirme
* Ghilman
* Mamluk
* Coolie
* Corvée labour
* Drapetomania
* Dysaesthesia aethiopica
* Field slaves in the United States
* Treatment
* Gladiator
* Gladiatrix
* House slaves
* Planter class
* Proslavery thought
* Saqaliba
* Seasoning
* Slave market
* Slave Power
* Slave raiding
* Slavocracy
* Voluntary slavery
* White slavery

Naval

* Galley slave
* Impressment
* Pirates
* Shanghaiing
* Slave ship

By country or region

Sub-Saharan Africa

* Contemporary Africa
* Trans-Saharan slave trade
* Red Sea slave trade
* Indian Ocean slave trade
* Zanzibar slave trade
* Angola
* Chad
* Comoros
* Ethiopia
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Seychelles
* Somalia
* Somali slave trade
* South Africa
* Sudan
* Zanzibar

North and South America

* Pre-Columbian America
* Aztec
* Americas indigenous
* U.S. Natives
* United States
* field slaves
* female
* contemporary
* maps
* partus
* prison labour
* slave codes
* treatment
* interregional
* proslavery
* sexual slavery
* The Bahamas
* Canada
* Caribbean
* Barbados
* British Virgin Islands
* Trinidad
* Code Noir
* Latin America
* Brazil
* Lei Áurea
* Colombia
* Cuba
* Haiti
* revolt
* Restavek
* (Encomienda)
* Puerto Rico

East, Southeast, and South Asia

* Haruwa-charuwa
* Human trafficking in Southeast Asia
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* China
* Booi Aha
* Eunuchs
* Laogai
* penal system
* India
* Debt bondage
* Chukri System
* Bawi system
* Indonesia
* Japan
* comfort women
* Karayuki-san
* Korea
* Kwalliso
* Nobi
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Slavery in the Mongol Empire
* Thailand
* Yankee princess
* Vietnam

Australia and Oceania

* Australia
* Human trafficking
* Blackbirding
* Slave raiding in Easter Island
* Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea
* Blackbirding in Polynesia

Europe and North Asia

* Sex trafficking in Europe
* United Kingdom
* Penal Labour
* Slavery
* Denmark
* Dutch Republic
* Germany in World War II
* Malta
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* Spain
* Sweden

North Africa and West Asia

* Afghanistan
* Algeria
* Bahrain
* Egypt
* Human trafficking in the Middle East
* Iran
* Iraq
* Jordan
* Kuwait
* Lebanon
* Libya
* Morocco
* Oman
* Palestine
* Saudi Arabia
* Syria
* Tunisia
* Qatar
* Yemen
* United Arab Emirates

Religion

* Bible
* Christianity
* Catholicism
* Mormonism
* Islam
* Judaism
* Baháʼí Faith

Opposition and resistance

* Abolitionism
* U.K.
* U.S.
* Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90
* Temporary Slavery Commission
* 1926 Slavery Convention
* Committee of Experts on Slavery
* Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery
* Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery
* Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery
* Abolitionists
* Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention
* Anti-Slavery International
* Blockade of Africa
* U.K.
* U.S.
* Colonization
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* Compensated emancipation
* Freedman
* Manumission
* Freedom suit
* Slave Power
* Underground Railroad
* songs
* Slave rebellion
* Slave Trade Acts
* International law
* Third Servile War
* 13th Amendment to the United States Constitution
* Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom
* Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf [fa]

Related

* Common law
* Forced labour
* Fugitive slaves
* laws
* convention
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Indentured servitude
* List of slaves
* owners
* last survivors of American slavery
* List of slavery-related memorials and museums
* Slave catcher
* Slave marriages in the United States
* Slave narrative
* films
* songs
* Slave name
* Slave patrol
* Slave Route Project
* breeding
* court cases
* Washington
* Jefferson
* J.Q. Adams
* Lincoln
* Emancipation Proclamation
* 40 acres
* Freedmen's Bureau
* Iron bit
* Emancipation Day

* v
* t
* e

### Cocoa production

[edit]

Main articles: Children in cocoa production and Harkin–Engel Protocol

In 1998, UNICEF reported that Ivory Coast farmers used enslaved children – many from surrounding countries.[163] In late 2000 a BBC documentary reported the use of enslaved children in the production of cocoa – the main ingredient in chocolate[164] – in West Africa.[165][166] Other media followed by reporting widespread child slavery and child trafficking in the production of cocoa.[163][167][168] In 2001, the US State Department estimated there were 15,000 child slaves cocoa, cotton and coffee farms in the Ivory Coast,[169] and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association acknowledged that child slavery is used in the cocoa harvest.[169][failed verification][better source needed]

Malian migrants have long worked on cocoa farms in the Ivory Coast, but in 2000 cocoa prices had dropped to a 10-year low and some farmers stopped paying their employees.[170] The Malian counsel had to rescue some boys who had not been paid for five years and who were beaten if they tried to run away.[170] Malian officials believed that 15,000 children, some as young as 11 years old, were working in the Ivory Coast in 2001. These children were often from poor families or the slums and were sold to work in other countries.[167] Parents were told the children would find work and send money home, but once the children left home, they often worked in conditions resembling slavery.[165] In other cases, children begging for food were lured from bus stations and sold as slaves.[171] In 2002, the Ivory Coast had 12,000 children with no relatives nearby, which suggested they were trafficked,[165] likely from neighboring Mali, Burkina Faso and Togo.[172]

The cocoa industry was accused of profiting from child slavery and trafficking.[173] The European Cocoa Association dismissed these accusations as "false and excessive"[173] and the industry said the reports were not representative of all areas.[174] Later the industry acknowledged the working conditions for children were unsatisfactory and children's rights were sometimes violated[173] and acknowledged the claims could not be ignored. In a BBC interview, the ambassador for Ivory Coast to the United Kingdom called these reports of widespread use of slave child labour by 700,000 cocoa farmers as absurd and inaccurate.[174]

In 2001, a voluntary agreement called the Harkin–Engel Protocol, was accepted by the international cocoa and chocolate industry to eliminate the worst forms of child labour, as defined by ILO's Convention 182, in West Africa.[175] This agreement created a foundation named International Cocoa Initiative in 2002. The foundation claims it has, as of 2011, active programs in 290 cocoa growing communities in Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana, reaching a total population of 689,000 people to help eliminate the worst forms of child labour in cocoa industry.[176] Other organisations claim progress has been made, but the protocol's 2005 deadlines have not yet been met.[177][178][179]

### Mining in Africa

[edit]

Children engaged in diamond mining in Sierra Leone

In 2008, Bloomberg claimed child labour in copper and cobalt mines that supplied Chinese companies in Congo. The children are creuseurs, that is they dig the ore by hand, carry sacks of ores on their backs, and these are then purchased by these companies. Over 60 of Katanga's 75 processing plants are owned by Chinese companies and 90 per cent of the region's minerals go to China.[180] An African NGO report claimed 80,000 child labourers under the age of 15, or about 40% of all miners, were supplying ore to Chinese companies in this African region.[181] Amnesty International alleged in 2016 that some cobalt sold by Congo Dongfang Mining was produced by child labour, and that it was being used in lithium-ion batteries powering electric cars and mobile devices worldwide.[182][183]

BBC, in 2012, accused Glencore of using child labour in its mining and smelting operations of Africa. Glencore denied it used child labour, and said it has strict policy of not using child labour. The company claimed it has a strict policy whereby all copper was mined correctly, placed in bags with numbered seals and then sent to the smelter. Glencore mentioned being aware of child miners who were part of a group of artisanal miners who had without authorisation raided the concession awarded to the company since 2010; Glencore has been pleading with the government to remove the artisanal miners from the concession.[184]

Small-scale artisanal mining of gold is another source of dangerous child labour in poor rural areas in certain parts of the world.[185] This form of mining uses labour-intensive and low-tech methods. It is informal sector of the economy. Human Rights Watch group estimates that about 12 per cent of global gold production comes from artisanal mines. In west Africa, in countries such as Mali – the third largest exporter of gold in Africa – between 20,000 and 40,000 children work in artisanal mining. Locally known as orpaillage, children as young as six years old work with their families. These children and families suffer chronic exposure to toxic chemicals including mercury, and do hazardous work such as digging shafts and working underground, pulling up, carrying and crushing the ore. The poor work practices harm the long-term health of children, as well as release hundreds of tons of mercury every year into local rivers, ground water and lakes. Gold is important to the economy of Mali and Ghana. For Mali, it is the second largest earner of its export revenue. For many poor families with children, it is the primary and sometimes the only source of income.[186][187]

### Meatpacking

[edit]

See also: Packers Sanitation Services illegal employment of children

In early August 2008, Iowa Labour Commissioner David Neil announced that his department had found that Agriprocessors, a kosher meatpacking company in Postville which had recently been raided by Immigration and Customs Enforcement, had employed 57 minors, some as young as 14, in violation of state law prohibiting anyone under 18 from working in a meatpacking plant. Neil announced that he was turning the case over to the state Attorney General for prosecution, claiming that his department's inquiry had discovered "egregious violations of virtually every aspect of Iowa's child labour laws."[188] Agriprocessors claimed that it was at a loss to understand the allegations. Agriprocessors' CEO went to trial on these charges in state court on 4 May 2010. After a five-week trial he was found not guilty of all 57 charges of child labour violations by the Black Hawk County District Court jury in Waterloo, Iowa, on 7 June 2010.[189]

### GAP

[edit]

Working child in Ooty, India

A 2007 report claimed some GAP products had been produced by child labourers. GAP acknowledged the problem and announced it is pulling the products from its shelves.[190] The report found that GAP had rigorous social audit systems since 2004 to eliminate child labour in its supply chain. However, the report concluded that the system was being abused by unscrupulous subcontractors.

