China–Russia relations

"Sino-Russian relations since 1991" redirects here. For the state of Sino-Russian relations before 1991, see History of Sino-Russian relations.

Bilateral relations

China–Russia relations

Russia |
China
Diplomatic mission
Russian Embassy, Beijing| Chinese Embassy, Moscow
Envoy
Ambassador Igor Morgulov| Ambassador Zhang Hanhui
Russian president Vladimir Putin with Chinese leader Xi Jinping during a state visit to Moscow for the 2025 Victory Day Parade, May 2025

Politics of China

Leadership

Leadership generations
Succession of power

* Hu–Wen Administration (2002-2012)
* Xi–Li Administration (2012-2017)
* Xi's general secretaryship (since 2012)
* 4th Leadership Core: Xi Jinping
* 20th Party Politburo: Xi Jinping
* 14th State Council: Li Qiang
* Current state leaders
* Current provincial leaders

Party and state leaders
Orders of precedence

* Paramount leader: Xi Jinping

First lady: Peng Liyuan

* Communist Party leader: Xi Jinping
* State representative: Xi Jinping
* Head of government: Li Qiang
* Congress Chairman: Zhao Leji
* Conference Chairman: Wang Huning
* Commander-in-chief: Xi Jinping
* Politburo Standing Committee longest-serving members

Related systems

* Unified power
* Democratic centralism
* Collective leadership
* Organization Department
* Elections
* Civil service

* Constitution
* Law

* Constitution

Previous constitutions

* 1954
* 1975
* 1978

* "People's democratic dictatorship" (Article 1)

* Democratic centralism (Article 3)
* Constitutional oath of office (Article 27)
* Protection of human rights (Article 33)
* Freedom of religion (Article 36)
* Highest state organ of power (Article 57)

* * *

* Chinese legal system
* Civil law tradition
* Socialist law tradition
* Laws
* Legislation Law
* List of statutes

* * *

* General Principles of the Civil Law (to 2020)
* Civil Code (from 2021)
* Marriage Law
* Labour law
* Labour Law
* Labour Contract Law
* Property law
* Property Law
* Intellectual property law
* Patent law

* * *

* Administrative law
* Administrative Procedure Law

* * *

* Criminal law
* Capital punishment
* Capital offences
* Death sentence with reprieve

Communist Party

History

* Principal leaders

Constitution and ideology

*     * Admission Oath (Article 6)
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics

* Communism
* Marxism–Leninism
* Mao Zedong Thought
* Deng Xiaoping Theory

Primary stage of socialism
Four Cardinal Principles
* Three Represents
* Scientific Outlook on Development

Harmonious Socialist Society

* Xi Jinping Thought

Chinese Dream
* Democracy
* Whole-process people's democracy

Organization

*     * National Party Congress (20th)
* Central Committee (20th)

General Secretary (list)

Xi Jinping
* Central Politburo (20th)

Standing Committee (20th)

* Central Secretariat (20th)
* First-ranked secretary: Cai Qi
* Central Military Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice Chairmen:

Zhang Youxia, He Weidong
* National Security Commission

Chairman: Xi Jinping

Vice-Chairman:

Li Qiang, Zhao Leji, Cai Qi

Office Chief: Cai Qi

* Comprehensively Deepening Reforms Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Directors:

Li Qiang, Wang Huning, Cai Qi

Secretary-General: Wang Huning

* Financial & Economic Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping

Deputy Director: Li Qiang

Office Chief: He Lifeng

* General Office

Director: Cai Qi
* Office of the General Secretary

Director: Han Shiming
* Central Guard Bureau
* Central Guard Unit
* Office of the Central Secrecy Commission
* Organization Department

Head: Shi Taifeng
* Central Commission for Discipline Inspection (20th)
* Standing Committee (20th)

Secretary: Li Xi
* Commission for Discipline Inspection of the Central Military Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
* Central Leading Group for Inspection Work

Leader: Li Xi

* * *

* Provincial committee
* Standing committee

Secretary
Deputy secretaries
* Party group

National People's Congress (14th)

* Elections
* Democracy
* System of people's congress
* Standing Committee (14th)
* Council of Chairpersons

Chairman: Zhao Leji

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Li Hongzhong
Secretary-General: Liu Qi
* Special Committees
1. Ethnic Affairs
2. Constitution and Law
3. Supervisory and Judicial Affairs
4. Financial and Economic Affairs
5. Education, Science, Culture and Public Health
6. Foreign Affairs
7. Overseas Chinese Affairs
8. Environmental Protection and Resources Conservation
9. Agriculture and Rural Affairs
10. Social Development Affairs
* Presidium

State representative

*     * President (list): Xi Jinping

* Presidential Office

Chief: Han Shiming
* Vice President: Han Zheng

Executive organ

*     * State Council (Central People's Government)
* Li Qiang Cabinet

Premier (list): Li Qiang

Vice-Premiers (list)

* Ding Xuexiang
* He Lifeng
* Zhang Guoqing
* Liu Guozhong

State Councilors

* Wang Xiaohong
* Wu Zhenglong
* Shen Yiqin

Secretary-General: Wu Zhenglong

* Cabinet-level departments
* National Development & Reform Commission
* Central bank
* National Audit Office
* General Office

Secretary-General
Deputy Secretaries-General
* State-owned Assets Supervision & Administration Commission
* most Central Enterprises

Military organ

*     * Central Military Commission (CMC)

Chairman (supreme commander):

Xi Jinping
Vice Chairmen:

* Zhang Youxia
* He Weidong

Members:

* Liu Zhenli
* Miao Hua
* Zhang Shengmin

Departments:
1. General Office

Director: Zhong Shaojun
2. Joint Staff Dept.

Chief: Liu Zhenli
3. Political Work Dept.

Director: Miao Hua
4. Logistic Support Dept.

Director: Zhang Lin
5. Equipment Development Dept.

Director: Xu Xueqiang
6. Training and Administration Dept.

Director: Wang Peng
7. National Defense Mobilization Dept.

Director: Liu Faqing
8. Discipline Inspection Commission

Secretary: Zhang Shengmin
9. Politics and Legal Affairs Commission
10. Science and Technology Commission
11. Strategic Planning Office
12. Reform & Organizational Structure Office
13. Int'l Military Cooperation Office
14. Audit Office
15. Offices Administration Agency
National armed forces:

People's Liberation Army

Theater commands
People's Armed Police

1st Mobile Contingent
2nd Mobile Contingent
China Coast Guard
Militia
* State Council

National Defense Mobilization Commission

Chairman: Li Qiang

Ministry of National Defense

Minister: Dong Jun

Ministry of Veterans Affairs
State Administration for Sci., Tech. & Industry for National Defense

Military history
* Armed conflicts
* Military modernization
* Military reform since 2015
* CMC Leading Group for Military Reform

Leader: Xi Jinping

Supervisory organ

*     * National Supervisory Commission

Director: Liu Jinguo

* * *

* Corruption in China
* Anti-corruption campaign since 2012

* * *

* Independent Commission Against Corruption (Hong Kong)

* * *

* Commission Against Corruption (Macau)

Judicial organs

*     * Supreme People's Court

President: Zhang Jun

People's Courts Judicial Police
* Supreme People's Procuratorate

Procurator-General: Ying Yong

People's Procuratorates Judicial Police

* * *

* Judiciary of Hong Kong
* Court of Final Appeal
* Department of Justice
* Prosecutions Division
* Law enforcement in Hong Kong
* Disciplined Services
* Security Bureau
* Hong Kong Police Force

* * *

* Judiciary of Macau
* Court of Final Appeal
* Public Prosecutions Office
* Secretariat for Security
* Macau Security Force
* Unitary Police Services [zh]
* Public Security Police
* Judiciary Police [zh]

United front

* System of multi-party cooperation and political consultation
* Political Consultative Conference
* National Committee (14th)

Chairman: Wang Huning

Vice-Chairpersons

Top-ranked: Shi Taifeng
Secretary-General: Wang Dongfeng
* Political parties:

CCP (ruling)

United Front Work Department

Head: Li Ganjie
Democratic parties

* RCCK
* CDL
* CNDCA
* CAPD
* CPWDP
* CZGP
* JS
* TDSL

Historical parties:

* KMT
* CDSP
* YCP

* Federation of Industry and Commerce
* People's organizations

* Law enforcement

* CCP Central Politics and Law Commission

Secretary: Chen Wenqing

* Enforced disappearance
* Ministry of Public Security

Minister: Wang Xiaohong

Public Security Organs People's Police
* State Immigration Administration
* Local public security bureaus
* Ministry of State Security

Minister: Chen Yixin

State Security Organs People's Police
* Ministry of Justice

Minister: He Rong

Judicial Administrative Organs People's Police
People's Armed Police

1st Mobile Contingent
2nd Mobile Contingent
China Coast Guard
* Bureau of Prison Administration [zh]
* Office for Safeguarding National Security

* * *

* Urban Management (chengguan)

Propaganda

* Central Leading Group for Propaganda, Ideology and Culture

Leader: Cai Qi

Deputy Leaders: Li Shulei, Shen Yiqin

* Central Guidance Commission on Building Spiritual Civilization

Director: Cai Qi

Deputy Director: Li Shulei

* Publicity Department of the Chinese Communist Party

Head: Li Shulei

* General Administration of Press and Publication
* China Film Administration
* State Council Information Office
* China Daily
* Ministry of Culture and Tourism
* National Radio and Television Administration
* China Media Group
* China Central Television
* China Global Television Network
* China National Radio
* China Radio International
* Xinhua News Agency
* Reference News
* China News Service
* People's Daily
* Global Times
* China Today

* * *

* Censorship in China
* Great Cannon
* Great Firewall
* Overseas censorship
* Radio jamming
* Media of China
* Internal media
* International communication centers
* Publishing industry in China

* * *

* Internet in China
* Internet censorship
* Central Cyberspace Affairs Commission

Director: Cai Qi

* Cyberspace Administration of China

Director: Zhuang Rongwen

* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Central Leading Group on Hong Kong and Macau Affairs

Leader: Ding Xuexiang
* HK & Macau Affairs Office

Director: Xia Baolong
* Hong Kong Liaison Office
* Macau Liaison Office
* One country, two systems
* Special administrative regions

* * *

* Hong Kong Basic Law
* Chief Executive: John Lee Ka-chiu
* Hong Kong SAR Government
* Politics of Hong Kong
* Pro-Beijing camp
* Pro-democracy camp
* Independence movement
* Mainland & HK CEPA

* * *

* Macao Basic Law
* Chief Executive: Ho Iat-seng
* Macau SAR Government
* Politics of Macau
* Mainland & Macau CEPA

Cross-strait relations

* Cross-strait relations
* Chinese Civil War
* One China
* Political status of Taiwan
* Republic of China on Taiwan
* Taiwan Area
* "Taiwan Province", PRC
* Taiwan independence movement
* Anti-Secession Law
* Economic Cooperation Framework Agreement
* Cross-Strait Service Trade Agreement
* Chinese unification

* * *

* Central Leading Group for Taiwan Affairs

Leader: Xi Jinping
Deputy Leader: Wang Huning
* Taiwan Affairs Office

Director: Song Tao
* Association for Relations Across the Taiwan Straits

Foreign relations

* Central Foreign Affairs Commission

Director: Xi Jinping
Deputy Director: Li Qiang
Secretary-General: Wang Yi
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Minister: Wang Yi
Spokespersons
Diplomatic missions

* * *

* Diplomatic missions of China / in China

* * *

* Foreign aid from China / to China
* International Development Cooperation Agency
* Ministry of Commerce
* Exim Bank of China
* China Development Bank
* Belt and Road Initiative
* Silk Road Fund
* Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank
* BRICS
* New Development Bank

* * *

* Ministry of National Defense
* International Military Cooperation Office

* * *

* NPC Foreign Affairs Committee
* CCP International Department
* State Administration of Foreign Experts Affairs
* Overseas Chinese Affairs Office

* * *

* Chinese nationality law
* Chinese passports (Hong Kong; Macau)
* Visa requirements for Chinese citizens (Hong Kong, Macau)
* Visa policy of China (Hong Kong; Macau)
* National Immigration Administration

* * *

* Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence
* Panda diplomacy
* Beijing Consensus
* Community of Common Destiny

* * *

* China and the United Nations
* China and the World Trade Organization
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

* * *

* China–Africa relations
* China–Arab relations
* China–Caribbean relations
* China–European Union relations
* China–Latin America relations
* China–Pacific relations
* China–Russia relations
* China–United States relations

Related topics

* Administrative divisions
* Chinese information operations
* Ethnic minorities
* Family planning
* Hukou system
* Human rights in China
* Chinese intelligence activity abroad

China portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

China and Russia established diplomatic relations after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, and share one of the world's most important foreign relationships.[a] Both nations share interest in energy cooperation, military ties, global stability, and geopolitical alignment in challenging the West.

The two countries share a land border which was demarcated in 1991, and they signed the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation in 2001, which was renewed in June 2021 for five more years.[2] On the eve of a 2013 state visit to Moscow by Chinese leader Xi Jinping, Russian President Vladimir Putin remarked that the two nations were forging a special relationship.[3] China and Russia have enjoyed close relations militarily, economically, and politically, while supporting each other on various global issues.[4][5][6] Commentators have debated whether the bilateral strategic partnership constitutes an alliance.[7][8][9] Russia and China officially declared their relations "Not allies, but better than allies", although Vladimir Putin reiterated that their relationship is a de facto alliance.[10][11] Ties have continued to deepen after Russia's invasion of Ukraine in 2022, with Russia increasingly becoming dependent on China since it was hit with large-scale international sanctions.[12][13][14] Russian coal exports came under particular pressure in Europe due to the combination of energy transition and sanctions over Ukraine, causing Russia to heavily increase trade on coal exports to China and other Asian countries.[15] The annual trade between China and Russia was 240 billion dollars as of 2023.[16]

## History

[edit]

Main articles: History of Sino-Russian relations and China–Soviet Union relations

Map showing the original border (in pink) between Manchuria (later Outer Manchuria) and Russia according to the Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689, and subsequent loss of territory to Russia in the treaties of Aigun 1858 (beige) and Peking 1860 (red).

The relations between China and Russia go back to the 16th century, when the Qing dynasty tried to drive Russian settlers out of Manchuria, ended by the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Russian Empire consolidated its control over the Russian Far East in the 19th century, after the annexation of part of Chinese Manchuria (1858–1860).[17]

During the Cold War, China and the USSR were rivals after the Sino-Soviet split in 1961, competing for control of the worldwide Communist movement. There was a serious possibility of a major war between the two nations in the early 1960s; a brief border war took place in 1969. This enmity began to lessen after the death of Chinese Communist Party chairman Mao Zedong in 1976, but relations were poor until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.

On 23 December 1992, Russian President Boris Yeltsin made his first official visit to China, where he met with CCP general secretary Jiang Zemin and Chinese president Yang Shangkun.[18] In December 1996, at the end of Chinese Premier Li Peng's visit to Moscow, Russia and China issued a joint communique pledging to build an "equal and reliable partnership."[19]

During the 1990s, cooperation between China and Russia was facilitated by the two countries' mutual desires to balance the influence of the United States and establish a multi-polar international system.[20]: 248

Chinese leader Xi Jinping presented two pandas to Moscow Zoo at a ceremony with Vladimir Putin on 5 June 2019

In 2001, the close relations between the two countries were formalized with the Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation, a twenty-year strategic, economic, and – controversially and arguably – an implicit military treaty. A month before the treaty was signed, the two countries joined with junior partners Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO). Still active as of 2022, the organization is expected to counter the growing influence of the United States military outreach program in Central Asia. The PRC is currently a key purchaser and licensee of Russian military equipment, some of which have been instrumental in the modernization of the People's Liberation Army. The PRC is also a main beneficiary of the Russian Eastern Siberia – Pacific Ocean oil pipeline.