GAP's policy, the report claimed, is that if it discovers child labour was used by its supplier in its branded clothes, the contractor must remove the child from the workplace, provide them with access to schooling and a wage, and guarantee the opportunity of work on reaching a legal working age.

In 2007, The New York Times reported that GAP, after the child labour discovery, created a $200,000 grant to improve working conditions in the supplier community.[191] GAP created strong relationships with developing countries to help prevent child labour and find solutions; GAP would conduct interviews and reach out to their 100,000 employees worldwide to get insight into how they feel about GAP's work environments. This survey concluded with a 68 per cent response rate, and 77 per cent of respondents considered GAP a great environment to work in.[192]

### H&M and Zara

[edit]

In December 2009, campaigners in the UK called on two leading high street retailers to stop selling clothes made with cotton which may have been picked by children. Anti-Slavery International and the Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) accused H&M and Zara of using cotton suppliers in Bangladesh. It is also suspected that many of their raw materials originates from Uzbekistan, where children aged 10 are forced to work in the fields. The activists were calling to ban the use of Uzbek cotton and implement a "track and trace" systems to guarantee an ethical responsible source of the material.

H&M said it "does not accept" child labour and "seeks to avoid" using Uzbek cotton, but admitted it did "not have any reliable methods" to ensure Uzbek cotton did not end up in any of its products. Inditex, the owner of Zara, said its code of conduct banned child labour.[193]

### Silk weaving

[edit]

A 2003 Human Rights Watch report claimed children as young as five years old were employed and worked for up to 12 hours a day and six to seven days a week in the silk industry.[194] These children, HRW claimed, were bonded child labour in India, easy to find in Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.[195]

In 2010, a German news investigative report claimed that non-governmental organisations (NGOs) had found up to 10,000 children working in the 1,000 silk factories in 1998. In other locations, thousands of bonded child labourers were present in 1994. After UNICEF and NGOs got involved, the child labour figure dropped drastically after 2005, with the total estimated to be fewer than a thousand child labourers. The report claims the released children were back in school.[196]

### Primark

[edit]

In 2008, the BBC reported[197] that the company Primark was using child labour in the manufacture of clothing. In particular, a £4 hand-embroidered shirt was the starting point of a documentary produced by BBC's Panorama programme. The programme asks consumers to ask themselves, "Why am I only paying £4 for a hand embroidered top? This item looks handmade. Who made it for such little cost?", in addition to exposing the violent side of the child labour industry in countries where child exploitation is prevalent.

As a result of the BBC report, Royal Television Society awarded it a prize, and Primark took immediate action and fired three Indian suppliers in 2008.[198]

Primark continued to investigate the allegations for three years,[199] concluding that BBC report was a fake. In 2011, following an investigation by the BBC Trust's Editorial Standards Committee, the BBC announced, "Having carefully scrutinised all of the relevant evidence, the committee concluded that, on the balance of probabilities, it was more likely than not that the Bangalore footage was not authentic." BBC subsequently apologised for faking footage, and returned the television award for investigative reporting.[200][201][202]

## Elimination

[edit]

Child labour in a coal mine, United States, c. 1912. Photograph by Lewis Hine. Different forms of child labour in Honduras, 1999

Concerns have often been raised over the buying public's moral complicity in purchasing products assembled or otherwise manufactured in developing countries with child labour. However, others have raised concerns that boycotting products manufactured through child labour may force these children to turn to more dangerous or strenuous professions, such as prostitution or agriculture. For example, a UNICEF study found that after the Child Labor Deterrence Act was introduced in the US, an estimated 50,000 children were dismissed from their garment industry jobs in Bangladesh, leaving many to resort to jobs such as "stone-crushing, street hustling, and prostitution", jobs that are "more hazardous and exploitative than garment production". The study suggests that boycotts are "blunt instruments with long-term consequences, that can actually harm rather than help the children involved."[51]

According to Milton Friedman, before the Industrial Revolution virtually all children worked in agriculture.[203] During the Industrial Revolution many of these children moved from farm work to factory work. Over time, as real wages rose, parents became able to afford to send their children to school instead of work and as a result child labour declined, both before and after legislation.[204]

British historian and socialist E. P. Thompson in The Making of the English Working Class draws a qualitative distinction between child domestic work and participation in the wider (waged) labour market.[24] Further, the usefulness of the experience of the industrial revolution in making predictions about current trends has been disputed. Social historian Hugh Cunningham, author of Children and Childhood in Western Society Since 1500, notes that:

> Fifty years ago it might have been assumed that, just as child labour had declined in the developed world in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, so it would also, in a trickle-down fashion, in the rest of the world. Its failure to do that, and its re-emergence in the developed world, raise questions about its role in any economy, whether national or global.[205]

According to Thomas DeGregori, an economics professor at the University of Houston, in an article published by the Cato Institute, a libertarian think-tank operating in Washington D.C., "it is clear that technological and economic change are vital ingredients in getting children out of the workplace and into schools. Then they can grow to become productive adults and live longer, healthier lives. However, in poor countries like Bangladesh, working children are essential for survival in many families, as they were in our own heritage until the late 19th century. So, while the struggle to end child labour is necessary, getting there often requires taking different routes—and, sadly, there are many political obstacles.[206]

The International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), founded in 1992, aims to eliminate child labour. It operates in 88 countries and is the largest program of its kind in the world.[207] IPEC works with international and government agencies, NGOs, the media, and children and their families to end child labour and provide children with education and assistance.[207]

From 2008 to 2013, the ILO operated a program through IPEC entitled "Combating Abusive Child Labour (CACL-II)". The project, funded by the European Union, contributed to the Government of Pakistan by providing alternative opportunities for vocational training and education to children withdrawn from the worst forms of child labour.[208]

Periodically, governments, employers' and workers' organisations have met in global conference to assess progress and remaining obstacles and to agree measures to eliminate the worst forms of child labour by 2016: first in Oslo (1997), followed by: The Hague (2010); Brasília, 8–10 October 2013;[209] Buenos Aires, 14–16 November 2017;[210] and most recently Durban, South Africa, 15–20 May 2022.[211]

Between 2000 and 2012, progress was made against child labour but the elimination of its worst forms was not accomplished.[212] Under the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the 2030 Agenda, UN Member States, employers' and workers' organisations, and civil society organisations are required to work together to eliminate child labour by 2025, forced labour, modern slavery and human trafficking by 2030. Thus, the ILO established Alliance 8.7 as a global partnership.[213][214]

In January 2021, the ILO published the Child Labour Global Estimates 2020 in collaboration with UNICEF.[215] According to the report child labour decreased by 38% from 246 million in 2000 to 152 million in 2016.[216][217] Due to COVID-19 pandemic the number of children in child labour increased by 9 million.[218]

## Statistics

[edit]

Number of children involved in ILO categories of work, by age and gender in 2002  | All Children
(2002)[219] | Economically Active Children | Economically Active Children (%) | Child Labour | Child Labour (%) | Children in Hazardous Work | Children in Hazardous Work (%)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Ages 5–11 | 838,800,000 | 109,700,000 | 13.1 | 109,700,000 | 13.1 | 60,500,000 | 7.2
Ages 12–14 | 360,600,000 | 101,100,000 | 28.0 | 76,000,000 | 21.1 | 50,800,000 | 14.1
Ages 5–14 | 1,199,400,000 | 210,800,000 | 17.6 | 186,300,000 | 15.5 | 111,300,000 | 9.3
Ages 15–17 | 332,100,000 | 140,900,000 | 42.4 | 59,200,000 | 17.8 | 59,200,000 | 17.8
Boys | 786,600,000 | 184,100,000 | 23.4 | 132,200,000 | 16.8 | 95,700,000 | 12.2
Girls | 744,900,000 | 167,600,000 | 22.5 | 113,300,000 | 15.2 | 74,800,000 | 10.5
Total | 1,531,500,000 | 351,700,000 | 23.0 | 245,500,000 | 16.0 | 170,500,000 | 11.1
Numbers and percentage of children aged 5 to 17 years in child labour and hazardous work in 2016 and 2020[215] | Child labour | Child labour(%) | Children in hazardous work | Children in hazardous work (%)

|
|
|
|

Ages 5– 11 | 89,300,000 | 9.7 | 25,900,000 | 2.8
Ages 12– 14 | 35,600,000 | 9.3 | 18,100,000 | 4.8
Ages 15– 17 | 35,000,000 | 9.5 | 35,000,000 | 9.5
Boys (2016) | 87,500,000 | 10.7 | 44,800,000 | 5.5
Girls (2016) | 64,100,000 | 8.4 | 27,800,000 | 3.6
World total (2016) | 151,600,000 | 9.6 | 72,500,000 | 4.6
Boys (2020) | 97,000,000 | 11.2 | 50,200,000 | 5.8
Girls (2020) | 62,900,000 | 7.8 | 28,800,000 | 3.6
World total (2020) | 160,000,000 | 9.6 | 79,000,000 | 4.7

## Potential positives

[edit]

The term child labour can be misleading when it confuses harmful work with employment that may be beneficial to children. It can also ignore harmful work outside employment and any benefits children normally derive from their work.[220] Domestic work is an example: all families but the rich must work at cleaning, cooking, caring, and more to maintain their homes. In most families in the world, this process extends to productive activities, especially herding and various types of agriculture,[221] and to a variety of small family businesses. Where trading is a significant feature of social life, children can start trading in small items at an early age, often in the company of family members or of peers.[222]

Work is undertaken from an early age by vast numbers of children in the world and may have a natural place in growing up.[223] Work can contribute to the well-being of children in a variety of ways;[224] children often choose to work to improve their lives, both in the short- and long-term. At the material level, children's work often contributes to producing food or earning income that benefits themselves and their families; and such income is especially important when the families are poor. Work can provide an escape from debilitating poverty, sometimes by allowing a young person to move away from an impoverished environment.[225] Young people often enjoy their work, especially paid work, or when work involves the company of peers. Even when work is intensive and enforced, children often find ways to combine their work with play.[226]

While full-time work hinders schooling, empirical evidence is varied on the relationship between part-time work and school.[223] Sometimes even part-time work may hinder school attendance or performance. On the other hand, many poor children work for resources to attend school. Children who are not doing well at school sometimes seek more satisfactory experience in work. Good relations with a supervisor at work can provide relief from tensions that children feel at school and home.[227] In the modern world, school education has become so central to society that schoolwork has become the dominant work for most children,[228] often replacing participation in productive work. If school curricula or quality do not provide children with appropriate skills for available jobs or if children do not have the aptitude for schoolwork, school may impede the learning of skills, such as agriculture, which will become necessary for future livelihood.[229]

## In media

[edit]

* Letitia Elizabeth Landon addresses this issue in scathing terms in her poem  The Factory. (1835). 'Tis an accursed thing!—she writes.
* Oliver Twist, a novel by Charles Dickens that was later adapted into films and into a theater production.
* "The Little Match Girl", a short story by Hans Christian Andersen that was later adapted into films and other media.
* Gunjal, a film by Shoaib Sultan based on the child labour activist Iqbal Masih tragic murder.

## See also

[edit]

* Organised labour portal

Lewis Hine used photography to help bring attention to child labour in America. He created this poster in 1914 with an appeal about child labour.

* Child abuse
* Child labour in Africa
* Child labour in Bangladesh
* Child labour in India
* Child migration
* Child prostitution
* Child work in indigenous American cultures
* Children in cocoa production
* Children's rights movement
* Concerned for Working Children
* Ethical consumerism
* History of childhood
* International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour, IPEC
* International Research on Working Children
* Kinder der Landstrasse, Switzerland
* Labour law
* Legal working age
* List of global issues
* London matchgirls strike of 1888
* Newsboys strike of 1899, successful strike in New York
* Street children
* Sweatshop
* Trafficking of children
* World Day Against Child Labour

International conventions and other instruments:

* Pilot project on Delivery of water to households far from sources of safe water
* ILO Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29)
* ILO Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105)
* ILO Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)
* ILO Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999 (No. 182)