During the 2008 Russo-Georgian war, China opposed Russia's infringement on Georgia's sovereignty.[21]: 347 Citing principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity, and global order, China used its influence in the SCO to prevent the organization from supporting Russia.[21]: 347

When China attempted to build closer relations with Russia in 2013, the Russian government initially had reservations.[22] However, the United States sanctions against Russia for its 2014 annexation of Crimea helped push Russia to a warmer relationship with China.[22] Although some Chinese banks and companies refused to fully cooperate with Russia because of the concern that secondary sanctions might be applied to them, Russian-Chinese economic ties grew once China itself faced sanctions concerns.[23]: 65

Liam Carson, an emerging European economist at Capital Economics, said in 2019:

> Policymakers in both countries have actively tried to strengthen trade ties in recent years. And it's no coincidence that this surge in Russia-China trade has come at the same time that the US has tightened sanctions on Russia and concerns about the US-China trade war have intensified.[24]

By 2019, both nations had serious grievances with the United States. For China, the issues were control of the South China Sea, trade policies, and technology policy. For Russia, the main issue was severe economic penalties imposed by the U.S. and Europe to punish its seizure of Crimea from Ukraine. China and Russia do, however, differ on some policies. China does not recognize Russia's annexation of Crimea,[25]: 4 and Russia does not support China's claims in the South China Sea[citation needed]. Nevertheless, China and Russia currently enjoy the best relations they have had since the late 1950s. Although they have no formal alliance, the two countries do have an informal agreement to coordinate diplomatic and economic moves, and build up an alliance against the United States.[26][27] Yaroslav Trofimov, the chief foreign-affairs correspondent of The Wall Street Journal, argued in 2019:

> Though there is no overt ideological alignment between Russia and China today, the two governments share a hostility to dissent, deep suspicion of Western interference and a strong desire to impose tighter controls over their own societies. Mr. Xi has presided over a push to stamp out corruption and bolster the Communist party's role in the economy and the society at large—a campaign akin to Mr. Putin's earlier effort to tame Russian oligarchs and crush political opposition. China was inspired by Russia's legislation cracking down on nongovernmental organizations, while Russian officials have expressed admiration for China's comprehensive internet censorship and "social credit" plan to rank citizens based on their loyalty and behavior.[28]

Xi continued to meet Putin via videoconference during the Covid-19 crisis

During the COVID-19 pandemic, some tensions arose within the Chinese-Russian relationship.[23]: 71–72 For example, in October 2020, relying on the pretext of coronavirus allegedly found on the exterior of fish packaging, China greatly reduced the import of Russian seafood, causing a substantial price decrease in Russian seafood.[23]: 72 Chinese restrictions on Russian cargo traffic at border crossings also led to tensions, including a drivers' strike.[23]: 72

In February 2024, Foreign ministry spokesperson Mao Ning declined to comment on the death of Russian opposition politician and political prisoner Alexei Navalny, describing it as "Russia's internal affair".[29]

### Russian invasion of Ukraine

[edit]

Further information: Russian invasion of Ukraine and China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine

Putin visited China and met with Xi Jinping on 4 February 2022

Xi and Putin met on 4 February 2022, during a massive Russian build-up of force on the Ukrainian border, with the two expressing that the two countries are nearly united in their anti-US alignment and that both nations shared "no limits" to their commitments.[30][31] Western Intelligence reports said that China had asked Russia to wait to invade Ukraine until after the Beijing Winter Olympics ended on 20 February.[31] Shortly before the invasion, Chinese media would repeat Russian statements that Russia's troops were being pulled away from the border with Ukraine.[32]

On 22 February, two days prior to the invasion of Ukraine, a leaked post The Beijing News' Horizon News on Weibo detailed instructions on how to report on the Russo-Ukrainian war; the post asked editors to monitor unfavorable comments, to only use tags shared by Chinese state media and stated "Do not post anything unfavorable to Russia or pro-Western. Let me review your words before posting".[32][33] On 25 February 2022, one day following the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Putin told Xi during a phone call that Russia is eager to engage in high-level negotiations with Ukraine, according to China's foreign ministry.[34]

According to the Associated Press in April 2022, China refused to condemn the Russian invasion of Ukraine, repeated Russian propaganda about the war, opposed economic sanctions against Russia, and abstained or sided with Russia in UN votes on the war in Ukraine.[35]

In March 2022, Russia added Taiwan to a list of foreign states and territories that commit "unfriendly actions" against its military invasion of Ukraine.[36] Chinese leader Xi Jinping has assured Vladimir Putin of China's support on Russian "sovereignty and security" in June.[37][38]

In April 2022, in an interview with the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera, Russian political scientist Sergey Karaganov, who is considered close to Vladimir Putin, said that Russia "will be more integrated and more dependent on China", further stating that "Chinese are our close allies and friends and the biggest source of Russian strength after Russian people themselves."[39]

In June 2022, Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping had a call with Putin where he reaffirmed support for Russia on security issues while saying that "all parties should responsibly push for a proper settlement of the Ukraine crisis".[40][41]

Ukrainian president Volodymyr Zelenskyy said that China has the economic leverage to pressure Putin to end the war, adding "I'm sure that without the Chinese market for the Russian Federation, Russia would be feeling complete economic isolation. That's something that China can do – to limit the trade [with Russia] until the war is over." In August 2022, Zelenskyy said that since the beginning of the war in Ukraine, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping had refused all his requests for direct talks with him.[42]

Putin welcomes Xi in Moscow during Xi's visit to Russia in March 2023

In February 2023, Putin's spokesperson Dmitry Peskov rejected the Chinese peace proposal, saying that "for now, we don't see any of the conditions that are needed to bring this whole story towards peace."[43]

In March 2023, Politico reported that Chinese state-owned weapons manufacturer Norinco shipped assault rifles, drone parts, and body armor to Russia between June and December 2022, with some of the shipments going through via third-countries including Turkey and the United Arab Emirates.[44] According to the US Department of Defense, Chinese ammunition has been used on battlefields in Ukraine.[45]

On 20–22 March 2023, Xi Jinping visited Russia and met with Vladimir Putin both in official and unofficial capacity.[46] It was the first international meeting of Vladimir Putin since the International Criminal Court issued a warrant for his arrest.[47]

In May 2023, the EU identified that Chinese and UAE firms were supplying weapon components to Russia. The EU banned export of dual-use goods targeting 8 Chinese firms.[48]

On 20 July 2023, the Chinese general consulate in Odesa, Ukraine was damaged in a Russian attack on a grain terminal in a nearby port, plus other parts of the city.[49][50] China has been the largest importer of grains from Ukraine.[51]

Xi welcomes Putin in Beijing during Putin's visit to China in May 2024

In July 2023, the US Office of the Director of National Intelligence published a report stating that the Chinese government is assisting Russia to evade sanctions and providing it with dual-use technology.[52] In October 2023, the US Department of Commerce added 42 Chinese companies to the Entity List for supplying Russia with microelectronics for missile and drone guidance systems.[53]

In February 2024, the European Union proposed sanctions that would target Chinese companies aiding Russia's war effort in Ukraine.[54]

In June 2024 as a result of international sanctions during the Russian invasion of Ukraine, China "had become Russia's most important economic partner." According to the Russian Central Bank, the Chinese yuan was in June 2024 "used to settle more than a third of all Russian exports, up from 0.4% before the full-scale invasion." However, in June 2024 the Bank of China had halted payments to sanctioned Russian banks because it felt compelled by current events and did not want to risk secondary sanctions.[55]

In April 2025, it was reported that the Russian military has put out recruitment videos across Chinese social media.[56]

In June 2025, a majority of US senators supported secondary sanctions against Russia that would impose 500% tariffs on countries that buy Russian oil, natural gas, uranium and other exports. China is one of the main consumers of Russian energy.[57]

In June 2025, The New York Times reported that a leaked internal Russian FSB memo raised concerns about China with respect to industrial espionage of sensitive Russian technologies.[58] Information on Russia's weaponry has increasingly been targeted by advanced persistent threats emanating from China.[59]

In a July 2025 meeting with High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy Kaja Kallas, Director of the Chinese Communist Party's Central Foreign Affairs Commission Office Wang Yi stated that China did not want to see Russia's loss in Ukraine.[60] The diplomats reported, China fears the United States could focus more on Asia, once the conflict in Europe is over.[61]

## Border

[edit]

Main article: China–Russia border

See also: Sino-Soviet border conflict

Soviet T-62 tank captured during the Sino-Soviet border conflict on display at the Military Museum in Beijing

On 29 May 1994, during the visit of Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin to Beijing, Russian and Chinese officials signed an agreement on the Sino-Russian Border Management System intended to facilitate border trade and hinder criminal activity.[18][62][63] On 3 September of that year, a demarcation agreement was signed, fixing the boundary along a previously–disputed 55-km stretch of the western Sino-Russian border. After the final demarcation carried out in the early 2000s, it measures 4,209.3 kilometres (2,615.5 mi), and is the world's sixth-longest international border.[64][65]

The 2004 Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation on the Eastern Section of the China–Russia Boundary[66] stated that Russia agrees to transfer a part of Abagaitu Islet, all of Yinlong (Tarabarov) Island, about a half of Bolshoy Ussuriysky Island, along with some adjacent islets, to China.[65][67][68] A border dispute between Russia and China, standing since Japanese invasion of Manchuria of 1931, was thus resolved. These Amur River islands were, until then, administered by Russia and claimed by China.[69][70][71] The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma.[71][72][73] The official transfer ceremony occurred on-site on 14 October 2008.[74][75]

### Rival claims over Vladivostok settled

[edit]

See also: Convention of Peking and Tannu Uriankhai

Territories that have become part of Russia under the Aigun Treaty and the Beijing Treaty of 1860

In 2005, Beijing and Moscow ratified an agreement that ended more than three and half centuries of their struggle over territory and for dominance.[76] Russia is the only country that still controls the territory it acquired from Qing dynasty China via the unequal treaties.[20]: 249–250

## Economic relations

[edit]

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (September 2021)

|

Putin and Xi Jinping at the 2022 Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit

Economic relations between Russia and China demonstrate mixed trends. Trade between the two countries was running between $5 billion and $8 billion per year in the 1990s, but grew steadily from then onwards. It was on course to hit $100 billion – the previous goal – until the 2008 crisis interceded. Trade slumped back to around $60 billion in 2015 and 2016 but started to recover again in 2017.[77] Both countries are expecting to raise the trade volume to $200 billion by 2024.[78]

Between 2008 and 2009, when Russia experienced a financial crisis, there was a sharp increase in borrowing from China. This trend, however, did not last. Starting in 2013, borrowing started to grow steadily.[79]

The main form of cooperation in the complex economic relations between Russia and China is trade. From 2003 until 2013, mutual trade increased 7.7 times; in 2014 the scale of bilateral operations increased even more. The aggravation of relations between Russia and Western countries contributed to the expansion of economic ties with China. By 2020, the parties planned to increase bilateral trade to $200 billion. According to the Federal Сustoms Service (FCS) of the Russian Federation, in 2016 the foreign trade turnover of Russia and China amounted to $66.1 billion (in 2015 – $63.6 billion). Russia has a negative trade balance with China: in 2016 exports amounted to $28 billion, whereas imports totaled $38.1 billion (in 2015, $28.6 and $35.9 billion, respectively). The share of China in foreign trade with Russia grew from 12.1% in 2015 to 14.1% in 2016. Since 2010, China is the largest trading partner of Russia.[80]

Most of Russia's exports to China originate from the mining and petrochemicals sectors.[81] More than half of Russia's exports to China come from mineral fuels, oil, and petroleum products (60.7%), followed by wood and wood products (9.4%), non-ferrous metals (9%), fish and seafood (3.5%), and chemical products (3.3%). China is also gradually becoming a major consumer of Russian agricultural products.[23]: 64

The main categories of imports to Russia from China are machinery and equipment (35.9%), clothing (13.7%), chemical products (9.1%), fur and fur products (5.6%), footwear (5.3%), and furniture (3%). Chinese electronics are steadily expanding their presence in Russian.[23]: 64

According to the General Сustoms Administration of China, bilateral trade in January–May 2017 increased by 26.1% in annual terms, amounting to $32.3 billion, and mutual trade in 2017 may exceed $80 billion According to the Ministry of Commerce of China, as of 1 January 2016, the volume of accumulated direct Russian investments in China amounted to $946.9 million and Chinese investments totaled ten times more, estimated at $8.94 billion.[80]

Meeting of BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa) foreign ministers in New York City on 22 September 2022

Participation in such organizations as BRICS and RIC (Russia-India-China) has significant importance for Russian-Chinese economic relations. At the Russian-Chinese summit held in Shanghai[when?], Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping stressed that "Russia and China stand for the transformation of BRICS into a mechanism of cooperation and coordination on a wide range of global financial, economic and international political problems, including the establishment of a closer economic partnership, the early establishment of the BRICS development Bank and the formation of a; for the expansion of joint efforts of representation and voting rights of States with emerging markets and developing countries in the system of global economic governance, for the formation of an open world economy; for the deepening of cooperation in the field of foreign policy, including in the settlement of regional conflicts".[82]

To facilitate financial transactions in the regions, China and Russia will conduct a currency swap. Central banks, with whom China has signed currency swaps, are able to issue loans to their banks in yuan. A currency swap agreement was signed with Russia in the amount of 150 billion yuan ($25 billion). Currency swaps will make the ruble and the yuan more stable, which in turn will have a positive impact on the stability of the global financial system. Additionally, the expansion of currency trading may facilitate investment processes. By investing in an economy that is now facing certain problems due to the fall of the ruble and oil prices, China is carrying out soft expansion and supports one of its main partners. China and Russia have long advocated reducing the role of the dollar in international trade, and both aim to create conditions for the development of bilateral trade and mutual investment. The rate of de-dollarization chosen by the countries is due to the rapid growth of the RMB's share in international payments and settlements (Oct. 2013. – 0.84%, Dec. 2014. – 2.17%, Feb. 2015. – 1.81%).[83] The conclusion of a currency swap makes it possible to facilitate payments, as there is an imitation of the internal currency, which speeds up the transfer procedure and minimizes the cost of conversion.[citation needed]

In 2013, China initiated the creation of a new economic initiative – the "New silk road" or the Belt and Road Initiative. This project is designed primarily to strengthen economic ties and cooperation and to attract investors from Asia and other parts of the world to actively participate in the creation of the "silk road economic belt of the XXI century". The zone should extend from China to Europe through Central Asia and Russia, as it is an important transit logistical link between China and Europe, in which the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank may play a significant role.[84] In recent years, China and Russia have stepped up cooperation in the construction of cross-border infrastructure. New Eurasian transport routes are being built as well, including the "Chongqing-Xinjiang-Europe" railway and the "Western Europe – Western China" route, which will pass through Russia. In northeast China and the Russian far East, both countries are actively promoting the construction of bridges, ports, and other projects. It is planned to increase the volume of bilateral trade between China and Russia to $200 billion by the end of 2020.