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Laura Del Col. "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England". Victorian Web.
2. ^ "The Factory and Workshop Act, 1901". Br Med J. 2 (2139): 1871–2\. 1901. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.2139.1871. PMC 2507680. PMID 20759953.1871-2&rft.date=1901&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2507680#id-name=PMC&rft_id=info:pmid/20759953&rft_id=info:doi/10.1136/bmj.2.2139.1871&rft_id=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2507680&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
3. ^ "What is child labour?". International Labour Organization. 2012.
4. ^ a b c "Convention on the Rights of the Child". United Nations. Archived from the original on 3 October 2006. Retrieved 5 October 2006.
5. ^ "International and national legislation - Child Labour". International Labour Organization. 2011.
6. ^ a b "Labour laws - An Amish exception". The Economist. 5 February 2004.
7. ^ Larsen, P.B. Indigenous and tribal children: assessing child labour and education challenges. International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC), International Labour Office.
8. ^ a b "Council Directive 94/33/EC of 22 June 1994 on the protection of young people at work". Official Journal of the European Communities. 37. 20 August 1994 - via EUR-Lex.
9. ^ a b c Prügl, Elisabeth (1999). The Global Construction of Gender - Home based work in Political Economy of 20th Century. Columbia University Press. pp. 25–31, 50–59\. ISBN 978-0231115612.25-31,+50-59&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0231115612&rft.aulast=Prügl&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
10. ^ Hugh Cunningham; Pier Paolo Viazzo, eds. (1996). Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985 (PDF). UNICEF. ISBN 978-88-85401-27-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015.
11. ^ Hindman, Hugh (2009). The World of Child Labour. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 978-0-7656-1707-1.
12. ^ a b "In the world's poorest countries, slightly more than 1 in 5 children are engaged in child labour". UNICEF. June 2023.
13. ^ a b "UNICEF Data – Child Labour". UNICEF. 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2018.
14. ^ a b "Child Labour". The Economist. 20 December 2005.
15. ^ a b c d Eric V. Edmonds; Nina Pavcnik (Winter 2005). "Child Labour in the Global Economy". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 19 (1): 199–220\. doi:10.1257/0895330053147895.199-220&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info:doi/10.1257/0895330053147895&rft.au=Eric+V.+Edmonds&rft.au=Nina+Pavcnik&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1257%2F0895330053147895&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
16. ^ a b c d "Child labour - causes". ILO, United Nations. 2008. Archived from the original on 11 April 2009.
17. ^ Norberg, Johan (2007). Världens välfärd (in Swedish). Stockholm: Government Offices of Sweden. p. 58\. ISBN 978-91-85935-00-0. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016.
18. ^ "To eliminate child labour, "attack it at its roots" UNICEF says". UNICEF. 2013. Archived from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 4 March 2014.
19. ^ a b c Diamond, Jared (2012). The World Until Yesterday. Viking. ISBN 9780670024810.
20. ^ Thompson, E. P. (1968). The Making of the English Working Class. Penguin.[page needed]
21. ^ "UNICEF" (PDF).
22. ^ Walker, Steven (12 July 2021). Children Forsaken. Critical Publishing. ISBN 978-1-913453-84-8.
23. ^ Laura Del Col, West Virginia University, "The Life of the Industrial Worker in Nineteenth-Century England"
24. ^ a b Thompson, E. P. (1968). The Making of the English Working Class. Penguin. pp. 366–367.366-367&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=E.+P.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
25. ^ Humphries, Jane (2010). Childhood And Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution. Cambridge University Press. p. 33\. ISBN 9780521847568.
26. ^ a b Daniels, Barbara (March 2003). "Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era". Hidden Lives Revealed. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
27. ^ Pal, Jadab Kumar; Chakraborty, Sonali; Tewari, Hare Ram; Chandra, Vinod (March 2016). "The working hours of unpaid child workers in the handloom industry in India". International Social Science Journal. 66 (219–220): 197–204\. doi:10.1111/issj.12121. ISSN 0020-8701.219–220&rft.pages=197-204&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/issj.12121&rft.issn=0020-8701&rft.aulast=Pal&rft.aufirst=Jadab+Kumar&rft.au=Chakraborty,+Sonali&rft.au=Tewari,+Hare+Ram&rft.au=Chandra,+Vinod&rft_id=http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/issj.12121&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
28. ^ Galbi, Douglas A. (13 June 1994). "Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills". Archived from the original on 9 January 2006. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
29. ^ David Cody. "Child Labour". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
30. ^ Forster 2006, pp. 23–24.
31. ^ Douglas A. Galbi. Centre for History and Economics, King's College, Cambridge CB2 1ST.
32. ^ In The Communist Manifesto, Part II: "Proletariats and Communists" and Capital, Volume I, Part III
33. ^ Neocleous, Mark. "The Political Economy of the Dead: Marx's Vampires" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 6 November 2013.
34. ^ Marx, Karl (1864). Inaugural Address of the International Working Men's Association (Speech).
35. ^ Colin Heywood, “ A Brief Historiography of Child Labour” in ’ The World of Child Labor: A Historical and Regional Survey’’ (Routledge, 2009) ed. By Hugh D. Hindman p. 19.
36. ^ Hugh Cunningham (1996). "Combating Child Labour: The British Experience". In Hugh Cunningham; Pier Paolo Viazzo (eds.). Child Labour in Historical Perspective: 1800-1985 (PDF). UNICEF. pp. 41–53\. ISBN 978-88-85401-27-3. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 November 2015.41-53&rft.pub=UNICEF&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-88-85401-27-3&rft.au=Hugh+Cunningham&rft_id=http://www.unicef-irc.org/publications/pdf/hisper_childlabour_low.pdf#page=43&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
37. ^ Freedman, Russell; Hine, Lewis (1994). Kids at work: Lewis Hine and the crusade against child labour. New York: Clarion Books. pp. 54–57. ISBN 978-0395587034.
38. ^ "The Industrial Revolution". Web Institute for Teachers. Archived from the original on 4 August 2008.
39. ^ "Teaching With Documents: Photographs of Lewis Hine: Documentation of Child Labour". The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. 15 August 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
40. ^ Vreatt, Matthew. "Virginia: Cigarette Rollers". userpages.umbc.edu.
41. ^ Child Labour in the South: Essays and Links to photographs from the Lewis Hine Collection at the University of Maryland, Baltimore County.
42. ^ Warren, L. (2005). "Hine, Lewis". Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography. Abingdon-on-Thames: Routledge. p. 699\. ISBN 9781135205430.
43. ^ Freedman, Russell (1998). Kids at Work: Lewis Hine and the Crusade Against Child Labour. Sandpiper. ISBN 978-0395797266.
44. ^ Miller, Frieda (1979). Miller, Frieda S. Papers, 1909-1973. Radcliff College. Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 15 July 2012.
45. ^ Linda Lobao; Katherine Meyer (2001). "The Great Agricultural Transition: Crisis, Change, and Social Consequences of Twentieth Century US Farming". Annual Review of Sociology. 27: 103–124\. doi:10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.103. JSTOR 2678616.103-124&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info:doi/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.103&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2678616#id-name=JSTOR&rft.au=Linda+Lobao&rft.au=Katherine+Meyer&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
46. ^ Friedmann, Harriet (1978). "World Market, State, and Family Farm: Social Bases of Household Production in the Era of Wage Labour". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 20 (4): 545–586\. doi:10.1017/S001041750001255X. S2CID 153765098.545-586&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017/S001041750001255X&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153765098#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Friedmann&rft.aufirst=Harriet&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
47. ^ "Table 2.8: Assessing Vulnerability". 2005 World Development Indicators (PDF). The World Bank. pp. 77–79\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 August 2013.77-79&rft.pub=The+World+Bank&rft_id=http://data.worldbank.org/sites/default/files/wdi05fulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
48. ^ "Child Statistics". UNICEF DATA. Archived from the original on 30 June 2012.
49. ^ Antelava, Natalia (24 August 2007). "Child labour in Kyrgyz coal mines". BBC News. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
50. ^ Yacouba Diallo; Frank Hagemann; Alex Etienne; Yonca Gurbuzer; Farhad Mehran (2010). Global child labour developments: Measuring trends from 2004 to 2008. ILO. ISBN 978-92-2-123522-4.
51. ^ a b "The State of the World's Children 1997". UNICEF. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 15 April 2007.
52. ^ "Facts and figures on child labour" (PDF). info.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 17 July 2007.
53. ^ "Tackling child labour: From commitment to action". International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour. ILO. 2012. ISBN 978-92-2-126374-6.
54. ^ "Children's Rights: China". Law Library of Congress, United States. 2012.
55. ^ Lepillez, Karine (2009). "The dark side of labour in China" (PDF).
56. ^ "China: End Child Labour in State Schools". Human Rights Watch. 4 December 2007. Archived from the original on 11 January 2015.
57. ^ "List of Goods Produced by Child Labor or Forced Labor". www.dol.gov. Archived from the original on 8 July 2014.
58. ^ "Conflict and economic downturn cause global increase in reported child labour violations – 40% of countries now rated 'extreme risk' by Maplecroft". Maplecroft. 5 January 2012. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012.
59. ^ Harsch, Ernest (October 2001). "Child labour rooted in Africa's poverty". Africa Recovery. 15 (3): 14–15\. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012.14-15&rft.date=2001-10&rft.aulast=Harsch&rft.aufirst=Ernest&rft_id=https://www.un.org/en/africarenewal/vol15no3/153chil4.htm&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
60. ^ Basu, Kaushik; Van, Phan Hoang (June 1998). "The Economics of Child Labour". American Economic Review. 88 (3): 412–427\. JSTOR 116842.412-427&rft.date=1998-06&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/116842#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Basu&rft.aufirst=Kaushik&rft.au=Van,+Phan+Hoang&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/116842&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
61. ^ Oryoie, Ali Reza; Alwang, Jeffrey; Tideman, Nicolaus (1 December 2017). "Child Labor and Household Land Holding: Theory and Empirical Evidence from Zimbabwe". World Development. 100: 45–58\. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.07.025. ISSN 0305-750X.45-58&rft.date=2017-12-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.07.025&rft.issn=0305-750X&rft.aulast=Oryoie&rft.aufirst=Ali+Reza&rft.au=Alwang,+Jeffrey&rft.au=Tideman,+Nicolaus&rft_id=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0305750X1730253X&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
62. ^ Boyden, Jo (September 1994). "The Relationship between Education and Child Work" (PDF). UNICEF. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
63. ^ Siddiqi, Faraaz; Patrinos, Harry Anthony (1999). "CHILD LABOUR: ISSUES, CAUSES AND INTERVENTIONS" (PDF). The World Bank. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
64. ^ Tauson, Michaelle (2009). "Child Labour in Latin America: Poverty as Cause and Effect" (PDF).[dead link‍]
65. ^ D'Avolio, Michele (Spring 2004). "Child Labour and Cultural Relativism: From 19th Century America to 21st Century Nepal". Pace International Law Review. 16 (1): 109–145\. doi:10.58948/2331-3536.1160. S2CID 152411350.109-145&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info:doi/10.58948/2331-3536.1160&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:152411350#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=D'Avolio&rft.aufirst=Michele&rft_id=http://digitalcommons.pace.edu/pilr/vol16/iss1/5/&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
66. ^ Biggeri, Mario; Mehrotra, Santosh (2007). Asian Informal Workers: Global Risks, Local Protection. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-38275-5.
67. ^ Grootaert, Christiaan; Patrinos, Harry Anthony (1999). The Policy Analysis of Child Labour: A Comparative Study. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0312221225.
68. ^ Galbi, Douglas (1997). "Child Labour and the Division of Labour in the Early English Cotton Mills" (PDF). Journal of Population Economics. 10 (4): 357–375\. doi:10.1007/s001480050048. PMID 12293082. S2CID 5858814.357-375&rft.date=1997&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5858814#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/12293082&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s001480050048&rft.aulast=Galbi&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rft_id=http://www.galbithink.org/child.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
69. ^ Brown, D. K.; Deardorff, A. V.; Stern, R. M. (2003). "Child Labor: Theory, Evidence, and Policy" (PDF). Child Labour: Theory, Evidence, and Policy (Chapter 3, International Labour Standards: History, Theory, and Policy Options) (PDF). pp. 194–247\. doi:10.1002/9780470754818.ch3. ISBN 9781405105552.194-247&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info:doi/10.1002/9780470754818.ch3&rft.isbn=9781405105552&rft.au=Brown,+D.+K.&rft.au=Deardorff,+A.+V.&rft.au=Stern,+R.+M.&rft_id=http://ase.tufts.edu/econ/papers/200111.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
70. ^ "Working children out of school vs Hours worked by children". Our World in Data. Retrieved 5 March 2020.
71. ^ a b Bass, Loretta (2004). Child Labour in Sub-Saharan Africa. Lynne Rienner Publications. pp. 30–43. ISBN 978-1588262868.
72. ^ Grier, Beverly (2009). Hindman, Hugh (ed.). The World of Child Labour. M.E. Sharpe. pp. 173–177\. ISBN 978-0-7656-1707-1.173-177&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-1707-1&rft.aulast=Grier&rft.aufirst=Beverly&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
73. ^ Hay, Douglas (2007). Masters, Servants, and Magistrates in Britain and the Empire, 1562-1955 (Studies in Legal History). University of North Carolina Press. pp. 38–46\. ISBN 978-0807828779.38-46&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0807828779&rft.aulast=Hay&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
74. ^ Lord, Jack (2011). "Child labour in the Gold Coast: the economics of work, education and the family in late-colonial Africa, c.1940-57" (PDF). The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth. 4 (1): 88–115\. doi:10.1353/hcy.2011.0005. S2CID 143683964.88-115&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/hcy.2011.0005&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143683964#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Jack&rft_id=https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/11595/1/Jack_Lord%2C_Child_Labor_in_the_Gold_Coast.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
75. ^ Wells, Karen (Fall 2008). "Invisible Hands: Child Labour and the State in Colonial Zimbabwe by Beverly Grier (a review)". The Journal of the History of Childhood and Youth. 1 (3): 481–483\. doi:10.1353/hcy.0.0025. S2CID 144242016.481-483&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/hcy.0.0025&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144242016#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=Karen&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
76. ^ Guyer, Jane (1980). "Head Tax, Social Structure and Rural Incomes in Cameroun, 1922-1937". Cahiers d'Études Africaines. 20 (79): 305–329\. doi:10.3406/cea.1980.2338. hdl:2144/40432. S2CID 143600106.305-329&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info:hdl/2144/40432&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143600106#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:doi/10.3406/cea.1980.2338&rft.aulast=Guyer&rft.aufirst=Jane&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
77. ^ Hugh Lyttleton Haslewood (1930). Child slavery in Hong Kong: the mui tsai system. Sheldon Press.
78. ^ Yuen, Karen (December 2004). "Theorizing the Chinese: The MUI TSAI controversy and construction of transnational chineseness in Hong Kong and British Malaya" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies. 6 (2): 95–110\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 August 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2012.95-110&rft.date=2004-12&rft.aulast=Yuen&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft_id=http://www.nzasia.org.nz/downloads/NZJAS-Dec04/6_2_6.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
79. ^ Hay, Douglas (2007). Masters, Servants, and Magistrates in Britain and the Empire, 1562-1955 (Studies in Legal History). University of North Carolina Press. pp. 203–207\. ISBN 978-0807828779.203-207&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0807828779&rft.aulast=Hay&rft.aufirst=Douglas&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
80. ^ Charnovitz, Steve (15 August 1996). "Child Labour: What to do?". Journal of Commerce.
81. ^ a b Agbu 2009, p. 11.
82. ^ a b c d Agbu 2009, p. 15.
83. ^ Agbu 2009, p. 16.
84. ^ Chasant, Muntaka (17 February 2020). "Urban Outcasts: Children of Agbogbloshie". MUNTAKA.COM. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
85. ^ Agbu 2009, p. 12.
86. ^ a b c Agbu 2009, p. 17.
87. ^ Agbu 2009, p. 18.
88. ^ "Minimum working age". Fair Work Ombudsman.
89. ^ a b Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 419.
90. ^ Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 417.
91. ^ Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 418.
92. ^ a b Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 424.
93. ^ a b c Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 428.
94. ^ Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 429.
95. ^ a b c d e Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 421.
96. ^ a b c Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 121.
97. ^ Honeyman, Katrina (2007). Child Workers in England, 1780-1820: Parish Apprentices and the Making of the Early Industrial Labour Force. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 3\. ISBN 978-0-7546-6272-3.
98. ^ a b Honeyman 2016, p. 157.
99. ^ Honeyman 2016, p. 163.
100. ^ Honeyman 2016, p. 169.
101. ^ "Children's Rights: United Kingdom (England and Wales)". The Library of Congress. The Law Library of Congress. Retrieved 12 August 2019.
102. ^ a b World Bank (March 2000). "World Development Indicators 2000". Open Kowledge Repository. doi:10.1596/0-8213-4553-2. hdl:10986/13828. ISBN 978-0-8213-4553-5.
103. ^ Cambodia Human Development Report 2000. Human Development Reports (Report). United Nations. January 2000. Retrieved 5 April 2018.
104. ^ Wells, Don (27 June 2007). "'Best Practice' in the Regulation of International Labor Standards: Lessons of the U.S.-Cambodia Textile Agreement". Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal. 27.
105. ^ Tepelus, Camelia M. (2008). "Social responsibility and innovation on trafficking and child sex tourism: Morphing of practice into sustainable tourism policies?". Tourism and Hospitality Research. 8 (2): 98–115\. doi:10.1057/thr.2008.10. JSTOR 23745520. S2CID 153642347.98-115&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:153642347#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23745520#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1057/thr.2008.10&rft.aulast=Tepelus&rft.aufirst=Camelia+M.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
106. ^ Harari, R.; Harari, H. (1 September 2006). "Children's Environment and Health in Latin America: The Ecuadorian Case". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1076 (1): 660–677\. Bibcode:2006NYASA1076..660H. doi:10.1196/annals.1371.082. PMID 17119244. S2CID 39554024.660-677&rft.date=2006-09-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1196/annals.1371.082&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:39554024#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/17119244&rft_id=info:bibcode/2006NYASA1076..660H&rft.aulast=Harari&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Harari,+H.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
107. ^ a b Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 425.
108. ^ Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 426.
109. ^ a b Lieten & Meerkerk 2011, p. 422.
110. ^ Ebrahimi, Bagher (8 August 2020). "Afghan Child Workers in Iran: Registered but still Trafficked". Iran Wire.
111. ^ "A report card: Iran and its Afghan children". The Guardian. 1 June 2015. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
112. ^ Lomax, Gisella (4 September 2018). "Iran needs more help to support Afghan refugees – UNHCR chief". UNHCR.
113. ^ Mousavi, Sahar; Bozorgmehr, Ghazaal (11 October 2021). "To be an Afghan child worker in Iran". Open Democracy.
114. ^ Naghsh Nejad, Maryam. "Children of Afghan migrants in Iran" (PDF).
115. ^ Ahmady, Kameel (20 February 2024). "Traces of Childhood Exploitation: A Comprehensive Study on the Forms, Causes and Consequences of Child Labour in Iran, Paper presented at the 2th International Conferences on Economics and Social Sciences Hosted by The Polytechnic of Guarda PORTUGAL, pp. 145–167, August 27 – 28, 2022". Journal of Advanced Pharmacy Education and Research. 13 (4–2023): 57–64\. doi:10.51847/blnsUHGGhq.4–2023&rft.pages=57-64&rft.date=2024-02-20&rft_id=info:doi/10.51847/blnsUHGGhq&rft.aulast=Ahmady&rft.aufirst=Kameel&rft_id=https://japer.in/article/traces-of-childhood-exploitation-a-comprehensive-study-on-the-forms-of-child-labour-in-iran-ck8uxwz4tfv8wjj&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
116. ^ "Gender differences in child labour: A systematic review of causes, forms, features and consequences, Paper presented at the 8th International Conferences on Economics and Social Sciences hosted by Cyprus Science University, Antalya, TURKEY, pp. 315–348, October 2022" (PDF). The 8th International Conferences on Economics and Social Sciences.
117. ^ Ahmady, Kameel (14 July 2023). "Exploitation and Exclusion: A Socio-Cultural Analysis of Child Labour in Iran, 2022, 13th Eurasian Conferences on Language and Social Sciences pp. 561– 583". European Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences. 3 (4): 13–25\. doi:10.24018/ejsocial.2023.3.4.464.13-25&rft.date=2023-07-14&rft_id=info:doi/10.24018/ejsocial.2023.3.4.464&rft.aulast=Ahmady&rft.aufirst=Kameel&rft_id=https://www.ej-social.org/index.php/ejsocial/article/view/464&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
118. ^ "Violation: Child Labour Rights in Iran – Analysis and Solutions, 7th International Conference on Economics and Social Sciences, Cyprus Science University, 2022, pp. 91–115" (PDF). 7th International Conference on Economics and Social Sciences.
119. ^ Ahmady, Kameel (2021). Traces of Exploitation in Childhood A Comprehensive Research on Forms, Causes and Consequences of Child Labour in Iran. Avaye Buf, Denmark.
120. ^ "وزیر کشور ایران: ۸۰ درصد کودکان خیابانی در تهران خارجی هستند" [Iran's Interior Minister: 80% of street children in Tehran are foreigners]. EuroNews (in Persian). 28 July 2019.
121. ^ "رحمانی فضلی: ۸۰ درصد کودکان خیابانی در تهران از اتباع خارجی هستند" [Rahmani Fazli: 80% of street children in Tehran are foreigners]. Tasnim News (in Persian).
122. ^ راه حل رحمانی فضلی درباره کودکان خیابانی [Rahmani Fazli's solution about street children]. Mashregh News (in Persian). 24 October 2017.
123. ^ پذیرش ۳۱۹ کودک کار در اصفهان/تهیه بانک اطلاعاتی کودکان کار با دستگاه اسکن عنبیه - ایمنا [Admission of 319 working children in Isfahan: preparation of database of working children with iris scanning device]. IMNA (in Persian). 12 June 2022. Archived from the original on 12 June 2022. Retrieved 12 June 2022.
124. ^ "۷۰هزار کودک کار و خیابان در تهران" [70 thousand working and street children in Tehran]. www.irna.ir (in Persian). 11 June 2023. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
125. ^ "ایران بیش از 70 هزار کودک کار دارد" [Iran has more than 70 thousand working children]. farsi.alarabiya.net (in Persian). 11 September 2020. Retrieved 11 June 2023.
126. ^ ""کار کودک" گریبان‌گیر حدود ۱۵درصد از کودکان کشور است!" ["Child labor" is a problem for about 15% of children in the country!]. Tasnim News (in Persian).
127. ^ Curtin, Chris and Anthony Varley. 1984. Children and childhood in rural Ireland: a consideration of the ethnographic literature. Culture and ideology in Ireland.
128. ^ "SHONENKO - the Taiwanese boys who built Mitsubishi aircraft as Japan's defences crumbled". therunagatesclub.blogspot.tw. 18 June 2008.
129. ^ "Shoneko (2006)". ipixels.net.
130. ^ "SHONENKO - BACKGROUND". www.quietsummer.com.
131. ^ M, Jan (23 October 2014). "History of the Netherlands". Netherlands Tourism. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
132. ^ Stephenson, Svetlana (June 2002). "Child Labour in the Russian Federation". International Labour Office. Archived from the original on 22 September 2006.
133. ^ Евгений Жирнов (27 August 2007). Среднее и высшее самообслуживание. Kommersant (in Russian).
134. ^ Школьников заставляют работать в школьном участке в каникулах. 21 дней. Не платят. Нарушаются ли права?. otvet.mail.ru (in Russian). 26 June 2012.
135. ^ Ирина Десятниченко (2012). Водитель сбил 4 школьников в Кабардино-Балкарии (in Russian). LifeNews. Archived from the original on 21 April 2012.
136. ^ Daron Acemoglu, James Robinson. Why Nations Fail: The Origins of Power, Prosperity, and Poverty. pp. loc. 6515–6529 (MOBI).
137. ^ Gull, Thomas (13 October 2008). "Kinderabeit" (in German). HDS. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
138. ^ "Prof. Dr. Roger Sablonier, Publikationen" (in German). University of Zürich, Historisches Seminar. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
139. ^ "Wiedergutmachungsinitiative" (in German). wiedergutmachung.ch. 2014. Archived from the original on 11 February 2020. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
140. ^ a b Puri, Kavita (29 October 2014). "Switzerland's shame: The children used as cheap farm labour". BBC News. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
141. ^ Wild, Tony (10 November 2014). "Slavery's Shadow on Switzerland". The New York Times. Retrieved 15 November 2014.
142. ^ a b c "Child Labor Provision for Nonagricultural Occupations Under the Fair Labor Standards Act" (PDF). U.S. Department of Labor, Wage and Hour Division. July 2010. Retrieved 17 April 2012.
143. ^ "State child labor laws applicable to agricultural employment". Wage and hour division. United States Department of Labor. December 2014. Retrieved 11 September 2015.
144. ^ "Ratifications of C138 - Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138)". International Labour Organisation. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
145. ^ "Convention on the Rights of the Child". United Nations Treaty Collection. Archived from the original on 11 February 2014. Retrieved 21 May 2009.
146. ^ "11. Convention on the Rights of the Child". United Nations Treaty Collection. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
147. ^ "C182 - Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention, 1999". International Labour Organization, United Nations. 1999.
148. ^ "International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC)". International Labour Organization, United Nations. 2011.
149. ^ "Music Against Child Labour Initiative". IPEC, International Labour Organization, United Nations. 2013.
150. ^ "Exemptions from Child Labour Rules in Non-Agriculture (see FLSA Section 13(c)(7))". Department of Labour, United States. 2012. Archived from the original on 3 July 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
151. ^ "Protections of young people at work". Europa. 2004.
152. ^ "Eenderde van de 12-jarigen heeft bijbaan". RTL News (in Dutch). 14 February 2012. Archived from the original on 6 February 2016.
153. ^ "In the playtime of others - child labor in the early 20th century" (PDF). Smithsonian Education. December 1988.
154. ^ a b "Sickness or symptom?". The Economist. 5 February 2004. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
155. ^ Jean-Marie Baland and James A. Robinson (August 2000). "Is Child Labour Inefficient?". Journal of Political Economy. 108 (4): 663–679\. doi:10.1086/316097. JSTOR 10.1086/316097. S2CID 38990374.663-679&rft.date=2000-08&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38990374#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/316097#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/316097&rft.au=Jean-Marie+Baland+and+James+A.+Robinson&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
156. ^ A. J. McKELWAY (1913). "CHILD WAGES IN THE COTTON MILLS: OUR MODERN FEUDALISM (Originally published: Child labour bulletin, volume 2, number 1 (May 1913))".