Chinese Premier Li Qiang and Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin in Beijing, China on 24 May 2023

China has also shown interest in cooperating with the countries of the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). The creation of the EAEU is posed to serve as an important platform for multilateral cooperation in the region, as all participants are friendly neighbors and partners with Russia, as well as traditional partners with China. Russia is interested in creating a free trade zone of the EAEU and China, as well as the use of the national currency in this region.[85]

Following the implementation of international sanctions during the Russo-Ukrainian War, China provided economic relief to Russia.[32] China's total trade with Russia was a record $190 billion in 2022.[86] In the same year, China accounted for 40% of Russia's imports.[87] In the first half of 2023, models from Chinese car companies accounted for more than a third of all sales in Russia.[88]

China also stood as Russia's leading supplier of high-tech and digital products. As Western high-tech companies have to withdraw from the Russian market, Chinese companies conquer the Russian market step by step.[89]

In May 2023, Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Mishustin and Deputy Prime Minister Alexander Novak visited Beijing and met with Chinese leader Xi Jinping. Novak said that Russian energy supplies to China will increase by 40 percent year-on-year in 2023. Chinese Premier Li Qiang hailed the "comprehensive strategic cooperative partnership between China and Russia in the new era", saying that bilateral trade between China and Russia had increased by more than 40% over the past year.[90]

On 18 October 2023, Chinese leader Xi Jinping emphasized the deepening "political mutual trust" with Russian President Vladimir Putin, lauding their strong strategic coordination and record-high bilateral trade volume.[91]

Vladimir Putin and Xi Jinping at the 16th BRICS summit in Kazan, Russia, 23 October 2024

In 2023, China's total trade with Russia reached a record $240 billion.[92] On 31 December 2023, Xi Jinping said China's ties with Russia had grown stronger in 2023.[93] The largest trade increases are seen in Chinese made cars and trucks. Increasing trade volume between the two countries is particularly visible in Heihe.[94]

In April 2024, the United States and the United Kingdom announced a ban on imports of Russian aluminum, copper, and nickel.[95] Due to sanctions, Russian nickel, copper and palladium mining and smelting company Norilsk Nickel planned to move some of its copper smelting to China and establish a joint venture with a Chinese company.[96] Finished copper products would be sold as Chinese products to avoid Western sanctions.[97] China is Norilsk Nickel's largest export market since 2023.[98] Nickel is a critical metal in electric vehicle batteries, and palladium is critical element in catalytic converters, a component in natural gas vehicles.[99]

On 12 November 2024, Russia and China are bolstering their partnership to counter U.S. influence, aiming to resist what they view as containment efforts by the United States and its allies. Leaders from both countries believe their alliance brings stability amid global tensions and shifts in power, presenting an alternative to U.S. dominance.[100]

### Trade in national currencies

[edit]

On 23 November 2010, at a meeting of Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin and the Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao, it was announced that Russia and China have decided to use their own national currencies for bilateral trade, instead of the U.S. dollar. The move was aimed to further improve the relations between Beijing and Moscow and to protect their domestic economies during the 2008 financial crisis. The trading of the Chinese yuan against the Russian ruble started in the Chinese interbank market, while the yuan's trading against the ruble started on the Russian foreign exchange market in December 2010.[101][102]

In coordination with other emerging economies, the 2010 BRIC summit was held in Brasília in April 2010.

In 2014, Beijing and Moscow signed a 150 billion yuan central bank liquidity swap line agreement to avoid and counter American sanctions.[103]

In December 2014, Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi pledged to offer financial support to Russia and support the Ruble, if needed, in light of the currency's depreciation.[104]

Russia's dependence on the Chinese yuan increased heavily after its invasion of Ukraine in 2022. The share of Russian exports paid in yuan rose to 16% by December 2022, compared to 0.4% before the invasion, while share of imports paid in yuan increased to 23%, up from 4% before.[105][106] Yuan's share of stock market trading in Russia increased from 3% to 33%[87] Nearly 50 financial institutions were offering yuan saving accounts by 2023, and households were holding around $6 billion worth of yuan in Russian banks by the end of 2022.[87]

By the end of 2023, more than 90% of the trade between China and Russia was done with either the yuan or the ruble.[107][108] Furthermore, Russia is using Chinese yuan for more than 25% of its international trade with other countries than China.[109]

By August 2024, Russian transactions with Chinese banks (especially smaller ones) were largely closed.[110] Due to strict secondary sanctions, Russia could not exchange money with China.[111][112] As many as 98% of Chinese banks rejected direct yuan payments from Russia.[113]

## Energy relations

[edit]

On 21 May 2014, China and Russia signed a $400 billion gas deal. Starting 2019, Russia plans to provide natural gas to China for the next 30 years.

Since the dissolution of the USSR in 1991, energy relations between China and Russia have been generally marked by cooperation and regard for mutual geopolitical and strategic interests. China's fast-growing economy places increasing pressure on itself to secure energy imports, while Russia's economy is largely driven by the demand for the export of natural resources. China became a petroleum importer for the first time in 1993, had become the world's second-largest oil-consuming country as of 2011, and the world's largest overall energy consumer as of 2010.[114][115] In a report released in January 2012, the China Petroleum and Chemical Industry Federation estimated that the country's crude oil consumption would increase to 480 million tonnes in 2012, or 9.6 million barrels per day. The group also forecast that natural gas consumption would rise 15.3 percent to 148.2 billion cubic meters (bcd).[116] Given its geographical proximity to China and position as one of the world's largest oil producers and natural gas exporters, Russia has been an obvious candidate for meeting this increased demand.[117] While energy relations have primarily related to oil, gas, and coal,[15] there have also been partnerships with regard to nuclear and renewable (wind and water) energy technology.[118]

From the mid-1990s, when the tightening of global energy markets coincided with his rise to power, Russian President Vladimir Putin signaled the importance of, oil and particularly natural gas, for Russia's emergence as a global power.[119] Long-term prospects for Russian gas exports to China will be affected by several global pricing trends.[120][15] Surges in liquefied natural gas (LNG) capacity, the increasingly competitive nature of Central Asian gas supplies, advances in shale gas technology, and potential greenhouse gas policies may all impact Chinese consumption.[121]

Despite frequent declarations of goodwill and bilateral energy cooperation, Chinese-Russian energy relations since 1991 have been limited by mutual suspicions, pricing concerns, inadequate transportation infrastructure, and competition for influence in Eurasia.[122][123]

Russian oil exports by destination in 2020.[124]

In 2014, Russia and China signed a 30-year gas deal worth $400 billion. Deliveries to China started in late 2019.[125] The Power of Siberia pipeline is designed to reduce China's dependence on coal, which is more carbon intensive and causes more pollution than natural gas.[126] For Russia, the pipeline allows another economic partnership in the face of resistance to the Nord Stream 2 pipeline.[126] The proposed western gas route from Russia's West Siberian petroleum basin to North-Western China is known as Power of Siberia 2 (Altai gas pipeline).[127]

In 2022, China's imports of discounts of up to 30% oil from Russia rose 55% in May, Russia displaced Saudi Arabia as China's biggest oil provider in recent months.[128][129]

In November 2024, China had finished building its China-Russia natural east-route gas pipeline seven months ahead of its schedule. The pipeline links the northeastern Heilongjiang province, near Russia's border, to Shanghai, China. According to China Central Television (CCTV), Russian gas would power households in Shanghai by the end of 2024.[130] In December 2024, China completed the full pipeline for the Power of Siberia.[131]

### History

[edit]

The official relationship between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation has been upgraded three times since the establishment of diplomatic relations in 1991. Beginning as "good-neighborly and mutually beneficial" in December 1992, it evolved into a "constructive partnership" in September 1994, and finally a "strategic partnership of coordination" in April 1996.[132] In September 1999, the two countries began joint construction of a nuclear power station at Lianyungang, Jiangsu Province with an installed capacity of 2 million kW, one of the first situations of mutual energy cooperation.[133]

The late 1990s also marked the beginning of feasibility studies for natural gas and oil pipeline projects in Western and Eastern Siberia. In 2001, Russian company Yukos proposed the unprecedented Eastern Siberia-Pacific Ocean (ESPO) Oil Pipeline Project, which would link Yukos's oil refinery in Angarsk to Daqing, in northern China.[134] At the time, rail routes were the only means of transporting oil into the growing Chinese market. The project stalled in October 2003 when Yukos chief executive Mikhail Khodorkovsky was arrested on charges including tax evasion and fraud, and the Russian government launched an immediate investigation into the company.[135][136] Many speculated that the series of events were politically motivated, given that Mr. Khodorkovsky had been a vocal opponent of President Putin.[137] A week after Mr. Khodorkovsky's arrest, China Foreign Ministry spokeswoman Zhang Qiyue publicly announced that the Kremlin investigation would not impact the proposed China-Russia oil pipeline project.[138]

In September 2004, Chinese premier Wen Jiabao met with Russian Prime Minister Mikhail Fradkov in Moscow, where the two heads of government signed agreements affirming Russia's promise to set the route of a proposed pipeline from Eastern Siberia to the Pacific, with priority given to laying a pipeline spur to China, as well as increasing rail oil exports to China to 10 million tons (200,000 b/d) in 2005 and 15 million tons (300,000 b/d) in 2006.[139] Four days before Wen's visit, Yukos, then the largest supplier of Russian oil to China and Russia's biggest oil producer, publicly announced that rail shipments of crude oil to the China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC) would end beginning on 28 September 2004. The Kremlin had begun auctioning off the troubled company's operating assets a month prior in August.[140]

Gazprom, Soyuzneftegaz and the Chinese Embassy in Moscow all expressed interest in Yuganskneftegaz, a main arm of Yukos.[141] The subsidiary was ultimately acquired by Russia's state-owned oil company Rosneft for roughly $9.3 billion. In February 2005, Russian Finance Minister Alexei Kudrin revealed that Chinese banks provided $6 billion in financing the Rosneft acquisition. This financing was reportedly secured by long-term oil delivery contracts between Rosneft and the CNPC.[142] In the same month, the Chinese Foreign Ministry denied that China provided "funds" for the deal. The Foreign Ministry could not confirm whether there were any "loans" involved, ministry spokesman Kong Quan said.[143]

State-owned Lukoil became China's largest Russian oil supplier when CNPC reached a strategic cooperation agreement with the company in September 2006.[144] As promised during Premier Wen's visit to Moscow in 2004, construction on a direct pipeline spur to China began in March 2006, when CNPC signed an agreement providing state oil producer Transneft $400 million for constructing a pipeline from Skovorodino, about 70 km (43 mi) from the Chinese border. In the same month, CNPC agreed to a set of principles establishing future joint ventures with Rosneft.[145][146]

In 2006, Gazprom was made responsible for all exports of gas from Russia's eastern Siberian fields, outside of sales made through production sharing agreements (PSAs). This was another move widely seen to be politically motivated, since successful commercial development of these fields and export to Asian markets would be impossible without Gazprom – and therefore Kremlin – involvement.[147][148] In an annual shareholder report two years prior, Gazprom acknowledged a plan for supplying natural gas to China. Two routes, roughly equal in capacity, would be constructed, with a total volume of 68 billion cubic meters of gas per annum. An Altai pipeline would link West Siberian fields with the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region in western China, while the eastern pipeline would run from Yakutia into northeastern China.[149][150]

Chinese domestic natural gas consumption roughly matched domestic production in 2004. Since then, however, its rate of growth and more sustainable energy profile compared to oil inevitably led to a surge in Chinese natural gas imports.[150] In March 2006, CNPC signed a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with Gazprom for the delivery of natural gas to China, which officially began pricing negotiations between Gazprom chief executive Alexei Miller and Chen Geng, then head of the CNPC. In September 2007, the Russian Federation Industry and Energy Ministry approved a development plan for an integrated gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the Far East, taking into account potential gas exports to China and other Asia-Pacific countries. Gazprom was appointed by the Russian Government as the Eastern Gas Program execution coordinator.[151]

Russia's desire to diversify its export markets has been matched by China's willingness to invest in Russian energy production and infrastructure. Russian policymakers, however, have expressed reserve about increased Chinese influence in the energy sector. In 2002, CNPC attempted to bid for Russian oil firm Slavneft, but withdrew just weeks later.[152][153] International news sources suggested the bid failed partly due to anti-foreign sentiment in the Duma, Russia's lower parliamentary house.[154][155][156][157] Slavneft was privatized by parity owners TNK (later OAO TNK-BP) and Sibneft (later OAO Gazprom Neft) soon afterwards. In 2004, Slavneft was then acquired by TNK-BP, the product of a merger between the Alfa Access Renova Consortium (AAR, Alfa Group) and BP.[158] In 2006, Russia denied CNPC a significant stake in OAO Rosneft. When the Russian company went public, CNPC was allowed to purchase $500 million worth of shares, one-sixth of the $3 billion it had sought. The 2008 financial crisis gave China its opportunity to invest in Russia on a grander scale through a loans for oil program.[159] In 2009 and 2010, China's long-term energy-backed loans (EBL) extended large sums of capital to companies and entities not only in Russia, but also in Brazil, Ecuador, Turkmenistan and Venezuela.[160][161]

Growing Chinese investment is speculated to be about more than energy security for China. Chinese news agency Xinhua reported in 2010 that many Chinese enterprises believe the Russian market will allow them to become truly global.[162] Gao Jixiang, Associate Research Fellow of the Russian Economy Research Office of the Russia, East Europe, and Central Asia Research Institute of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, reported that China's investments in Russia totaled $1.374 billion as of 2007, and were projected to reach $12 billion by 2020.[163] In 2008–09 alone, total investments rose 25.4% to $2.24 billion and direct investment went from $240 million to $410 million.[164]

Meeting between Dmitry Medvedev and Hu Jintao at the 2009 APEC Summit.