157. ^ Christiaan Grootaert; Harry Anthony Patrinos (1999). The Policy Analysis of Child Labour: A Comparative Study. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 8–54\. ISBN 978-0312221225.8-54&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0312221225&rft.au=Christiaan+Grootaert&rft.au=Harry+Anthony+Patrinos&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
158. ^ Edmonds, Eric (May 2007). "The Economics of Consumer Actions against Products with Child Labour Content" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 August 2017. Retrieved 17 July 2012.
159. ^ "Preventing Child Labour in Home-based Crafts Production - A Practical Toolkit for Businesses" (PDF). Traidcraft Exchange and Homeworkers Worldwide. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
160. ^ Edmonds, Eric (Winter 2005). "Does Child Labour Decline with Improving Economic Status?" (PDF). Journal of Human Resources. 40 (1): 77–99\. doi:10.3368/jhr.XL.1.77. S2CID 13971652.77-99&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info:doi/10.3368/jhr.XL.1.77&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13971652#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Edmonds&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=http://www.nber.org/papers/w10134.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
161. ^ Anker, Richard (September 2000). "The economics of child labour: A framework for measurement". International Labour Review. 139 (3): 257–280\. doi:10.1111/j.1564-913X.2000.tb00204.x.257-280&rft.date=2000-09&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/j.1564-913X.2000.tb00204.x&rft.aulast=Anker&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
162. ^ Saqib Jafareya; Sajal Lahiri (June 2002). "Will trade sanctions reduce child labour?: The role of credit markets". Journal of Development Economics. 68 (1): 137–156\. doi:10.1016/S0304-3878(02)00009-3.137-156&rft.date=2002-06&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/S0304-3878(02)00009-3&rft.au=Saqib+Jafareya&rft.au=Sajal+Lahiri&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
163. ^ a b Sudarsan Raghavan; Sumana Chatterjee (24 June 2001). "Slaves feed world's taste for chocolate: Captives common in cocoa farms of Africa". Milwaukee Journal Sentinel. Archived from the original on 17 September 2006. Retrieved 25 April 2012.
164. ^ Bentley, Prue (12 April 2012). "Cocoa shortage to push up chocolate price". ABC Ballarat. Archived from the original on 22 August 2012.
165. ^ a b c "Combating Child Labour in Cocoa Growing" (PDF). International Labour Organization. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 May 2005. Retrieved 26 April 2012.
166. ^ David Wolfe; Shazzie (2005). Naked Chocolate: The Astonishing Truth about the World's Greatest Food. North Atlantic Books. p. 98\. ISBN 978-1556437311. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
167. ^ a b Hawksley, Humphrey (12 April 2001). "Mali's children in chocolate slavery". BBC News.
168. ^ Hawksley, Humphrey (4 May 2001). "Ivory Coast accuses chocolate companies". BBC News.
169. ^ a b Chatterjee, Sumana (1 August 2001). "Chocolate Firms Launch Fight Against 'Slave Free' Labels". The Philadelphia Inquirer. Archived from the original on 8 March 2012.
170. ^ a b Blunt, Liz (28 September 2000). "The bitter taste of slavery". BBC. Retrieved 15 December 2011.
171. ^ Chanthavong, Samlanchith (2002). "Chocolate and Slavery: Child Labour in Cote d'Ivoire". TED Case Studies Number 664. American University. Archived from the original on 10 February 2012.
172. ^ Chevigny, Blue (14 June 2007). "Child trafficking in Côte d'Ivoire: Efforts under way to reverse a tragic trend". Archived from the original on 9 May 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
173. ^ a b c "Fourth Annual Report: Oversight of Public and Private Initiatives to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labour in the Cocoa Sector of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana" (PDF). Payson Center for International Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University. 30 September 2010. pp. 26–27.26-27&rft.pub=Payson+Center+for+International+Development+and+Technology+Transfer,+Tulane+University&rft.date=2010-09-30&rft_id=https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/research_file_attachment/Final%20Fourth%20Annual%20Report.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
174. ^ a b "Cocoa farm slavery 'exaggerated'". BBC News. 29 September 2000.
175. ^ "Protocol for the growing and processing of cocoa beans and their derivative products in a manner that complies with ILO Convention 182 concerning the prohibition and immediate action for the elimination of the worst forms of child labour" (PDF). International Cocoa Initiative. 2001. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 July 2008.
176. ^ "Annual Report 2011". International Cocoa Initiative. 2012. Archived from the original on 25 June 2012.
177. ^ Escobedo, Tricia (19 September 2011). "The Human Cost of Chocolate". CNN. Archived from the original on 22 March 2012. Retrieved 1 May 2012.
178. ^ Karen Ann Monsy (24 February 2012). "The bitter truth". Khaleej Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012.
179. ^ "Fourth Annual Report: Oversight of Public and Private Initiatives to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labour in the Cocoa Sector of Côte d'Ivoire and Ghana" (PDF). Payson Center for International Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University. 30 September 2010. pp. 7–12.7-12&rft.pub=Payson+Center+for+International+Development+and+Technology+Transfer,+Tulane+University&rft.date=2010-09-30&rft_id=https://www.dol.gov/sites/dolgov/files/ILAB/research_file_attachment/Final%20Fourth%20Annual%20Report.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
180. ^ Simon Clark; Michael Smith; Franz Wild (22 July 2008). "China Lets Child Workers Die Digging in Congo Mines for Copper". Bloomberg L.P. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015.
181. ^ Marks, Stephen (2010). "Strengthening the Civil society Perspective: China's African impact" (PDF). Fahamu. pp. 9–15\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 January 2011.9-15&rft.pub=Fahamu&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Marks&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=http://www.fahamu.org/downloads/strengthening_the_civil_society_perspective.pdf&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
182. ^ "Exposed: Child labour behind smart phone and electric car batteries". www.amnesty.org. 19 January 2016.
183. ^ Frankel, Todd C. (30 September 2016). "Cobalt mining for lithium ion batteries has a high human cost". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 October 2016.
184. ^ Sweeney, John (14 April 2012). "Mining giant Glencore accused in child labour and acid dumping row". The Guardian.
185. ^ A Poisonous Mix - Child Labour, Mercury, and Artisanal Gold Mining in Mali (PDF). Human Rights Watch. 2011. ISBN 978-1-56432-831-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2012.
186. ^ "Child labour in gold mining". ILO, United Nations. 2012.
187. ^ Garcia, Sandra (April 2010). "Artisanal Gold Mining: Unglamorous Practices at High Prices" (PDF). Mining Magazine.[dead link‍]
188. ^ Preston, Julia (5 August 2008). "Inquiry Finds Under-Age Workers at Meat Plant". The New York Times.
189. ^ Preston, Julia (7 June 2010). "Former Manager of Iowa Slaughterhouse Is Acquitted of Labour Charges". The New York Times. Retrieved 3 April 2024.
190. ^ McDougall, Dan (28 October 2007). "Child sweatshop shame threatens GAP's ethical image". The Observer - via The Guardian.
191. ^ Gentleman, Amelia (15 November 2007). "GAP moves to recover from child labor scandal". The New York Times.
192. ^ Arrigo, Elisa (1 January 2013). Barnes, Liz; Lea-Greenwood, Gaynor (eds.). "Corporate responsibility management in fast fashion companies: the Gap Inc. case". Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management. 17 (2): 175–189\. doi:10.1108/JFMM-10-2011-0074. ISSN 1361-2026.175-189&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1108/JFMM-10-2011-0074&rft.issn=1361-2026&rft.aulast=Arrigo&rft.aufirst=Elisa&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1108/JFMM-10-2011-0074&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
193. ^ "Stores urged to stop using child labour cotton".[permanent dead link‍]
194. ^ "Indian silk industry employs child labour: Human Rights Watch". Rediff. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
195. ^ "Child Labour: Blood on silk". Frontline. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
196. ^ "India: Freeing the Small Hands of the Silk Industry". Deutsche Welle (Germany). 2010. Retrieved 13 March 2019.
197. ^ "Embroidered T-shirt. Price: £4. Cost: Misery". BBC News. 23 June 2008.
198. ^ "Primark fires child worker firms". BBC News. 16 June 2008.
199. ^ "Primark's Investigation findings of BBC's fake reporting on child labour, 2011". Archived from the original on 11 September 2012.
200. ^ "BBC's Primark apology over 'fake' child labour footage". Channel 4 News. 16 June 2011.
201. ^ "BBC to apologise over 'faked footage' in Panorama report about Primark". The Telegraph. 16 June 2011. Archived from the original on 11 January 2022.
202. ^ Halliday, Josh (28 June 2011). "BBC hands back RTS award for Panorama programme on Primark". The Guardian.
203. ^ Schultz, Robert A. (2010). Information Technology and the Ethics of Globalization: Transnational Issues and Implications. IGI Global. ISBN 978-1-60566-923-6. "Some authors such as conservative Nobel economist Milton Friedman claim that child labour actually decreased during the industrial revolution. He argues that before the industrial revolution almost all children were working in agriculture(...)"
204. ^ Cunningham, Hugh (1990). "The Employment and Unemployment of Children in England c.1680–1851". Past and Present (126): 115–150\. doi:10.1093/past/126.1.115.115-150&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info:doi/10.1093/past/126.1.115&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
205. ^ Cunningham, Hugh (August 2000). "The decline of child labour: labour markets and family economies in Europe and North America since 1830". The Economic History Review. 53 (3): 409–428\. doi:10.1111/1468-0289.00165.409-428&rft.date=2000-08&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/1468-0289.00165&rft.aulast=Cunningham&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
206. ^ DeGregori, Thomas R. (8 October 2002). "Child Labor or Child Prostitution?". Cato Institute.
207. ^ a b "About the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) (IPEC)". www.ilo.org.
208. ^ "Combating Abusive Child Labour II". 1 April 2008.
209. ^ ILO, III Global Conference on Child Labour - Brasilia, 8–10 October 2013
210. ^ ILO, IV Global Conference on the Sustained Eradication of Child Labour, Buenos Aires, 14-16 November 2017, accessed 17 June 2017
211. ^ "5th Global Conference on the Elimination of Child Labour". www.5thchildlabourconf.org. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
212. ^ "Marking progress against child labour" (PDF). International Labour Organization. 2013. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
213. ^ "IV Global Conference on the Sustained Eradication of Child Labour, Buenos Aires, 14-16 November 2017 (IPEC)". 28 January 2024.
214. ^ "Digital Information Systems for collaborative work to end child labour, forced labour and human trafficking". 16 June 2021.
215. ^ a b "Child Labour | Global Estimates 2020, Trends and the Road Forward" (PDF). International Labour Organization and United Nations Children's Fund. Retrieved 25 November 2022.
216. ^ "2021: International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour". 15 January 2021.
217. ^ "Home - International Year for the Elimination of Child Labour". Endchildlabour2021.org. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
218. ^ "Child labour rises to 160 million – first increase in two decades". Unicef.org. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
219. ^ Every child counts: new global estimates on child labour. ILO/IPEC. 2002. ISBN 978-92-2-113113-7.[page needed]
220. ^ For examples see Bourdillon et al pp 1-6, 180-194. Pp 195-200 offer an alternative and more effective approach to protecting working children.
221. ^ Polak, Barbara (2012). "Peasants in the Making: Bamana children at work". In Spittler, Gerd; Bourdillon, M. F. C. (eds.). African Children at Work: Working and Learning in Growing Up for Life. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 87–112\. ISBN 978-3-643-90205-4.87-112&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+Münster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-3-643-90205-4&rft.aulast=Polak&rft.aufirst=Barbara&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=gJg77Us0lWAC&pg;=PA87&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
222. ^ Invernizzi, Antonella (August 2003). "Street-Working Children and Adolescents in Lima: Work as an Agent of Socialization". Childhood. 10 (3): 319–341\. doi:10.1177/09075682030103005. S2CID 145807965.319-341&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/09075682030103005&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145807965#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Invernizzi&rft.aufirst=Antonella&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
223. ^ a b Bourdillon, Michael; Deborah Levison; William Myers; Ben White (2010). Rights and Wrongs of Children's Work. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press.[page needed]
224. ^ Bourdillon, Michael (2013). Asher Ben-Arieh (ed.). "Children's Work" in Handbook of Child-Well Being. Springer.[page needed]
225. ^ Hashim, Iman M.; Dorte Thorsen (2011). Child Migration in Africa. London: Zed Books.[page needed]
226. ^ Katz, Cindi (2004). Growing Up Global: Economic Restructuring and Children's Everyday Lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. ISBN 0-8166-4209-5.[page needed]
227. ^ Call, Kathleen; Mortimer, Jeylan T. (2001). Arenas of Comfort in Adolescence: A Study of Adjustment in Context. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. ISBN 978-1-135-68216-3.[page needed]
228. ^ Qvortrup, Jens (2001), "School-Work, Paid Work and the Changing Obligations of Childhood", in Mizen, Philip (ed.), Hidden Hands: International Perspectives on Children's Work and Labour, London: Routledge[page needed]
229. ^ White, Ben (November 2012). "Agriculture and the Generation Problem: Rural Youth, Employment and the Future of Farming". IDS Bulletin. 43 (6): 9–19\. doi:10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00375.x.9-19&rft.date=2012-11&rft_id=info:doi/10.1111/j.1759-5436.2012.00375.x&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Ben&rft_id=http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/opendocs/handle/123456789/7535&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">

## References

[edit]

* ILO Minimum Estimate of Forced Labour in the World. (2005)
* The Cost of Coercion ILO 2009
* International Labour Office. (2005). A global alliance against forced labour
* Operational Indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL
* Lists of indicators of Trafficking in Human Beings 2009 ILO/SAP-FL
* Eradication of forced labour – General Survey concerning the Forced Labour Convention, 1930 (No. 29), and the Abolition of Forced Labour Convention, 1957 (No. 105) – ILO 2007
* Forced Labour: Definition, Indicators and Measurement 2004 – ILO
* Stopping Forced Labour 2001 – ILO
* Agbu, Osita (2009). Children and Youth in the Labour Process in Africa. African Books Collective. ISBN 978-2-86978-251-8.
* Forster, John (2006) [1872–1874]. Life of Charles Dickens. London: Diderot Publishing. ISBN 978-90-77932-03-2. Archived from the original on 21 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
* Lieten, Kristoffel; Meerkerk, Elise van Nederveen (2011). Child Labour's Global Past, 1650–2000. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-0343-0517-4.
* Honeyman, Katrina (2016). Childhood and Child Labour in Industrial England: Diversity and Agency, 1750–1914. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-317-16792-1.

## Further reading

[edit]

### Recent

[edit]

* Baland, Jean-Marie and James A. Robinson (2000) 'Is child labour inefficient?' Journal of Political Economy 108, 663–679
* Basu, Kaushik, and Homa Zarghamee (2009) 'Is product boycott a good idea for controlling child labour? A theoretical investigation' Journal of Development Economics 88, 217–220
* Bhukuth, Augendra. "Defining child labour: a controversial debate" Development in Practice (2008) 18, 385–394
* Emerson, Patrick M.; Portela Souza, André (2011). "Is Child Labour Harmful? The Impact of Working Earlier in Life on Adult Earnings". Economic Development and Cultural Change. 59 (2): 345–385\. doi:10.1086/657125. hdl:10419/34334. PMID 21174883. S2CID 21994733.345-385&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info:hdl/10419/34334&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21994733#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=info:pmid/21174883&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/657125&rft.aulast=Emerson&rft.aufirst=Patrick+M.&rft.au=Portela+Souza,+André&rft_id=https://econpapers.repec.org/RePEc:iza:izadps:dp3027&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988"> uses data from Brazil to show very strong negative effects—boys who work before age 14 earn much less as adults
* Hindman, Hugh D. ed. The world of child labor: an historical and regional survey (2008), experts covers practically every country in 1000 pages

* Humbert, Franziska. The Challenge of Child Labour in International Law (2009)
* Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (2010)
* ILO, Investing in every child: An economic Study of the Costs and Benefits of Eliminating Child Labour
* Mayer, Gerald. Child Labor in America: History, Policy, and Legislative Issues. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service, 2013.
* Ravallion, Martin, and Quentin Wodon (2000) 'Does child labour displace schooling? Evidence on behavioural responses to an enrollment subsidy' Economic Journal 110, C158-C175

### History

[edit]

* Anderson, Elisabeth (2018). "Policy Entrepreneurs and the Origins of the Regulatory Welfare State: Child Labor Reform in Nineteenth-Century Europe". American Sociological Review. 83 (1): 173–211\. doi:10.1177/0003122417753112.173-211&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info:doi/10.1177/0003122417753112&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0003122417753112&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988"> comparison France and Germany, with a bibliography of primary and secondary sources
* Anderson, Elisabeth (2013). "Ideas in Action: The Politics of Prussian Child Labor Reform, 1817–1839". Theory and Society. 42 (1): 81–119\. doi:10.1007/s11186-012-9186-4. S2CID 143867112.81-119&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info:doi/10.1007/s11186-012-9186-4&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143867112#id-name=S2CID&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Elisabeth&rft_id=http://archive.nyu.edu/handle/2451/64432&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
* "Child Employing Industries," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science Vol. 35, Mar. 1910 in JSTOR, articles by experts in 1910
* Goldberg, Ellis. Trade, Reputation, and Child Labour in Twentieth-Century Egypt (2004) excerpt and text search
* Grier, Beverly. Invisible Hands: Child Labour and the State in Colonial Zimbabwe (2005)

* Heywood, Colin. "A brief historiography of child labor." in Hindman, ed., The World of Child Labor (Routledge, 2008). 18-25.