2009 marked the 60th anniversary of established diplomatic relations between Moscow and Beijing, and also coincided with the signing of over 40 contracts worth roughly $3 billion.[citation needed] Chinese leader Hu Jintao and President Dmitry Medvedev of Russia conferred three times in four days during mid-June at the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation summit in Yekaterinburg, at the first-ever heads-of-state meeting of the BRIC countries (Brazil, Russia, India, and China), and again when Hu made a state visit to Moscow from 16 to 18 June, representing what many saw to be a high-water mark in Chinese-Russian relations.[165]

Growing economic closeness also seemed to suggest a growing political alliance. A joint statement released by the two heads of state expanded upon how the two governments usually pledge mutual support for their sovereignty and territorial integrity. The Russian government explicitly affirmed that Tibet, along with Taiwan, are "inalienable parts of the Chinese territory", while the Chinese supported "Russia's efforts in maintaining peace and stability in the region of Caucasus."[166] During Hu's visit, however, Gazprom announced it could not begin delivering natural gas to China in 2011 as planned because of pricing disagreements. Construction of the Western Siberian Altai pipeline, which could deliver over 30 billion cubic meters of natural gas annually to China, was originally scheduled to begin in 2008.[citation needed]

27 September 2010 marked the completion of the 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Russia-China Crude Pipeline. Stretching from Russia's Skovorodino station to China's Mohe station, it was the first pipeline ever built between China and Russia.[167] In April 2009, Rosneft and Transneft had signed deals with CNPC guaranteeing the pipeline's production of 300,000 barrels of crude oil per day for twenty years as part of a $25 billion loan-for-oil agreement.[118] Upon the pipeline's completion in 2010, CNPC also signed a general agreement with Transneft over the operation of the pipeline, a framework agreement with Gazprom to import natural gas to China from 2015 onwards, an agreement with Rosneft on extending oil supply to the Russia-China Crude Pipeline, and an agreement with Lukoil on expanding strategic cooperation. Both sides hailed the series of agreements as a "new era" in cooperation, and Russia's Deputy Prime Minister Igor Sechin told reporters in Beijing that Russia was "ready to meet China's full demand in gas" going forward.[168]

Putin's close associate Vyacheslav Volodin, Speaker of the State Duma, with Chinese leader Xi Jinping in Beijing on 22 November 2023

In September 2010, President Putin reaffirmed the potential nuclear future of Russia and China's energy relations, saying "Of course, our cooperation with China is not limited to just hydrocarbons ... Russia is China's main partner in the field of peaceful use of nuclear energy, and equipment supplies here amount to billions of dollars".[169] As of 2011, however, Russian officials have remained reluctant to transfer nuclear energy technologies and other knowledge products to Chinese partners. Industry experts have pointed out that while proprietary technology would protect Russian exports from being displaced by lower-cost Chinese products in third-party markets, such an approach may reinforce Chinese doubts about Russia's reliability as a long-term energy partner.[123]

The Russian oil industry has not only been burdened by corporate struggles such as with Yukos and political disagreements between the countries, but also by the reoccurring breaches in safety. Some difficulties stem from the Kazakh riots[170] to endless environmental concerns,[171][172][173] but most recently the capsizing of an oil platform that was allowed to operate in the north late in the season, while towed under adverse maritime conditions.[174] Incidents such as these cannot help but give potential foreign investment, which the region needs, pause as to the reliability of Russian energy supplies.[according to whom?]

### Russian Far East (RFE)

[edit]

In 1996, the Russian Federation completed two production sharing agreements (PSA) for oil and gas exploration off the northeast coast of the Sakhalin Islands. The Sakhalin-I project, operated by Exxon Neftegas (EN), has estimated potential recoverable reserves at 307 million tons of oil (2.3 billion bbn) and 485 billion cubic meters of gas as of 2002.[175][176] EN, a subsidiary of US-based ExxonMobil, holds a 30 percent interest in the project, while Rosneft holds 20 percent via its affiliates RN-Astra (8.5 percent) and Sakhalinmorneftegas-Shelf (11.5 percent). Japanese consortium SODECO and the Indian state-owned oil company ONGC Videsh Ltd. holds the remaining 50 percent (30 and 20 percent, respectively).

The Sakhalin-II project is managed by the Sakhalin Energy Investment Company Ltd. (Sakhalin Energy). As of 2011, Russian state monopoly Gazprom holds 50% plus 1 share, RoyalDutch Shell 27.5%, Mitsui 12.5% and Mitsubishi 10%.[177] Gazprom purchased its majority stake from Sakhalin-2 operator Royal Dutch Shell in 2006. The project had been placed permanently on hold by environmental regulators, but moved forward after the sale.[178] The series of events led to widespread speculation that environmental violations may have been used as a bargaining chip in the deal.[179] Sakhalin-II consists of two 800-km pipelines running from the northeast of the island to Prigorodnoye (Prigorodnoe) in Aniva Bay at the southern end. The consortium built Russia's first liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant at Prigorodnoye. Industry sources speculated that "some in Russia hope to sell China gas from Sakhalin-2's or other facilities' future LNG holdings now that it has mastered the technology".[180]

In December 2003, CNPC and Sakhalin Energy signed a frame agreement on exploration and development in Russia's Sakhalin oilfield.[181] ExxonMobil also looked towards the Chinese market, making preliminary agreements on supplying Sakhalin-I gas to China as early as 2002. On 2 November 2004, CNPC began negotiations with ExxonMobil for possible long-term gas deliveries from Sakhalin-1.[182] Negotiations were then concluded in October 2006, when Exxon and CNPC officially announced an agreement. Under the deal, Sakhalin-1 could sell up to 10 billion cubic meters of gas to China over 20 years by pipeline. The plan met strong opposition from Gazprom, which has a rival pipeline project and controls all Russian gas exports apart from sales through PSAs such as Sakhalin-1.[183] In August 2006, Sakhalin-I's De-Kastri oil terminal began exporting processed petroleum to markets including China, Japan, and South Korea.[184]

The influence of Russia's regional energy trade has led to a sense of local uneasiness about foreign countries' influence in the sector. In 2000, President Putin warned a Siberian audience that unless Russia intensified the region's development, the Russian Far East would end up speaking Chinese, Japanese and Korean.[185][186] In 2002, the Deputy Secretary of the Russian Security Council, Vladimir Potapov, expressed serious concerns about the region's combined remoteness, weak infrastructure, declining population, and wealth "in very diverse resources".[187][188] Political figures like Viktor Ozerov, Chairman of the Federation Council's Defense and Security Committee, warned of military threats in the Far East and decried the predatory use of the region's resources, and large-scale illegal immigration, though scholars pointed out that no imminent threat was visible.[189] Dmitri Trenin stated that, 'the principal domestic reason is the situation of eastern Russia, especially East Siberia and the Russian Far East. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the territories have been going through a deep crisis. The former model of their development is inapplicable; a new model is yet to be devised and implemented. Meanwhile, the vast region has been going through depopulation, deindustrialization, and general degradation. ... The quality of Moscow's statesmanship will be tested by whether it can rise up to the challenge in the East."[190] The RFE has been one of the most difficult areas to transition between the structure of the Soviet Union and the still developing Russian state due to the lack of economic self-sufficiency in the region or any prospects of stable growth.

In September 2005, the Minister of Economic Development and Trade German Gref promised doubling state support for the RFE to $612 million in 2006, and the consideration of allocating a new $2.5 billion infrastructure fund for projects in the region.[191] A year later, at the end of 2006, Putin reiterated that the socio-economic isolation of the RFE represented a threat to national security, and advocated yet another new socioeconomic commission and regional development strategy to be formed. He specifically pointed to the perceived threat of foreign immigration in the Far East.[192] Scholars and regional experts have suggested that China's rapid economic growth (especially relative to Russia's GDP growth rate) lies at the root of anxieties concerning the RFE. While the Russian and Chinese economies were roughly the same size in 1993, China's grew to over 3.5 times larger than Russia's by 2008. Even since 1998, when Russia began a rapid economic recovery, China has grown at a faster rate; the gap has only widened since the 2008 financial crisis and falling energy prices of the late 2000s. China's growth has led to the creation of new productive capacity, whereas Russia's recovery has been based largely on reutilizing Soviet-era capacity that had idled in the early 1990s.[193][194]

Russian officials have repeatedly reiterated their opposition to being merely China's natural resources storehouse.[195] As early as 2001, Deputy Prime Minister and Finance Minister Aleksei Kudrin warned that if Russia failed to become "a worthy economic partner" for Asia and the Pacific Rim, "China and the Southeast Asian countries will steamroll Siberia and the Far East."[196][197] At the start of his presidency in September 2008, Dmitri Medvedev echoed similar concerns, warning a Kamchatka audience that if Russia fails to develop the RFE, it could turn into a raw material base for more developed Asian countries and "unless we speed up our efforts, we can lose everything."[198][199] Regional experts have pointed out that despite these increasingly vocal concerns, the local economy of the RFE has become increasingly reliant on Chinese goods, services, and labor over the past decade; furthermore, local out-migration shows little sign of reversing. For all the early promises under Putin, Moscow's policy towards the RFE has not seemed effective as of 2008.[200]

Dmitri Trenin of the Moscow branch of the Carnegie Endowment has argued that Siberia's development could become Russia's most urgent challenge.[201]

Russia's plans for this region have revolved around building energy infrastructure to leverage exports and attracting investment so that the capital will be available for modernizing regional infrastructure.[202][203] These plans largely depend on foreign investments, which Russian companies have grudgingly acknowledged. In 2008, a consortium of Chinese engineering firms led by Harbin Turbine signed an agreement with Russian power producer OGK to produce coal-fired turbines in the RFE, adding 41,000 megawatts of new generating capacity by 2011. Stanislav Nevynitsyn, executive director of OGK, admitted, "It is simply a necessity for us to work with the Chinese – we will not get the capacity built otherwise."[204] Through loans to Russia's Bank for Development and Foreign Economic Affairs, Vnesheconombank (VEB), China became a major stockholder in Lukoil in 2009.[205] In the same year, after having excluded foreign firms from bidding on the huge Udokan copper mine in Southeast Siberia, Moscow welcomed Chinese, South Korean, and Kazakh miners and refiners back into the bidding process.[206][207]

As part of the 'Russia's Energy Strategy till 2020' program, the Russian government launched a program of creating a unified gas production, transportation, and supply system in Eastern Siberia and the RFE in 2006. The program would ultimately provide affirmation of an all-Russia gas system from the Baltic Sea up to the Pacific Ocean."[208] Russian policymakers have also suggested building an international center for spent fuel and nuclear energy in the RFE, hoping to raise the profile in the export of nuclear energy to the global market.[209]

In 2009, Gazprom was awarded subsurface licenses for the Kirinsky, Vostochno-Odoptinsky and Ayashsky blocks to begin the Sakhalin-III project.[210] Geological exploration has been underway at the Kirinskoye field and, as of 2009, natural gas production is scheduled for 2014. The field will become one of the natural gas sources for the Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok gas transmission system (GTS). The first GTS start-up complex will be 1,350 km, with a capacity of 6 billion cubic meters (bcm) per year.[211]

### Central Asia

[edit]

China and Russia generally cooperate with each other regarding Central Asia affairs.[212] While they sometimes compete in Central Asia, those competitions are typically focused on economic matters and proceed in an orderly way within established norms.[212] Where competition in Central Asia does occur between the two powers, it typically arises as a product of the circumstances rather than as an intentional effort to contain the other country.[212]

In 1996, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Tajikistan formed the Shanghai Five, a collaborative body that was renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO) with the addition of Uzbekistan in 2001.[213] As members of the SCO, China and Russia have cooperated in military exercises, such as counterterrorism drills in Kyrgyzstan in 2002 and similar exercises in Kazakhstan and China in 2003.[214]

Russian and Chinese leaders regularly call for greater cooperation and coordination through the SCO between their two countries in the context of their broader goal of promoting multilateral diplomacy.[215][216][217] In a joint statement issued on 23 May 2008, Russia and China asserted that "International security is comprehensive and inalienable, and some countries' security cannot be guaranteed at the cost of some others', including expanding military and political allies."[218] Zhao Huasheng, Director of Russian and Central Asian Studies at Fudan University's Shanghai Cooperation Center, has argued that economic cooperation will ensure the long-term relevance of the SCO, as current security threats recede.[219] While China and Russia do enjoy some bilateral energy cooperation, which experts predict will continue to grow in the future, the two countries have emerged as rivals for Central Asian oil and gas supplies.[220] With the rising oil prices in the mid-2000s, Russia has sought to renew its influence in Central Asia, in particular the region's southern flank, to guarantee access to gas supplies for reexport to Europe and for its own domestic needs. As China's energy needs have grown and its policymakers have sought to develop its western provinces, China, too, has sought to expand its influence in Central Asia.[214]

In 2007, at a meeting of SCO prime ministers in Tashkent, Russian Premier Viktor Zubkov reiterated Moscow's desire to forge a Central Asian energy "club" within the SCO, comprising Russia, China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan. The SCO energy club could be set up as soon as 2008, Russian Deputy Industry and Energy Minister Ivan Materov announced in Tashkent. Materov insisted, however, that the club would not amount to a sort of mini-OPEC. Political and economic analysts in Moscow believe the Kremlin is keen to establish an energy club as a means to prevent a possible clash with China over Central Asia's energy resources.[221]

At a May 2007 SCO summit in Turkmenbashi, Russian, Kazakh and Turkmen leaders announced the expansion of the Prikaspiisky gas pipeline from Turkmenistan into Russia.[222] The plan has stalled due to several obstacles, including price disagreements and the economic recession of the late 2000s.[223][224]

Uncertainty over the Prikaspiisky route has given China an opening into the region, especially in Turkmenistan. During a brief visit to Ashgabat, Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao called for efforts "to step up bilateral trade cooperation to a new level." Berdymukhamedov, in turn, expressed interest in "working closely" with China on a natural gas pipeline project, Xinhua News Agency reported. In December 2005, Kazakhstani President Nursultan Nazarbayev inaugurated the Atasu-Alashankou pipeline to ship oil to China. The $800 million Atasu-Alashankou route still needs Russian crude oil from Western Siberia, transported via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Shymkent pipeline, to reach its full annual capacity of 20 million tons by 2010.[225] Although China and its Central Asian partners view their expanding cooperation as a means of diversifying their energy partnerships, Russia has enjoyed success in other major energy projects. In November 2007, two Russian companies (TNK-BP and GazpromNeft) signed an agreement with KazTransOil to ship up to 5 million tons of oil annually to China via the Omsk-Pavlodar-Atasu-Alanshakou pipeline. In the first quarter of 2008, 300,000 tons of Russian crude oil were exported to China along this route.[226] Moreover, a Russian engineering company, Stroytransgaz, won a tender to build Turkmenistan's section of the gas pipeline to China.[227]

China and Russia announced in May 2014 that they had reached a 30-year gas deal where "Russia would supply 38 billion cubic meters of natural gas each year to China".[228]

## Military relations

[edit]

After the EU arms embargo on China imposed as a consequence of the 1989 Tiananmen Square protests and massacre, China became a reliable client for Russian military exports, making up 25–50% of all foreign military sales.[229] On 9 November 1993, Russian Defence Minister Pavel Grachev and Chinese Defence Minister Chi Haotian signed a five-year defense cooperation agreement paving the way for an increase in the number of military attachés stationed in their respective capitals. On 12 July 1994, the Russian and Chinese defence ministers signed a border security agreement designed to prevent potentially dangerous military incidents, such as unintentional radar jamming and airspace violations. In December 1996, Russia finalized "the sale of SU-27 fighters and related production technology to China."[19]

Vostok 2018 exercises in Russia's Eastern Military District

On 19 October 1999, Defence Minister of China, General Chi Haotian, after meeting with Syrian Defence Minister Mustafa Tlass in Damascus, Syria to discuss expanding military ties between Syria and China, flew directly to Israel and met with Ehud Barak, the then Prime Minister and Defence Minister of Israel where they discussed military relations. Among the military arrangements was a $1 billion Israeli-Russian sale of military aircraft to China, which were to be jointly produced by Russia and Israel.[230]

By the early 2000s, Russia was a major supplier of military equipment to China.[231]: 95 Economically, Russia was motivated by the weakness of its own economy and the need to pursue revenue streams where they were available.[231]: 95 In Russia's geopolitical considerations, Russia assumed that a well-equipped Chinese military was a greater risk to the interests of the United States and European countries than to its own interests.[231]: 95–96

In 2004, the Russian Foreign Ministry blocked both the sale of the Su-35 and Tupolev Tu-22M bombers to China over concerns about the arrangements for Chinese production of the Sukhoi Su-27SK (known as the Shenyang J-11).[232]

Currently, China focuses on domestic weapon designs and manufacturing, while still importing certain military products from Russia, such as jet engines. China sought to become independent in its defence sector and become competitive in global arms markets; its defence sector is rapidly developing and maturing. Gaps in certain capabilities remain, including development of electronic and reliable propulsion systems, although China's defense industry production has improved significantly, providing an advantage over other militaries in the Asia-Pacific region.[233] China's 2015 Defense White Paper called for "independent innovation" and the "sustainable development" of advanced weaponry and equipment.[233]

In September 2018, Russia hosted the militaries of China and Mongolia as a part of the Vostok 2018 military exercise to improve ties between the countries, making them the first two countries outside of the former Soviet Union to join the exercise.[234][235]

Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu visited the Military Academy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Russia on 17 April 2023

In December 2019, Rostec officials accused China of intellectual property theft of a range of military technologies.[236] In June 2020, Russia charged one of its Arctic scientists of passing sensitive information to China.[237]

As early as February 2022, according to US authorities, Russia asked China for advanced military weaponry, in particular, armed drones for use in their invasion of Ukraine.[238][239] China and Russia have both denied these allegations.[240]

On 30 June 2022, Russian laser scientist Dmitry Kolker was arrested on suspicion of passing information to China.[241] In August 2022, Russian hypersonic scientist Alexandr Shiplyuk was arrested in a case of state treason. Reuters reported that Russia accused Shiplyuk for passing classified material at a scientific conference in China in 2017 as reason for the arrest.[242]

On 17 April 2023, Chinese Defence Minister Li Shangfu made his first overseas visit to Russia. As part of his four-day visit, he met with Russian president Vladimir Putin and Defence Minister Sergei Shoigu in Moscow. During his meeting, he stated the ties between China and Russia "surpass military-political alliances of the cold war era".[243][244]

Russia accused Washington of stoking Arctic tensions, rejecting U.S. military claims that growing Russian-Chinese cooperation could destabilize the region. According to a Pentagon report released in July 2024, Russia had reopened hundreds of Soviet-era military sites in the Arctic, while China was interested in the region's mineral resources and new shipping routes. Maria Zakharova criticized the report, suggesting it aimed to escalate military and political tensions and indicating that U.S. strategies for the Arctic were forcefully oriented. Zakharova asserted that Russian-Chinese cooperation was not targeted at any third party and labeled the U.S. stance as "shameless meddling" in Arctic state affairs.[245]

### Military exercises and joint patrols

[edit]

In July 2019, and again in December 2020, Russia and China flew joint bomber patrols over the Pacific.[246][247]

In November 2022, Russian and Chinese warplanes including the Tupolev-95 and XIAN H-6K long range strategic bombers conducted joint patrols over the Sea of Japan and East China sea.[248]

In September 2022, Russia hosted the military of China as a part of the Vostok-2022 [ru] military exercise.[249]

In 2024, Chinese and Russian naval fleets held their fourth joint maritime patrol in the Western and Northern Pacific Ocean. The patrol was part of an annual arrangement between the two nations and did not target any third party.[250]

In July 2024 Russia and China dismissed a U.S. warning regarding their increasing military and economic collaboration in the Arctic, a region increasingly accessible due to climate change. Russia had enhanced its Arctic military presence by revamping Soviet-era bases, while China invested in polar exploration. Kathleen H. Hicks highlighted China's significant role in funding Russian Arctic energy projects and noted joint military exercises near Alaska. The Arctic's melting ice heightened interest in its resources and shipping routes, prompting strategic attention from Washington and NATO allies, particularly Canada. Russia and China defended their activities, emphasizing peace and stability in the region. The U.S. described the Arctic as strategically vital, noting potential increases in activity and risks due to climate change.[251]

Nevertheless, military exercises between China and Russia have primarily served as displays of political symbolism rather than offering significant military advantages. Their exercises often include the participation of other nations to showcase international support and highlight key foreign partnerships. Additionally, bilateral operational maneuvers have occasionally been conducted as assertive responses to specific political events.[252]

### Partnership

[edit]

Both China and Russia had no intentions of forming into a military alliance. According to China's former vice minister of foreign affairs Fu Ying in 2016, China had no intentions to create a formal anti-U.S. or anti-Western bloc alliance.[253] In March 2023, Russian president Vladimir Putin, in a comments briefing, assured that there is no military alliance between the two countries and stated that both Russia's and China's armed forces are "transparent".[254] In November 2023, Russian defence minister Sergey Shoigu stated that the China-Russia defence ties is not aimed to target third parties. Shoigu further added that "unlike certain aggressive western countries", both China and Russia "are not creating a military bloc".[253]

Rather than forming a formal alliance, the military partnership between Russia and China has developed based on a calculated alignment of interests. Both Moscow and Beijing have been hesitant to compromise their autonomy, risk direct confrontation with the West, or become entangled in each other's conflicts. Their military relationship is rooted in strategic independence and driven by mutual interests. While Russia and China collaborate strategically to challenge and reshape the global order to their advantage, neither relies on the other for military projection nor seeks involvement in the other's disputes. Despite recognizing the strategic value of their partnership, both maintain distinct approaches to strengthening their positions, avoiding political or military subordination. China focuses on enhancing its military power to assert dominance, while Russia prioritizes bolstering its deterrence capabilities to prevent an unwinnable conflict with the West. Russia and China have established "a tacit consensus of interests anchored in loose commitments of mutual assistance, enabling strategic autonomy for a synergy to strengthen their respective strategic positions in reshaping the current world order."[252]

In the 21st century, the Chinese Communist Party's version of the Sino-Soviet border conflict, which is present on many official Party websites, describes the events of March 1969 as a Soviet aggression against China.[255]

Leaked documents seen by the Financial Times in 2024 described a threshold for the country's use of tactical nuclear weapons that is lower than Russia had previously disclosed.[256] The document included training scenarios for a possible invasion by China.[257]

## Cultural relations

[edit]

Tourism, especially from China to Russia, has seen a massive spike over the years. More than 2 million Chinese tourists visited Russia in 2019, compared to 158,000 a decade ago. China is one of the most important tourist markets for Russia. Support for cooperation between Russian and Chinese investment organizations in tourism industry is provided in the context of the Joint Action Plan by the Russian Federal Agency for Tourism and China's State Administration of Tourism.[258] More than 2.3 million Chinese tourists flew into Moscow's Sheremetyevo – Alexander S. Pushkin international airport in 2019, including 1.26 million who transferred via the airport. Sheremetyevo, which offers flights to 29 Chinese cities served by eight Chinese airlines, expects their number to grow by 30 per cent a year in the years to come. Russia has played into this tourism boom by expanding capacity of Moscow's largest airport. "Russia has also allowed more flights from regional Chinese air companies to Moscow, which helps to turn the Russian capital into an air hub for Europe-bound Chinese tourism." Sheremetyevo is looking to capitalise on that growth. Pǔtōnghuà or standard Chinese is among the languages displayed on Sheremetyevo's signs and announcements, while duty-free stores accept popular Chinese payment methods, including UnionPay cards and online systems WeChat Pay and Alipay. As many as 70 per cent of tax-free receipts handed out at Russia's airports go to Chinese citizens. By 2019, Russia has become among the top 3 travel destinations for Chinese tourists.[259] After the Russian invasion of Ukraine and the subsequent deterioration of relations with the West, China's cultural popularity in Russia has grown.[260]

### Media communication agreements

[edit]

In March 2013, the Voice of Russia and the People's Daily signed a news sharing agreement as Xi and Putin presided.[261][262] On 13 October 2014, Russia Today and the People's Daily signed a cooperation agreement.[262] In July 2021, the Russian-Chinese Commission for Humanitarian Cooperation agreed to mass-media cooperation.[263][264]

## Mutual perceptions

[edit]

Since 1995, Russians have consistently held positive views of China. As of September 2022, 88% of Russians surveyed by the Levada Center view China favorably, with only 5% expressing a negative opinion.[265]

According to a 2017 BBC World Service poll, 74% of the Chinese view Russia's influence positively, with 18% expressing a negative view, while 44% of Russians view China's influence positively and 23% negatively.[266]

According to a 2019 survey by the Pew Research Center, 71% of Russians have a favorable view of China, with 18% expressing an unfavorable view.[267] A YouGov survey conducted in the same year found that 71% of the Chinese think Russia has a positive effect on world affairs, while 15% view it negatively.[268]

During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, many social media users in China showed sympathy for Russian narratives due in part to distrust of US foreign policy.[269][270] According to a Carter Center China Focus survey conducted in April 2022, approximately 75% of Chinese respondents agreed that supporting Russia in the Ukraine war was in China's best interest.[271] Chinese company NetEase has published videos critical of Russia from Chinese in Ukraine and Ukrainians in China.[272][273]

According to a Genron NPO poll released in November 2022 asking about Chinese peoples' views on the Russian invasion, 39.5% of respondents said the Russian actions "are not wrong", 21.5% said "the Russian actions are a violation of the U.N. Charter and international laws, and should be opposed", and 29% said "the Russian actions are wrong, but the circumstances should be considered."[274][275]

Mutual perceptions have facilitated ideological cohesion and political partnerships between the governments of Russia and China, such as through the issuing of "joint statements between the two countries [which emphasise] the alignment of their respective integration initiatives, such as the [Eurasian Economic Union] and China's Belt and Road Initiative, to enhance connectivity and cooperation in the Eurasian space."[276]

## See also

[edit]

* China portal
* Russia portal
* Politics portal

* Foreign relations of China
* Foreign relations of Russia
* Embassy of China, Moscow
* Ambassadors of China to Russia
* Ambassadors of Russia to China
* China–Soviet Union relations
* Russia–Taiwan relations
* History of Sino-Russian relations
* Russia's turn to the East
* China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (book)
* Ethnic Chinese in Russia
* Russians in China
* China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Territories under the control of the Republic of China (ROC): Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen and Matsu Islands are recognised by the Russian Federation as part of the PRC.[1]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China". Retrieved 3 April 2016.
2. ^ "Russia, China extend friendship and cooperation treaty -Kremlin". Reuters. 28 June 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
3. ^ "AFP: Chinese leader Xi, Putin agree key energy deals". Archived from the original on 11 April 2013.
4. ^ Trofimov, Yaroslav; Grove, Thomas (20 June 2020). "Weary Russia Tries to Avoid Entanglement in U.S.-China Spat". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 21 June 2020.
5. ^ Bob Savic. "Behind China and Russia's 'Special Relationship'". The Diplomat.
6. ^ DD Wu. "China and Russia Sign Military Cooperation Roadmap". The Diplomat.
7. ^ Stent, Angela (24 February 2020). "Russia and China: Axis of revisionists?". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
8. ^ Baev, Pavel K. (15 June 2020). "The limits of authoritarian compatibility: Xi's China and Putin's Russia". Brookings. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
9. ^ Eugene Rumer; Richard Sokolsky. "Chinese-Russian Defense Cooperation Is More Flash Than Bang". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
10. ^ "Putin says China is Russia's ally, backs its stance on Taiwan". Reuters. 8 November 2024.
11. ^ "Russia and China: 'Not allies, but better than allies'". The Economic Times. Retrieved 15 July 2021.
12. ^ "Analysis | Russia becomes China's 'junior partner'". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
13. ^ "Russia's reliance on China will outlast Vladimir Putin, says Alexander Gabuev". The Economist. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
14. ^ "Russia could become China's 'economic colony,' CIA director says". Fortune. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
15. ^ a b c Overland, Indra; Loginova, Julia (1 August 2023). "The Russian coal industry in an uncertain world: Finally pivoting to Asia?". Energy Research & Social Science. 102 103150\. Bibcode:2023ERSS..10203150O. doi:10.1016/j.erss.2023.103150. ISSN 2214-6296.
16. ^ "Russia China trade 2023". Reuters. 12 January 2024.
17. ^ "Territorial dispute between China and Russia risks clouding friendly future". Radio France Internationale. 21 March 2023.
18. ^ a b Chronology of principal defence and security-related agreements and initiatives involving the Russian Federation and Asian countries, 1992–99
19. ^ a b Parrish, Scott (30 December 1996). "Newsline Open Media Research Institute Daily Digest". rferl.org. Retrieved 23 August 2021.
20. ^ a b Turcsanyi, Richard J. (2023). "Relations with the Europe and Russia". In Kironska, Kristina; Turscanyi, Richard Q. (eds.). Contemporary China: a New Superpower?. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-03-239508-1.
21. ^ a b Lampton, David M. (2024). Living U.S.-China Relations: From Cold War to Cold War. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-5381-8725-8.
22. ^ a b Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The Dragon Roars Back: Transformational Leaders and Dynamics of Chinese Foreign Policy. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 212\. doi:10.1515/9781503634152. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8. OCLC 1331741429.
23. ^ a b c d e f Lukonin, Sergey A. (2023). "Russo-Chinese Trade and Economic Cooperation". China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Mher Sahakyan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-35258-7. OCLC 1353290533.
24. ^ Ho, David (5 June 2019). "The other special relationship: China's Xi visits Russia". Al-Jazeera.
25. ^ Sahakyan, Mher (2023). "Introduction: China, Eurasia, and the Multipolar World Order 2.0". China and Eurasian Powers in a Multipolar World Order 2.0: Security, Diplomacy, Economy and Cyberspace. Mher Sahakyan. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-003-35258-7. OCLC 1353290533.
26. ^ "Russia strengthens China ties in defiance of bellicose Trump". Financial Times. 5 June 2019.
27. ^ Yaroslav Trofimov, "The New Beijing-Moscow Axis," Wall Street Journal February 2, 2019.
28. ^ Trofimov, "The New Beijing-Moscow Axis," Wall Street Journal Feb. 2, 2019.
29. ^ AFP News (17 February 2024). "China declines comment on Navalny death, 'Russia's internal affair'". The Standard. Retrieved 17 February 2024.
30. ^ Chao Deng; Ann M. Simmons; Evan Gershkovich; William Mauldin (4 February 2022). "Putin, Xi Aim Russia-China Partnership Against U.S." Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 25 February 2022.
31. ^ a b Buckley, Chris; Myers, Steven Lee (7 March 2022). "'No Wavering': After Turning to Putin, Xi Faces Hard Wartime Choices for China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
32. ^ a b c Aitken, Peter (23 February 2022). "Chinese media accidentally posts CCP rules on Russia-Ukraine coverage, hint at Taiwan takeover". Fox News. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
33. ^ Conrad, Jennifer. "The War in Ukraine Is Keeping Chinese Social Media Censors Busy". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 10 March 2022.
34. ^ Stonestreet, John (25 February 2022). "Putin tells Xi that Russia willing to hold high-level talks with Ukraine, China says". Reuters. Reuters. Reuters. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
35. ^ "China rejects 'pressure or coercion' over Russia relations". AP News. 14 April 2022.
36. ^ "Measures to improve the resilience of the economy in the face of sanctions, No. 430-r". Russian Government. 5 March 2022.
37. ^ "US says China's support for Russia over Ukraine puts it on 'wrong side of history'". The Guardian. AFP in Washington. Retrieved 15 May 2022.
38. ^ "Xi Assures Putin Of China's Support For Russia". The ASEAN Post. 29 December 2016.
39. ^ "We are at war with the West. The European security order is illegitimate". Russian International Affairs Council. 15 April 2022.
40. ^ "China's Xi reasserts support for Russia on security issues". ABC News, Associated Press. 15 June 2022.
41. ^ Minxin Pei (20 June 2022). "China and Russia Are More Inseparable Than Ever". Asharq Al-Awsat, Bloomberg. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
42. ^ "Zelenskyy urges China's Xi to help end Russia's war in Ukraine". Al Jazeera. 4 August 2022.
43. ^ AFP News (27 February 2023). "Kremlin, on China Plan, Says No Conditions for Peace 'At the Moment' in Ukraine". The Moscow Times.
44. ^ Banco, Eric; Aarup, Sarah Anne (16 March 2023). "'Hunting rifles' — really? China ships assault weapons and body armor to Russia". Politico. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
45. ^ "Use of Chinese ammunition in Ukraine confirmed by U.S.: sources". Kyodo News. 18 March 2023.
46. ^ "Xi, Putin meeting highlights US tensions with China". ABC News. 21 March 2023.
47. ^ Gan, Nectar (20 March 2023). "Xi makes 'journey of friendship' to Moscow days after Putin's war crime warrant issued". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 March 2023.
48. ^ Rettman, Andrew (9 May 2023). "The EU fears that Chinese and UAE firms could be supplying weapons components to Russia, new sanctions indicate". EUobserver.
49. ^ "Russian shelling in Odesa damages Chinese consulate building". Meduza. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
50. ^ "Ukraine: at least two dead in Russian attack on Odesa port, China consulate damaged". South China Morning Post. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 20 July 2023.
51. ^ "China Won't Let Russia Starve the World". Foreign Policy. 17 May 2023. Retrieved 21 July 2023.
52. ^ Singh, Kanishka; Martina, Michael; Singh, Kanishka (27 July 2023). "US intelligence report says China likely supplying tech for Russian military". Reuters. Archived from the original on 27 July 2023.
53. ^ "US restricts trade with 42 Chinese entities over Russia military support". Reuters. 6 October 2023.
54. ^ "EU proposes sanctions on Chinese firms aiding Russian war effort". The Guardian. 14 February 2024.
55. ^ "Bank of China Halts Payments with Sanctioned Russian Lenders – Kommersant". 24 June 2024.
56. ^ Davidson, Helen; Sabbagh, Dan (10 April 2025). "'Do you want to show strength here?': Russia's ads recruiting Chinese mercenaries". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 18 April 2025.
57. ^ "US Senate may work on Russia sanctions bill this month". Reuters. 2 June 2025.
58. ^ Judah, Jacob; Sonne, Paul; Troianovski, Anton (7 June 2025). "Secret Russian Intelligence Document Shows Deep Suspicion of China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 14 June 2025.
59. ^ Rajagopalan, Megha (19 June 2025). "China Is Hacking Russia to Steal War Secrets". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 20 June 2025.
60. ^ Bermingham, Finbarr (4 July 2025). "China tells EU it does not want to see Russia lose its war in Ukraine: sources". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 4 July 2025.
61. ^ Fumagalli, Antonio. "Hinter verschlossener Türe legte Chinas Aussenminister die Zurückhaltung ab: Russland darf nicht verlieren!". Retrieved 5 July 2023.
62. ^ Dmochowski, Tadeusz. (2015). The Settlement of the Russian–Chinese Border Dispute. Polish Political Science Yearbook. 44. 56-74. 10.15804/ppsy2015006.
63. ^ "Russia and China tighten relations - UPI Archives". UPI. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
64. ^ "Китай | Росграница". 7 July 2015. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 26 February 2022.
65. ^ a b "Boris Yeltsin's Foreign Policy Legacy". paperzz.com. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
66. ^ "Дополнительное Соглашение Между Российской Федерацией И Китайской Народной Республикой О Российско-Китайской Государственной Границе На Ее Восточной Части (Заключено В Г. Пекине 14.10.2004)". Archived from the original on 12 August 2011. Retrieved 15 July 2011.
67. ^ Tagirova, Alsu (5 January 2022). "From Crisis Management to Realignment of Forces: The Diplomatic "Geometry" of the 1969–1978 Sino-Soviet Border Talks". Journal of Cold War Studies. 24 (1): 116–154\. doi:10.1162/jcws_a_01027. ISSN 1520-3972.
68. ^ "View of Journal of China and International Relations - Volume 1, Number 1". 9pdf.org.
69. ^ "Where Is Bolshoy Ussuriysky? Island at heart of Russia-China border dispute". Newsweek. 31 August 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
70. ^ "China signs border demarcation pact with Russia". Reuters. 21 July 2008. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
71. ^ a b "China, Russia sign border agreement". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
72. ^ Group 3, “Complementary Agreement between the People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation,” Russia in Global Perspective, accessed July 9, 2025, https://russiaglobal.omeka.fas.harvard.edu/items/show/24
73. ^ Dmochowski, Tadeusz. "THE SETTLEMENT OF THE RUSSIAN-CHINESE BORDER DISPUTE" (PDF). Czasopisma Marszalek. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
74. ^ "Russia gives territory to China, ending border dispute". www.spacewar.com. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
75. ^ "Return of Heixiazi Island marks end of border dispute". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 9 July 2025.
76. ^ Neville Maxwell, "How the Sino-Russian boundary conflict was finally settled: From Nerchinsk 1689 to Vladivostok 2005 via Zhenbao Island 1969." Critical Asian Studies 39.2 (2007): 229–253. online
77. ^ "China-Russia Bilateral Trade is World's Fastest Growing Opportunity Corridor – China Briefing News". china-briefing.com. 30 August 2017. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
78. ^ "China, Russia to double trade to US$200 billion with help of soybeans". 18 September 2019.
79. ^ Overland, Indra; Kubayeva, Gulaikhan (1 January 2018). "Did China Bankroll Russia's Annexation of Crimea? The Role of Sino-Russian Energy Relations". Russia's Turn to the East. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs: Palgrave Pivot. pp. 95–118\. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-69790-1_6. hdl:11250/2569203. ISBN 978-3-319-69789-5. S2CID 158719540.
80. ^ a b Russia-Chinese relations / / TASS −2016. – 26 MAY.
81. ^ Ratner, Ely; Rosenberg, Elizabeth (20 May 2014). "China Has Russia Over a Barrel". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 20 May 2014. Retrieved 20 May 2014.
82. ^ Titarenko M. Russian-Chinese summit-2014: a new stage of the interaction strategy / / publications of IIA RAS-2014. – 23 May.
83. ^ Trivedi, Anjani; Iosebashvili, Ira; Cui, Carolyn; Iosebashvili, Ira (26 January 2015). "China's Yuan Falls to Seven-Month Low". Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 9 November 2023.
84. ^ Beysenbaev, Ruslan; Dus, Yuri (30 June 2020). "Russia's national logistics system: main directions of development". Logforum. 16 (2): 209–218\. doi:10.17270/j.log.2020.395. ISSN 1895-2038. S2CID 216219860.
85. ^ Peyrouse S. Building a New Silk Road? Central Asia in the New World Order//Origins, vol. 2, issue 10, July 2009 – http://origins.osu.edu/article/building-new-silk-road-central-asia-new-world-order/page/0/2 Archived 24 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine
86. ^ "China's 2022 trade with Russia hit record $190 bln - customs". Reuters. 13 January 2023. Retrieved 18 January 2023.
87. ^ a b c Prokopenko, Alexandra (2 February 2023). "The Risks of Russia's Growing Dependence on the Yuan". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
88. ^ "China Drives Russia Car Sales After Global Brands Quit Over War". Bloomberg News. 6 July 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2023.
89. ^ Sahakyan, Mher D. (9 December 2024). "China's Digital Silk Road and the Eurasian Economic Union's Member States: Cooperation, Challenges, and Opportunities". Asian Affairs. 55 (4): 603–622\. doi:10.1080/03068374.2024.2421501. ISSN 0306-8374.
90. ^ "Russia, China sign new agreements, defying Western criticism". Al Jazeera. 24 May 2023.
91. ^ "Xi Hails 'Deepening' Trust Between China, Russia In Talks With Putin". Barron's. 18 October 2022. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
92. ^ "China-Russia 2023 trade value hits record high of $240 bln - Chinese customs". Reuters. 12 January 2024.
93. ^ "China's Xi Says Ties With Russia Grew Stronger in 2023". The Moscow Times. 31 December 2023.
94. ^ Bradsher, Keith (21 December 2023). "How China Is Profiting From Trade With Russia". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
95. ^ "US, UK take action targeting Russian aluminum, copper and nickel". Reuters. 12 April 2024.
96. ^ "Nornickel moves production to China to circumvent sanctions". The Barents Observer. 24 April 2024.
97. ^ "Exclusive: Nornickel in talks with China Copper to move smelting plant to China, sources say". Reuters. 9 July 2024.
98. ^ "Nornickel weighs projects in new top market China". Mining Weekly. 19 July 2024.
99. ^ "Biden's sanctions of Russian energy give electric vehicle batteries a pass". CNN. 10 March 2022.
100. ^ "Russia and China must counter any U.S. attempt at containment, Shoigu says". Reuters. 11 November 2024. Retrieved 12 November 2024.
101. ^ "China, Russia quit dollar". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
102. ^ "Chinese minister says China-Russia economic, trade co-op at new starting point". News.xinhuanet.com. Archived from the original on 7 November 2012. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
103. ^ Smolchenko, Anna (13 October 2014). "China, Russia seek 'international justice', agree currency swap line". news.yahoo.com. AFP News. Retrieved 13 October 2014.
104. ^ "China-Russia Partnership to Grow". InvestAsian. 15 October 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
105. ^ "Russia Still Uses 'Toxic' Euro, Dollar to Sell Nearly Half of Exports". Bloomberg News. 9 March 2023. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
106. ^ Dulaney, Chelsey; Gershkovich, Evan; Simanovskaya, Victoria (28 February 2023). "Russia Turns to China's Yuan in Effort to Ditch the Dollar". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 17 March 2023.
107. ^ Sor, Jennifer (21 December 2023). "China and Russia have almost completely abandoned the US dollar in bilateral trade as the push to de-dollarize intensifies". Markets Insider. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
108. ^ "Xi Lauds Trade Boom With Russia, Vows to 'Amplify' Cooperation". Bloomberg.com. 20 December 2023. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
109. ^ Glover, George (28 September 2023). "Russia is using China's yuan to settle 25% of its trade with the rest of the world, report says". Markets Insider. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
110. ^ "Nearly all Chinese banks are refusing to process payments from Russia, report says". Business Insider. 14 August 2024.
111. ^ "Bank of China Halts Payments With Sanctioned Russian Lenders – Kommersant". The Moscow Times. 24 June 2024.
112. ^ "China's trade with Russia is getting so difficult that payments can take half a year and most bank transfers are returned, report says". Business Insider. 30 July 2024.
113. ^ "Analysts: China-Russia financial cooperation raises red flag". VOA News. 30 July 2024.
114. ^ "Countries Compared by Energy > Oil > Consumption. International Statistics at". Nationmaster.com. 3 May 2014. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
115. ^ China overtakes the United States to become world's largest energy consumer. International Energy Agency. 20 July 2010. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 13 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
116. ^ "UPDATE 2-China crude oil demand growth to accelerate in 2012-CPCIF". Reuters. 11 January 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
117. ^ "Statistical Review of World Energy | Energy economics | BP Global". Bp.com. 20 June 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
118. ^ a b Russia: Rosneft and Transneft signed deals with China guaranteeing crude oil supplies in exchange for $25 billion in loans. Energy Compass. 3 April 2009.
119. ^ Goldman, Marshall. Petrostate: Putin, Power and the New Russia, 2008, pg.143.
120. ^ Hartley, P. and K. Medlock. Potential Futures for Russian Natural Gas Exports, Energy Journal, Special Issue on World Natural Gas Markets and Trade, 2009, pp. 73–95.
121. ^ MIT Center for Energy and Environmental Policy Research. July 2011. Paltsev, Sergey . Can Russian Natural Gas go to Non-European Markets? Russia's Natural Gas Export Potential up to 2050, PDF
122. ^ Overland, Indra; Braekhus, Kyrre (2007). "A Match Made in Heaven? Strategic Convergence between China and Russia" (PDF). China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly. 5. Norwegian Institute of International Affairs: 41–61 - via ETH Zurich.
123. ^ a b "Sputnik International". En.rian.ru. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 18 April 2011. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
124. ^ "International - Russia". U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Archived from the original on 17 February 2021.
125. ^ "Russian gas boost fuels Moscow's China pivot". Deutsche Welle. 12 January 2022.
126. ^ a b "'Power of Siberia': Russia, China launch massive gas pipeline". Al Jazeera. 2 December 2019.
127. ^ "'Power of Siberia 2' Pipeline Could See Europe, China Compete for Russian Gas". VOA News. 18 January 2022.
128. ^ "Ukraine war: Russia becomes China's biggest oil supplier". BBC News. 20 June 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
129. ^ "Sanctioned Russia Becomes China's Main Source of Oil, Customs Data Show". VOA News. 23 June 2022.
130. ^ "Russian gas set to power Shanghai by end of 2024 after pipeline completed". South China Morning Post. 18 November 2024. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
131. ^ "China completes full pipeline for Power-of-Siberia gas". Reuters. 2 December 2024.
132. ^ Xia, Yishan (May 2000). "China-Russia Energy Cooperation: Impetus, Prospects and Impacts" (PDF). Rice University. James A. Baker III Institute for Public Policy. pp. 5–6\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
133. ^ Xia, pg.4.
134. ^ "Asia Times Online :: Central Asian News and current affairs, Russia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan". Atimes.com. 29 April 2005. Archived from the original on 29 April 2005. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
135. ^ Yukos: The Final Curtain. FSU Oil & Gas Monitor, 26 July 2006, p. 5.
136. ^ Aris, Ben. Death of Yukos. FSU Oil & Gas Monitor, 2 August 2006, p. 4.
137. ^ Woodruff, David M. Khodorkovsky's Gamble: From Business to Politics in the YUKOS Conflict. PONARS Policy Memo 308. MIT. November 2003. [1].
138. ^ "Yukos case not to affect China-Russia oil pipeline: FM". English.peopledaily.com.cn. 5 November 2003. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
139. ^ China, Russia in Energy Pact. Oil Daily. Washington: 27 September 2004. pg. 1.
140. ^ https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/newspid=newsarchive&sid=a.CwLx2HL1ps&refer=europe [dead link]
141. ^ "China in Line for Yuganskneftegaz - Kommersant Moscow". Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
142. ^ "Asia Times Online :: China News, China Business News, Taiwan and Hong Kong News and Business". Atimes.com. 4 June 2005. Archived from the original on 5 June 2005. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
143. ^ "People's Daily Online – China did not fund Rosneft's purchase of Yuganskneftegaz". English.peopledaily.com.cn. 4 February 2005. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
144. ^ "Major_Events_2006". cnpc.com.cn. 22 July 2012. Archived from the original on 22 July 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
145. ^ China, Russia Forge Three Energy Deals. Oil Daily. Washington: 21 March 2006. pg. 1.
146. ^ "China Offers Transneft $400M for Oil Pipeline | the St. Petersburg Times | the leading English-language newspaper in St. Petersburg". Archived from the original on 15 June 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
147. ^ Stern, Jonathan. The Future of Russian Gas and Gazprom, pp. 152–9.
148. ^ Henderson, James. Non-Gazprom Gas Producers in Russia, Oxford: Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, 2010, pg. 151.
149. ^ "Altai Project". Archived from the original on 3 October 2010. Retrieved 9 October 2010.
150. ^ a b "Asia Times Online :: Central Asian News and current affairs, Russia, Afghanistan, Uzbekistan". Atimes.com. 11 June 2008. Archived from the original on 7 October 2008. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
151. ^ "Sakhalin–Khabarovsk–Vladivostok Transmissions System". Gazprom Projects. "Sakhalin – Khabarovsk – Vladivostok". Archived from the original on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 10 September 2011.
152. ^ "Surprise Chinese Bid Raises Slavneft Stakes". The Moscow Times. Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
153. ^ Alex Frew McMillan. "CNN.com – Chinese pull out of Russian oil bid – Dec. 17, 2002". CNN. Hong Kong. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
154. ^ Lelyveld, Michael. Russia: Moscow's Oil Pipeline Plan to China Stalls, Radio Free Europe Radio Liberty (Henceforth RFERL). Newsline. 10 December 2002
155. ^ Lim, Le-Min. China Sees Russian Barrier to Slavneft. International Herald Tribune. 17 December 2002
156. ^ Anti-China Sentiment Plays Into Duma vote," Stratfor, Dec 16, 2002
157. ^ "Chinese Drop Plans to Bid for Slavneft. Rosbusiness Consulting. 17 December 2002.
158. ^ "Investments-Slavneft". Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
159. ^ "Inside China, Inc: China Development Bank's Cross-Border Energy Deals - Brookings Institution". Brookings Institution. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
160. ^ O'Rourke, Breffni. China/Russia: CNPC Denied Intended Stake in Rosneft. RFE/RL. 19 July 2006
161. ^ "CNPC invests $500M in Rosneft's IPO". Chinadaily.com.cn. 19 July 2006. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
162. ^ Xinhua, FBIS SOV, 22 March 2010.
163. ^ Yuejin, Wang and Na, Zhang. Russia: Is It a New Investment Opportunity for China? Zhongguo Jingli Shibao Online. 23 September 2008, FBIS SOV, trans. 7 October 2008.
164. ^ Interfax, FBIS SOV, 22 March 2010.
165. ^ "Global Insights: Chinese-Russian Relations the Best Ever?". Worldpoliticsreview.com. 23 June 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
166. ^ "China, Russia sign five-point joint statement_English_Xinhua". News.xinhuanet.com. 18 June 2009. Archived from the original on 20 June 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
167. ^ "China,Russia mark completion of crude oil pipeline". Chinadaily.com.cn. 27 September 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
168. ^ "Russia and China sign series of energy agreements". BBC News. 27 September 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
169. ^ Russia begins filling ESPO spur to China with oil. Anon. Interfax : Russia & CIS Oil & Gas Weekly. (1 September 2010).
170. ^ "Назарбаев сменил руководство "Казмунайгаза" и Мангистауской области". Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
171. ^ "Devastation from Russian Oil Spill". Greenpeace. Archived from the original on 24 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
172. ^ "Neva is Being Poisoned with Oil Products and Naphthalene | Greenpeace Russia". Greenpeace.org. 21 August 2007. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
173. ^ Zhao, H., & Lu, X. Yu, X., Wang, G., Zou, Y., Wang, Q. Effects of pipeline construction on wetland ecosystems: Russia-china oil pipeline project (mohe-daqing section), Ambio, 2010. 39(5), pp. 447–50.
174. ^ "Russia oil rig capsizes off Sakhalin, dozens missing". BBC News. 18 December 2011.
175. ^ "Sakhalin-1 Project homepage, Exxon Neftegas Limited". Sakhalin-1.com. 18 August 2016. Archived from the original on 29 December 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
176. ^ "ExxonMobil, CNPC Negotiate on Sakhalin-1". Yuzno.com. 19 February 2008. Archived from the original on 8 August 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
177. ^ "Sakhalin Energy". Archived from the original on 16 January 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
178. ^ Paul Roderick Gregory. "A Tale Of Three Thefts: China, Russia, And The U.S". Forbes.com. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
179. ^ Elder, Miriam (27 December 2008). "Russia look to control world's gas prices". The Daily Telegraph. London. Archived from the original on 29 December 2008.
180. ^ Pipeline & Gas Journal's 2008 International Pipeline Construction Report. Pipeline & Gas Journal. Aug 2008, p. 20.
181. ^ "Russia". Archived from the original on 30 December 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
182. ^ "China Joins the Battle for Sakhalin – Kommersant Moscow". Kommersant.com. Archived from the original on 28 August 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
183. ^ "gulfnews: Exxon's Sakhalin-1 signs China deal". Gulf News, Reuters. 14 July 2012. Archived from the original on 14 July 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2018.
184. ^ "Energy profile of Sakhalin Island, Russia". Eoearth.org. Archived from the original on 11 April 2011. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
185. ^ Herman Pirchner Jr; Larissa Eltsefon (5 October 2009). "The Uncertain Future: Sino-Russian Relations in the 21st Century". Wilson Center. Archived from the original on 15 February 2021.
186. ^ BBC Monitoring, 22 July 2000
187. ^ ""New Security Challenges and Russia. " / Russia in Global Affairs. Foreign policy research foundation". Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
188. ^ Alexseev, Mikhail A. Program on New Alternatives in the Study of Russian Society (PONARS), Policy Memo 317 (2003), p. 4.
189. ^ Rzhesevskiy, Alexander. Far East Military threats: Old and New. Parlametnskaya Gazeta. In Russian, 14 May 2005, FBIS SOV, trans, 24 May 2005.
190. ^ Trenin, Dmitri. Russia's Asia Policy Under Vladimir Putin, 2000–2005. Rozman, Gilbert, Togo, Kazuhiko and Ferguson, Joseph P. (eds.), 2006. Russian Strategic Thought Toward Asia, New York, Palgrave Macmillan, p. 131.
191. ^ Wishnick, Elizabeth. Russia and the CIS in 2005. Asian Survey, vol 46, no. 1 (2006), p. 72.
192. ^ Kim,Woo-Jun. Cooperation and Conflict Among Provinces: The Three Northeastern Provinces of China, the Russian Far East, and Sinujiu, North Korea. Issues & Studies, vol. 44, no. 3. September 2008, p. 219.
193. ^ Blank, 2010
194. ^ Graham, Thomas. The Sources of Russia's Insecurity. Survival, vol. 52, no. 1. 2010, p. 63.
195. ^ Blagov, Sergei. Russia Wants to Be More than China's Source for Raw materials. Jamestown Foundation, Eurasia Daily Monitor, vol. 2, no. 181. 30 September 2005.
196. ^ Andreas Umland (22 June 2015). "Towards a Greater Asia?". Eurozine.
197. ^ Interfax, Presidential Bulletin, FBIS SOV, 21 August 2001
198. ^ Medvedev: Far East Ignored Too Long Without Action, Russia Will Lose It, He Says. Analytical Department of RIA RosbusinessConsulting. 26 September 2008
199. ^ Johnson's Russia list, 27 September 2008.
200. ^ Lo, Bobo. Axis of Convenience: Moscow, Beijing, and the New Geopolitics. Washington D.C., Brookings Institution Press. 2008, p. 66.
201. ^ Trenin, Dmitri. The End of Eurasia: Russia on the Border Between Geopolitics and Globalization. Washington, D.C., Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 2002.
202. ^ Gulkov, Alexander N. Basic Concepts of Cooperation in North-East Asia in the Oil and Gas Sector for the Period 2010–2030. Northeast Asia Energy Focus, vol. 7, no. 1. Spring 2010, pp.10–15.
203. ^ Kulagin, Vyacheslav. The East as the New Priority of the Russian Energy Policy. Northeast Asia Energy Focus, vol. 7, no. 1. Spring 2010, pp. 36–43.
204. ^ Kaysen, Ronda. "The New York Times – Breaking News, World News & Multimedia". International Herald Tribune. Retrieved 22 October 2016.[permanent dead link]
205. ^ Blank, Stephen. "Russia's Failure in Asia'. UNISCI Discussion Papers 24. Oct 2010, pp 61–82.
206. ^ Helmer, John. Kremlin Extends Welcome to Foreign Miners. Asia Times Online. 1 July 2009
207. ^ Interfax Russia & CIS Oil and Gas Weekly, FBIS SOV 17 June 2009
208. ^ Potapov, Maxim. China's Experience as a Member of APEC: Lessons for Russia. Far Eastern Affairs, no. 1 (2001): 47.
209. ^ ITAR-TASS, FBIS SOV, 6 April 2006. [www.president.ru].
210. ^ "Gazprom in Eastern Russia, Entry into Asia-Pacific Markets" (PDF). Gazprom.com. 17 June 2009. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
211. ^ Eastern Gas Program. Gazprom Website Archived 14 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine
212. ^ a b c Zhao, Huasheng (2016). "Central Asia in Chinese Strategic Thinking". The new great game: China and South and Central Asia in the era of reform. Thomas Fingar. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. p. 184\. ISBN 978-0-8047-9764-1. OCLC 939553543.
213. ^ "Welcome to SCO Website". Archived from the original on 4 March 2009. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
214. ^ a b Wishnick, 2009.
215. ^ Medvedev Pledges to Build Strategic Partnership with China. RIA Novosti. 24 May 2008. [www.en.rian.ru], accessed 28 May 2008
216. ^ Reaping the Benefits of Two Glorious Years. Xinhua. 7 November 2007. [Chinadaily.com.cn], accessed 19 May 2008.
217. ^ "Joint Statement between The People's Republic of China and the Russian Federation". 4 April 2007. [www.fmprc.cn], accessed 28 May 2008.
218. ^ China-Russia Joint Statement Says International Security 'Inalienable'. Xinhua. 23 May 2008. [www.lexisnexis.com], accessed 28 May 2008.
219. ^ Huasheng, Zhao. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation at 5: Achievements and Challenges Ahead. China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Vol. 4, No. 3. 2006, p. 117-118.
220. ^ Guang, Pan. Bishkek: SCO's Success in the Hinterland of Eurasia. China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, Vol. 5, No. 4. 2007, p. 5.
221. ^ "Russia Urges Formation of Central Asian Energy Club". EurasiaNet. 6 November 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
222. ^ Luft, Gal and Anne Korin. Energy Security Challenges for the 21st Century. Greenwood Publishing Press, 2009. pg. 96.
223. ^ "Prikaspiisky Pipeline: Temporary Delay or Fundamental Problem?". EurasiaNet.org. 25 June 2007. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
224. ^ "Russia Talks TAPI with Turkmenistan; Postpones Prikaspiisky". Eurasianet. 25 October 2010. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
225. ^ Clark, Martin. Beijing Triumphs with Inauguration of Kazakhstani Crude Pipe. FSU Oil & Gas Monitor. 21 December 2005.
226. ^ KazTransOil Announces Beginning of Russian Crude Transit to China. Interfax. 21 January 2008. [www.uoalberta.ca], accessed 24 July 2008.
227. ^ Gurt, Marat. Russian Company Wins Turkmen Pipeline Tender. Reuters. 19 February 2008. [www.lexisnexis.com], accessed 23 July 2008.
228. ^ "China and Russia Reach 30-Year Gas Deal". The New York Times. 22 May 2014. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
229. ^ Richard Weitz. "Why China Snubs Russia Arms". The Diplomat. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
230. ^ "China defense minister visits Israel". Archived 30 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine World Tribune. Thursday, 21 October 1999
231. ^ a b c Brown, Kerry (2023). China Incorporated: The Politics of a World Where China is Number One. London: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-26724-4.
232. ^ Zhao 2004, p. 216.
233. ^ a b Jon Grevatt (4 September 2015). "China's defence industry: good but could do better". CNN- Special to CNN. Retrieved 3 April 2016.
234. ^ Johnson, Dave (20 December 2018). "VOSTOK 2018: Ten years of Russian strategic exercises and warfare preparation". NATO Review. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
235. ^ Boulègue, Mathieu (29 September 2018). "What Russia's Vostok-2018 exercises mean for China and the West". The Hill. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
236. ^ Simes, Dimitri (20 December 2019). "Russia up in arms over Chinese theft of military technology". The Nikkei. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
237. ^ Ilyushina, Mary (17 June 2020). "Russia accuses leading Arctic researcher of spying for China". CNN. Retrieved 20 June 2020.
238. ^ "US officials say Russia has asked China for military help in Ukraine". Financial Times. Financial Times. Financial Times. Retrieved 13 March 2022.
239. ^ Alberto Nardelli and Jennifer Jacobs. (14 March 2022). "U.S. Warns Europe That Russia Wants Armed Drones From China". Bloomberg News website Retrieved 18 March 2022.
240. ^ "Beijing denies Russia requested military equipment for Ukraine invasion as U.S., China meet". Retrieved 15 May 2022.
241. ^ Trevelyan, Mark (3 July 2022). "Russian laser scientist dies two days after arrest for state treason". Reuters. Retrieved 4 July 2022.
242. ^ Lebedev, Filipp; Papachristou, Lucy; Trevelyan, Mark (24 May 2023). "Exclusive: Russian hypersonic scientist accused of betraying secrets to China". Reuters.
243. ^ "China's defence minister and Putin vow to strengthen military cooperation". The Guardian. 17 April 2023.
244. ^ Wang, Amber (17 April 2023). "Russia and China show solidarity as Chinese defence minister Li Shangfu heads to Moscow". South China Morning Post.
245. ^ "Russia accuses US of stoking tensions in the Arctic". Reuters. 24 July 2024. Retrieved 28 July 2024.
246. ^ "Joint Russian and Chinese air patrol heightens tension in Korean peninsula". the Guardian. Reuters. 23 July 2019. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
247. ^ Moscow, AP in (22 December 2020). "Russia and China fly joint bomber patrol over the Pacific". the Guardian. Retrieved 22 December 2020.
248. ^ "Russian and Chinese strategic bombers conduct joint patrols in Asia". Reuters. 30 November 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
249. ^ "Kremlin says Putin attends military exercises with Chinese forces". Al Jazeera. 6 September 2022.
250. ^ "China, Russia navies conduct joint patrol in parts of Pacific, China media says". 14 July 2024. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
251. ^ "Russia and China push back against U.S. warnings over military and economic forays in the melting Arctic". 23 July 2024. Archived from the original on 24 July 2024. Retrieved 24 July 2024.
252. ^ a b Kurylo, Benjamin (1 November 2024). "Redefining alliances: Exploring the emergence of the China-Russia military axis". Comparative Strategy. 43 (6): 595–628\. doi:10.1080/01495933.2024.2409036. ISSN 0149-5933.
253. ^ a b Feng, Huiyun; He, Kai (9 September 2024). "Why will China and Russia not form an alliance? The balance of beliefs in peacetime". International Affairs. 100 (5): 2089–2112\. doi:10.1093/ia/iiae184. hdl:10072/433156. ISSN 0020-5850.
254. ^ "Russia, China are not creating military alliance, Putin says". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 June 2023. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
255. ^ Astashin, Nikita. Новейшая фальсификация Китаем истории конфликта на острове Даманский и бездействие МИД России [The latest falsification by China of the history of the conflict on Damansky Island and the inaction of the Russian Foreign Ministry] (PDF download). academia.edu.
256. ^ "FT: Leaked files reveal Russian military's criteria for nuclear strike". The Kyiv Independent. 28 February 2024.
257. ^ Tom, Ball (28 February 2024). "Russia prepared for nuclear attack on China, leaked papers reveal". The Times. Retrieved 14 June 2025.
258. ^ "Year of Russian Tourism in China - Ростуризм". the Russian Federal Agency for Tourism. 1 May 2021. Archived from the original on 1 May 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2022.
259. ^ "China tourism growth lifts fortunes of Russia's airports". Financial Times. 7 January 2020.
260. ^ Nechepurenko, Ivan; Heitmann, Nanna (30 June 2025). "Drifting From the West's Orbit, Russians Find a New Role Model in China". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 30 June 2025.
261. ^ Bandurski, David (11 March 2022). "China and Russia are joining forces to spread disinformation". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
262. ^ a b Wu, Leb; Hua, Di; Qu, Haiqi (14 October 2014). "人民网与今日俄罗斯签署合作协议--时政--人民网" [People's Daily Online signed a cooperation agreement with RT]. People's Daily (in Chinese).
263. ^ Hvistendahl, Mara (30 December 2022). "Hacked Russian Files Reveal Propaganda Agreement With China". The Intercept. Retrieved 2 January 2023.
264. ^ "ПРО·ТОКОЛ четырнадцатоrо заседания Подкомис·сии по сотрудничеству в области средс" [PROTOCOL of the fourteenth meeting of the Sub-commission on cooperation in the field of media] (PDF). 9 August 2021. China-Russia media cooperation agreement, July 2021
265. ^ "Attitude towards countries and their citizens". Levada. 16 September 2022. Retrieved 30 September 2022.
266. ^ "BBC World Service poll" (PDF). BBC. 30 June 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 June 2021. Retrieved 2 March 2019.
267. ^ "People around the globe are divided in their opinions of China". Pew Research. Retrieved 1 October 2019.
268. ^ "Superpowers and Country Reputations" (PDF). YouGov. 31 August 2019.
269. ^ Repnikova, Maria; Zhou, Wendy (11 March 2022). "What China's Social Media Is Saying About Ukraine". The Atlantic.
270. ^ "Ukraine war: most Chinese believe backing Russia is in their national interest, says US think tank". South China Morning Post. 20 April 2022.
271. ^ Frederik Kelter (31 March 2023). "Russian 'invasion was wrong': Views from China on war in Ukraine". Al Jazeera.
272. ^ "乌克兰华人接到噩耗痛哭：好朋友为国牺牲，同学弟弟奔赴战场" [Ukrainian Chinese cried bitterly after receiving the bad news: good friends sacrificed for the country, classmates and younger brothers rushed to the battlefield]. NetEase (in Chinese). 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022.
273. ^ "西安生活7年的乌克兰留学生发声引热议：俄没资格为乌做决定" [A Ukrainian student who has lived in Xi'an for 7 years speaks out: Russia is not qualified to make decisions for Ukraine]. NetEase (in Chinese). 27 February 2022. Archived from the original on 9 July 2022.
274. ^ "How do the Chinese view the Taiwan Strait issue and the Russian invasion of Ukraine?". Genron NPO. 30 November 2022. Archived from the original on 26 January 2023.
275. ^ NOBUYOSHI SAKAJIRI (22 December 2022). "INTERVIEW/ NPO head details rare survey of Chinese views on Ukraine, Taiwan". The Asahi Shimbun. Archived from the original on 22 December 2022.
276. ^ "Russian-Chinese Relations: A Marriage of Expedience or a true partnership in world politics? - Danube Institute". danubeinstitute.hu. Retrieved 23 June 2025.

## Further reading

[edit]

Library resources about
China–Russia relations

* * *

* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Bernstein, Thomas P. and Hua-Yu Li, eds. China Learns from the Soviet Union, 1949–Present (2010).
* Blank, Stephen. "Is Russia a great power in Asia?." in Great Powers and Geopolitics (Springer, Cham, 2015) pp. 161–182. online
* Blank, Stephen. "Russo-Chinese relations in strategic perspective." in International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) pp. 93–108.
* Blank, Stephen, and Younkyoo Kim. "Does Russo-Chinese partnership threaten America's interests in Asia?." Orbis 60.1 (2016): 112–127.
* Contessi, Nicola P. "China, Russia and the Leadership of the SCO: A Tacit Deal Scenario" China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly 8, 4 (2010): 101–123.
* Efremenko D. "New Russian Government's Foreign Policy towards East Asia and the Pacific" Journal of East Asian Affairs (2012) 26#2 (Seoul: Institute for National Security ) metaCode=en_m_pub&boardId=a57b3ef8b2bff73bb9e00084&pkey=1 online
* Fravel, M. Taylor. Active Defense: China's Military Strategy since 1949 (Princeton University Press, 2019) online reviews
* Garver, John W. Foreign relations of the People's Republic of China (1992) online
* Herbst, John. "The Coming Russian-Chinese Clash" The National Interest Aug. 21, 2020.
* Hsu, Jing-Yun, and Jenn-Jaw Soong. "Development of China-Russia Relations (1949–2011) Limits, Opportunities, and Economic Ties." Chinese economy 47.3 (2014): 70–87. online Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine
* Jersild, Austin.  The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History (U of North Carolina Press, 2014).
* Kim, Younkyoo, and Stephen Blank. "Rethinking Russo-Chinese Relations in Asia: Beyond Russia's Chinese Dilemma." China: An International Journal(2013) 11#3 pp: 136–148. online
* Kim, Younkyoo; Indeo, Fabio (2013). "The new great game in Central Asia post 2014: The US "New Silk Road" strategy and Sino-Russian rivalry". Communist and Post-Communist Studies. 46 (2): 275–286\. doi:10.1016/j.postcomstud.2013.03.005.
* Korolev, Alexander. "The Strategic Alignment between Russia and China: Myths and Reality." Singapore: Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy Research Paper #15–19 (2015). online
* Kuliabin A. Semine S. Russia — a counterbalancing agent to the Asia. Zavtra Rossii, #28, 17 July 1997. RUSSIA IN THE PACIFIC REGION SYSTEM:
* March, G. Patrick. Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific (1996) online
* Marsh, Christopher. Unparalleled Reforms. China's Rise, Russia's Fall and the Interdependence of Transition (2005).
* Maxwell. Neville. "How the Sino-Russian boundary conflict was finally settled: From Nerchinsk 1689 to Vladivostok 2005 via Zhenbao Island 1969." Critical Asian Studies 39.2 (2007): 229–253. online
* Moshes, Arkady and Matti Nojonen, eds. Russia-China relations: Current state, alternative futures, and implications for the West FIIA Report 30, The Finnish Institute of International Affairs (September 2011)
* Nye, Joseph. "A New Sino-Russian Alliance?" Project Syndicate 12 January 2015
* Quested, Rosemary K.I. Sino-Russian relations: a short history (Routledge, 2014) online
* Rozman, Gilbert. The Sino-Russian Challenge to the World Order: National Identities, Bilateral Relations, and East versus West in the 2010s (2014) online review
* Rozman, Gilbert. The Chinese Debate about Soviet Socialism, 1978–1985 (Princeton UP, 1987).
* Rozman, Gilbert and Sergey Radchenko, eds. International Relations and Asia's Northern Tier (Palgrave, Singapore, 2018) excerpt
* Shen, Zhihua. A Short History of Sino-Soviet Relations, 1917–1991 (Springer Singapore;Palgrave Macmillan, 2020)
* Snow, Philip. China and Russia: Four Centuries of Conflict and Concord (Yale UP, 2023) excerpt at Amazon
* Tian, Hao. "Sino-Russian Relations: Conflict and Cooperation." (Lehigh University, 2016), bibliography pp 55–60; online
* Trenin, Dmitri. Challenges and Opportunities: Russia and the Rise of China and India in Strategic Asia 2011–12: Asia Responds to Its Rising Powers – China and India (September 2011)
* Urbansky, Sören. Beyond the Steppe Frontier: A History of the Sino-Russian Border (2020) a comprehensive history; excerpt
* Weitz, Richard. China-Russia security relations: strategic parallelism without partnership or passion? (Maroon Ebooks, 2015)
* Wishnick, Elizabeth. Mending Fences. The Evolution of Moscow's China Policy from Brezhnev to Yeltsin (2001)
* Zubok, Vladislav. "The Soviet Union and China in the 1980s: reconciliation and divorce." Cold War History 17.2 (2017): 121–141.

* v
* t
* e

China–Russia relations

Diplomatic posts|

* Embassy of China, Moscow
* Ambassadors of Russia to China
* Consulate General of Russia, Shanghai

Diplomacy|

* 1991 Sino-Soviet Border Agreement
* 2001 Sino-Russian Treaty of Friendship
* Altai gas pipeline
* 2007 Delhi security summit
* Eastern Siberia–Pacific Ocean oil pipeline
* Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
* BRICS
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
* State visits by Xi Jinping to Russia, Tanzania, South Africa and Congo
* 2023 visit by Xi Jinping to Russia
* 2024 visit by Vladimir Putin to China
* 2025 state visit by Xi Jinping to Russia

Cooperation & Incidents|

* China-Russia Friendship Association
* China-Russia Expo
* New Star incident

Military relations|

* Vostok 2018
* Chinese missile warning system
* Marine Security Belt

Related|

* History of Sino-Russian relations
* Sino-Soviet relations
* China–Russia border
* Trans-Zeya villages
* Outer Manchuria
* China and the Russian invasion of Ukraine
* Russo-Chinese Bank Building
* Shenzhen MSU-BIT University
* Chinese Eastern Railway
* Chinese Orthodox Church
* Second Cold War
* Cyrillization of Chinese
* Li Yueran
* China and Russia
* Axis of Upheaval

Category:China–Russia relations

* v
* t
* e

Foreign relations of China

Bilateral relations

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Cape Verde
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Comoros
* Congo, Democratic Republic of the
* Congo, Republic of the
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gabon
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Liberia
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Sierra Leone
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Togo
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

|

Americas|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Argentina
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Belize
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Canada
* Chile
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Ecuador
* El Salvador
* Grenada
* Guatemala
* Guyana
* Haiti
* Honduras
* Jamaica
* Mexico
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Saint Lucia
* Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
* Suriname
* Trinidad and Tobago
* United States
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* East Timor
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* history
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* North Korea
* History
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palestine
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* South Korea
* History
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Northern Domination
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Austria
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Kosovo
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Turkey
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Vatican City

Oceania|

* Australia
* Cook Islands
* Fiji
* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Niue
* Palau
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Solomon Islands
* Tonga
* Tuvalu
* Vanuatu

Former states|

* Soviet Union
* Yugoslavia

Multilateral relations

* BCIM Economic Corridor
* BIMSTEC
* Africa
* Arab League
* BRICS
* Caribbean
* China–Japan–South Korea
* European Union
* Latin America
* Oceania
* Third World
* United Nations
* Arctic policy of China
* China and the Antarctic

Diplomacy

* Central Foreign Affairs Commission (General Secretary)
* Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister)
* Diplomatic missions of China / in China
* Belt and Road Initiative
* China's core interests
* China's peaceful rise
* Chinese Century
* Chinese sanctions
* Confucius Institute
* Dates of diplomatic recognition
* Foreign policy of China
* Foreign Relations Law
* Foreign relations of Hong Kong
* Nine-dash line
* Panda diplomacy
* Political status of Taiwan
* Chinese unification
* One China principle
* Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership
* Stadium diplomacy
* String of Pearls
* Major historical splits
* Soviet
* Albania
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
* Treaties
* Theater diplomacy
* Wolf warrior diplomacy
* Xi Jinping Thought on Diplomacy

* v
* t
* e

Foreign relations of Russia

Bilateral relations

| Africa|

* Algeria
* Angola
* Benin
* Botswana
* Burkina Faso
* Burundi
* Cameroon
* Central African Republic
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Djibouti
* Egypt
* Equatorial Guinea
* Eritrea
* Eswatini
* Ethiopia
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea-Bissau
* Ivory Coast
* Kenya
* Lesotho
* Libya
* Madagascar
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Mauritius
* Morocco
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Rwanda
* Senegal
* Seychelles
* Somalia
* South Africa
* South Sudan
* Sudan
* Tanzania
* Tunisia
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

|

Americas|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Canada
* Chile
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Ecuador
* Guatemala
* Guyana
* Honduras
* Mexico
* Nicaragua
* Panama
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Trinidad and Tobago
* United States
* Russian Empire
* Soviet Union
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Georgia
* Abkhazia
* South Ossetia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Kurdistan Region
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* North Korea
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Palestine
* Hamas
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* South Korea
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

Europe|

* Albania
* Austria
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Italy
* Kosovo
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Transnistria
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Ukraine
* Donetsk PR
* Luhansk PR
* United Kingdom
* Vatican City

Oceania|

* Australia
* Fiji
* Nauru
* New Zealand
* Tonga
* Vanuatu

Multilateral relations

* BRICS
* European Union
* NATO
* United Nations
* Arctic policy of Russia
* Russia and the Antarctic
* Near Abroad

Diplomacy

* Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Foreign Minister)
* Diplomatic missions of Russia / in Russia
* European energy sector
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation
* Eurasian Economic Union
* Military Cooperation
* Treaties
* Military doctrine
* Foreign Relations of Russia since the Russian invasion of Ukraine

* v
* t
* e

Sino-Russian treaties

Russian and Qing empires|

* Nerchinsk (1689)
* Bura (1727)
* Kyakhta (1727, 1768, 1792)
* Kulja (1851)
* Aigun (1858)
* Tientsin (1858)
* Peking (1860)
* Tarbagatai (1864)
* Livadia (1879)
* Saint Petersburg (1881)
* Moscow (1896)
* Peking (1898)
* Boxer Protocol (1901)
* Qiqikar (1911)

Russian Empire and Republic of China|

* Treaty of Kyakhta (1915)

Soviet Union and Republic of China|

* Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peking (1924)
* Khabarovsk Protocol (1929)
* Non-Aggression Pact (1937)
* Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945)

Soviet Union and People's Republic of China|

* Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance (1950)
* Border Agreement (1991)

Russian Federation and People's Republic of China|

Treaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (2001)

* v
* t
* e

BRICS

Membership|

* Brazil
* Russia
* India
* China
* South Africa
* Egypt
* Ethiopia
* Iran
* United Arab Emirates
* Indonesia

Summits|

1. Yekaterinburg 2009
2. Brasília 2010
3. Sanya 2011
4. New Delhi 2012
5. Durban 2013
6. Fortaleza 2014
7. Ufa 2015
8. Goa 2016
9. Xiamen 2017
10. Johannesburg 2018
11. Brasília 2019
12. Saint Petersburg 2020
13. New Delhi 2021
14. Beijing 2022
15. Johannesburg 2023
16. Kazan 2024
17. Rio de Janeiro 2025
18. India 2026

Leaders|

* Lula
* Putin
* Modi
* Xi
* Ramaphosa
* Sisi
* Ahmed
* Pezeshkian
* Al Nahyan
* Prabowo

Sports|

* BRICS U-17 Football Cup
* 2016 Goa
* 2018 Johannesburg
* BRICS Games
* 2024 Kazan
* Athletics
* Badminton
* Gymnastics

Related|

* BRICS Contingent Reserve Arrangement
* BRICS Cable
* BRICS Universities League
* New Development Bank
* BRICS PAY
* BRIC (economics term)

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template