* Hindman, Hugh D. Child Labour: An American History (2002)
* Hindman, Hugh D. ed. The world of child labor: an historical and regional survey (2008), experts covers practically every country in 1000 pages

* Humphries, Jane; Horrell, Sara (1995). "'The Exploitation of Little Children': Child Labour and the Family Economy in the Industrial Revolution". Explorations in Economic History. 32 (4): 485–516\. doi:10.1006/exeh.1995.1021.485-516&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info:doi/10.1006/exeh.1995.1021&rft.aulast=Humphries&rft.aufirst=Jane&rft.au=Horrell,+Sara&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
* Humphries, Jane. Childhood and Child Labour in the British Industrial Revolution (Cambridge Studies in Economic History) (2011) excerpt and text search
* Kirby, Peter. Child Labour in Britain, 1750-1870 (2003) excerpt and text search
* Lovejoy, Owen R. "Child labor in the coal mines." The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 27.2 (1906): 35–41. online
* McGill, Nettie Pauline. The welfare of children in bituminous coal mining communities in West Virginia (US Government Printing Office, 1923) online.
* McIntosh, Robert. Boys in the pits: Child labour in coal mines (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2000), Canadian mines
* Margaret McMillan (1907), Labour and Childhood, London: Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Wikidata Q107325671
* Meerkerk, E. v. N.; Schmidt, A. (1 March 2008). "Between Wage Labor and Vocation: Child Labor in Dutch Urban Industry, 1600-1800". Journal of Social History. 41 (3): 717–736\. doi:10.1353/jsh.2008.0041. hdl:1887/13096. JSTOR 25096529. S2CID 154737479.717-736&rft.date=2008-03-01&rft_id=info:hdl/1887/13096&rft_id=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154737479#id-name=S2CID&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25096529#id-name=JSTOR&rft_id=info:doi/10.1353/jsh.2008.0041&rft.aulast=Meerkerk&rft.aufirst=E.+v.+N.&rft.au=Schmidt,+A.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Child+labour" class="Z3988">
* Mofford, Juliet. Child Labour in America (1970)
* Tuttle, Carolyn. Hard at Work in Factories And Mines: The Economics of Child Labour During The British Industrial Revolution (1999)

## External links

[edit]

Youth rights

Activities

* Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co.
* Child Labor Deterrence Act
* Children's Online Privacy Protection Act
* Kids Online Safety Act
* Convention on the Rights of the Child
* Fair Labor Standards Act
* Hammer v. Dagenhart
* History of youth rights in the United States
* Morse v. Frederick
* Newsboys' strike of 1899
* Prez
* Quebec Charter of Human Rights and Freedoms
* Wild in the Streets

Theory / concepts

* Adultcentrism
* Adultism
* Ageism
* Criminalization
* Democracy
* Ephebiphobia
* Fear of children
* Free-range parenting
* Intergenerational equity
* Future generations
* Paternalism
* Social class
* Suffrage
* Taking Children Seriously
* Universal suffrage
* Unschooling
* Youth activism
* Youth detention center
* Youth empowerment
* Youth exclusion
* Youth suffrage
* Youth voice

Issues

* Adolescent sexuality
* Age of candidacy
* Age of consent
* Age-of-consent reform
* Age of majority
* Age of marriage
* Behavior modification facility
* Child labour
* Children in the military
* Child marriage
* Compulsory education
* Conscription
* Corporal punishment
* at home
* at school
* in law
* Curfew
* Child abuse
* Emancipation of minors
* Gambling age
* Human rights and youth sport
* In loco parentis
* Juvenile delinquency
* Juvenile court
* Juvenile law
* Legal drinking age (U.S. history)
* Legal working age
* Minimum driving age
* Marriageable age
* Minor (law)
* Minors and abortion
* Restavec
* School leaving age
* Smoking age (U.S. history)
* Status offense
* Underage drinking in the US
* Voting age
* Youth-adult partnership
* Youth participation
* Youth politics
* Youth unemployment
* Youth voting

Organizations

* United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
* Akt
* Americans for a Society Free from Age Restrictions
* Canadian Youth for Choice
* Human Rights and Youth Rights Commission
* Common Cents
* Community Alliance for the Ethical Treatment of Youth
* DoSomething
* Future Coalition
* Global Youth Action Network
* High School Democrats of America
* Indian Youth Climate Network
* International Falcon Movement – Socialist Educational International
* Mermaids
* National Union of Students LGBT+ Campaign
* National Youth Rights Association
* One World Youth Project
* Queer Youth Network
* Students for a Democratic Society
* Freechild Project
* Three O'Clock Lobby
* UK Youth Parliament
* Youth International Party
* Youth Liberation of Ann Arbor
* The Youth Cafe
* Young Communist League of Canada
* Young Democrats of America
* World Federation of Democratic Youth

People

* Fletcher
* Hanson
* Henry
* Holt
* Koroknay-Palicz
* Duff
* Males
* Postman
* Yaco

Related

* Ages of consent in Asia
* Ages of consent in Europe
* Ages of consent in North America
* Ages of consent in Oceania
* Ages of consent in South America
* Ages of consent in the United States
* Animal rights
* Anti-racism
* Direct democracy
* Egalitarianism
* Feminism
* French petitions against age-of-consent laws
* Legal status of tattooing in European countries
* Legal status of tattooing in the United States
* Libertarianism
* Students' rights
* Youth Olympic Games
* Youth sports
* Youth wing
* Liberation theology
* Communism
* Socialism
* Marxism

* Youth rights
* Society portal

* v
* t
* e

Look up child labour in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Child labour.

Wikiquote has quotations related to Child labour.

* Child Labor, Child Bondage, Why Children Work
* Combating Child Labor — Bureau of International Labor Affairs, U.S. Department of Labor
* A UNICEF web resource with tables of % children who work for a living, by country and gender
* Rare child labour photos from the U.S. Library of Congress
* History Place Photographs from 1908 to 1912
* International Research on Child Labour
* International Program on the Elimination of Child Labour International Labour Organization (UN)
* World Day Against Child Labour 12 June
* Concerned for Working Children An India-based non-profit organisation working towards elimination of child labour
* The OneWorld guide to child labour
* The State of the World's Children – a UNICEF study
* "United States Child Labour, 1908–1920: As Seen Through the Lens of Sociologist and Photographer Lewis W. Hine" (video)
* Child Labour in Chile, 1880–1950 download complete text, in spanish
* 12 to 12 community portal ILO sponsored website on the elimination of child labour
* The ILO Special Action Programme to combat Forced Labour (SAP-FL)

* v
* t
* e

Child labor

* Afghanistan
* Bangladesh
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Burkina Faso
* China
* Egypt
* Ghana
* Guatemala
* India
* Iran
* Ivory Coast
* Jordan
* Kenya
* Lebanon
* Lesotho
* Madagascar
* Mexico
* Morocco
* Namibia
* Nepal
* Nigeria
* Paraguay
* Philippines
* Saudi Arabia
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Suriname
* Switzerland
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Turkey
* Uganda
* United States
* Uzbekistan
* Zambia

* v
* t
* e

Social and environmental accountability

Ethics and
principles|

* Aarhus Convention
* Climate justice
* Corporate accountability / behaviour / environmental responsibility / responsibility / social responsibility
* Dirty hands
* Environmental racism / in Russia / in the United States / in Western Europe / inequality in the UK / injustice in Europe
* Ethical banking
* Ethical code
* Extended producer responsibility
* Externality
* Harm
* Little Eichmanns
* Loss and damage
* Organizational ethics
* Organizational justice
* Pollution
* Principles for Responsible Investment
* Racism
* Social impact assessment
* Social justice
* Social responsibility
* Stakeholder theory
* Sullivan principles
* Transparency (behavioral
* social)
* UN Global Compact

Social
accounting|

* Corporate crime
* Double bottom line
* Ethical positioning index
* Higg Index
* Impact assessment (environmental
* equality
* social)
* ISO 26000
* ISO 45001
* Genuine progress indicator
* Performance indicator
* SA 8000
* OHSAS 18001
* Social return on investment
* Whole-life cost

Environmental
accounting|

* Carbon accounting
* Eco-Management and Audit Scheme
* Emission inventory
* Environmental full-cost accounting / Environmental conflict / impact assessment / management system / profit-and-loss account
* ISO 14000
* ISO 14031
* Life-cycle assessment
* Pollutant release and transfer register
* Sustainability accounting / measurement / metrics and indices / standards and certification / supply chain
* Toxics Release Inventory
* Triple bottom line

Reporting|

* Global Reporting Initiative
* GxP guidelines
* Sustainability reporting

Auditing|

* Community-based monitoring
* Environmental (certification)
* Fair trade (certification)
* ISO 19011

Related|

* Bangladesh Accord
* Benefit corporation
* Child labour
* Community interest company
* Conflict of interest
* Disasters
* Disinvestment
* Eco-labeling
* Environmental degradation
* Environmental pricing reform
* Environmental, social, and corporate governance
* Ethical consumerism
* Euthenics
* Global justice movement
* Health impact assessment
* Market governance mechanism
* Product certification
* Public participation
* SDG Publishers Compact
* Social enterprise
* Socially responsible business
* Socially responsible investing
* Socially responsible marketing
* Stakeholder (engagement)
* Supply chain management

* Environment portal
* Category
* Commons
* Organizations

Authority control databases

International|

* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Japan
* Czech Republic
* Israel

Other|

* Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
* NARA
* Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa