Chinese imperialism

Expansion of China's political, economic, military, and cultural influence

Not to be confused with Chinese Empire and Imperial China.

In October 2010, a month after the 2010 Senkaku boat collision incident, conservative protesters in Japan displayed the slogan "Down with Chinese imperialism" (打倒中華帝国主義) to express their discontent. Chinese imperialism

Traditional Chinese| 中國帝國主義
Simplified Chinese| 中国帝国主义
| Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin| Zhōngguó dìguó zhǔyì
Bopomofo| ㄓㄨㄥ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄉㄧˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄓㄨˇ ㄧˋ
Wade–Giles| Chung1-kuo2 ti4-kuo2 chu3-i4
Alternative Chinese name
Traditional Chinese| 中華帝國主義
Simplified Chinese| 中华帝国主义
| Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin| Zhōnghuá dìguó zhǔyì
Bopomofo| ㄓㄨㄥ ㄏㄨㄚˊ ㄉㄧˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ ㄓㄨˇ ㄧˋ
Wade–Giles| Chung1-hua2 ti4-kuo2 chu3-i4

Chinese imperialism refers to the expansion of political, economic, and cultural influence beyond the boundaries of the People's Republic of China. Depending on the commentator, it has also been used to refer to its territorial claims in the South China Sea[1] and the persecution of Uyghurs in China.[2][3] Although there has not been a long-standing imperial regime in China since the 1911 Revolution and the country is officially a People's Republic, some refer to China as an imperialist country. This includes socialist parties in the Pacific such as the New People's Army, the Japanese Communist Party, some Maoist parties, and the New Left (especially some of the Chinese New Left). China's relations with Africa have also been accused of being "neo-colonialism".[4][5][6]

## History

[edit]

See also: Tributary system of China

Qing dynasty at peak and its sphere of influence

Various imperial dynasties expanded their territory throughout China's history before the Republican era.[7][8][9]

### People's Republic of China

[edit]

Since the Chinese economic reform of 1978, China became a new economic, military, and political great power. As China transformed, there were hopes that the Chinese government would give up its expansionist ideas.[10] However, since Chinese Communist Party general secretary Xi Jinping's rise to power, and as a result of increasing territorial conflicts in which China stated that most of the disputed lands belong to China, it is generally believed that China continues to adhere to irredentist claims.[11][10]

#### Belt and Road Initiative

[edit]

Further information: Belt and Road Initiative § Accusations of neocolonialism and debt-trap, and Debt-trap diplomacy

Some academics and commentators have argued that since 2012, CCP general secretary Xi Jinping has demonstrated "a concerted imperialist policy" towards its developing neighbor states to the south and west, especially Mongolia,[12] Kazakhstan,[13][14] Tajikistan,[15][16] Kyrgyzstan,[17] Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal,[citation needed] Myanmar, Cambodia,[18][19][20] Laos,[21] and Vietnam.[22] This is associated with criticism of debt trap diplomacy.[6][23][24][25][26]

With China's rapid economic development and its increased investment in Africa, a new round of debate has emerged over whether Chinese investment in Africa is imperialistic. Horace Campbell has called this debate "superficial" and considers China's involvement as still distinct from Western imperialism.[27] Forum on China–Africa Cooperation (FOCAC) coordinates much of the investment. According to Evan Hsiang in Harvard International Review, China's investment in countries such as Zambia, which had a debt crisis in 2020 and had the "highest number of Chinese lenders of all African states", has been seen with the lens of economic imperialism, but may result from mismanagement and lack of regulations rather than planned debt traps. Nonetheless, Hsiang also cites "China's structural dominance" in the Zambian mining industry and that many of the projects neglect working conditions due to "China's unchallenged power" and the projects go through due to pressure by Chinese bureaucracy on African governments. He recommends that greater scrutiny of FOCAC would limit exploitative interactions.[28]

China official sources have pointed out that countries were not compelled to take the loans and they came with no strings attached in their agreements; however outside observers have noted that many of the debtor countries have entered fiscal difficulty, such as Sri Lanka, who defaulted on its sovereign debt.[26] Sri Lanka's Hambantota International Port has been leased to China for 99 years starting in 2017.[29] China signing a 99-year lease on a foreign port is seen as both a current erosion of sovereignty and a symbolic one similar to 19th century colonialism, because that is the amount of time Britain leased colonial Hong Kong from China in 1898.[29][30][31] China has also leased Gwadar Port in Pakistan for 43 years,[32] significant protests have occurred against Chinese interests in the port of Gwadar.[33] The China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) has been seen as a geostrategic effort to advance the PRC's influence. Baloch insurgent militant groups in Pakistan have also labeled the CPEC as an imperialist endeavor by China.[34][35] According to The Economic Times, Chinese state interests in Sri Lanka, Pakistan, and Bangladesh form a cohesive strategy to encircle India. This overall strategy, named by U.S. and Indian commentators, is the String of Pearls which is a combination of economic and naval interests by China surrounding India.[36][37] Supporting India's claim is the ability of the Gwadar port to host naval ships, and with the increasing presence of China there, the People's Liberation Army Navy may be able use Gwadar as a forward base.[36]

However other researchers dispute this view. An October 2019 report by the Lowy Institute said that China had not engaged in deliberate actions in the Pacific which justified accusations of debt-trap diplomacy (based on contemporaneous evidence), and China had not been the primary driver behind rising debt risks in the Pacific; the report expressed concern about the scale of the country's lending, however, and the institutional weakness of Pacific states which posed the risk of small states being overwhelmed by debt.[38][39] A 2020 Lowy Institute article called Sri Lanka's Hambantota International Port the "case par excellence" for China's debt-trap diplomacy, but called the narrative a "myth" because the project was proposed by former Sri Lankan president Mahinda Rajapaksa, not Beijing. The article added that Sri Lanka's debt distress was not caused by Chinese lending, but by "excessive borrowing on Western-dominated capital markets".[40]

According to The Diplomat, Belt and Road Initiative (BRI) investment also exacerbates separatism and ethnic tensions in host countries, because the PRC government and state-backed corporations "preference for dealing exclusively with those who hold positions of power. Analysis of the BRI should go beyond the 'debt trap', geopolitics, or economic spillovers, but also examine the social fissures that emerge from the massive inflows of Chinese capital in host countries."[35]

#### Xinjiang internment camps

[edit]

Further information: Persecution of Uyghurs in China

Xinjiang internment camps were established in the late 2010s under Xi Jinping's administration.[41][42] Human Rights Watch says that they have been used to indoctrinate Uyghurs and other Muslims since 2017 as part of a "people's war on terror", a policy announced in 2014.[43][44][45] The camps have been criticized by the governments of many countries and human rights organizations for alleged human rights abuses, including mistreatment, rape, and torture,[46] with some of them alleging genocide.[47][48]

#### South China Sea disputes

[edit]

Further information: Territorial disputes in the South China Sea and Regional reactions to China's maritime activities in the South China Sea

Nine-dash line

The South China Sea disputes involve both island and maritime claims of China and the claims of several neighboring sovereign states in the region, namely Brunei, the Republic of China (ROC/Taiwan), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Vietnam. The disputes are over islands, reefs, banks, and other features in the South China Sea, including the Spratly Islands, Paracel Islands, Scarborough Shoal, boundaries in the Gulf of Tonkin, and the waters near the Indonesian Natuna Islands. The main point of criticism is that the PRC is building artificial islands to extend its claims into other nations' territorial waters and militarizing the islands.[49][50][1] Chinese salami slicing strategy and cabbage tactics describe the way the PRC has used small provocations to increase its strategic position.[51]

#### Tibet policy

[edit]

Further information: Sinicization of Tibet

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (December 2024)

|

Tibetan Review evaluated the China's government policy on Tibet as colonial based on several criteria, including "forced penetration of the colonizing group", "social destructiveness", "external political control", "economic dependence of internal groups", "sub-standard social services", and "social stratification".[52][53][better source needed]

## Chinese media and cultural imperialism

[edit]

Confucius Institute and Confucius statue at North South University, Bangladesh

Global media and international communication scholars theorize, research, analyze, discuss, and debate the dimensions of China's media and cultural imperialism.[54] Building upon the frameworks of media imperialism and cultural imperialism, researchers have focused on everything from the international expansion of China's Internet companies[55] and movie industries[56] to the "soft power" and public diplomacy campaigns of China's state media companies in other countries[57] as examples of media imperialism.[58]

Some Western and non-Western news media stories have also begun to frame China as an incipient media and cultural imperialist. For example, CNN notes that Confucius Institutes have been criticized for promoting a political narrative or surveilling overseas Chinese instead of solely promoting Chinese culture.[59] Also, according to The Diplomat, Korean commentators have said that there is a dimension of cultural imperialism by China, including China's censorship of Korean content[60] and claiming some Korean historical figures as Chinese.[61]

## Political imperialism

[edit]

Part of a series on

Neoauthoritarianism
in China

Ideologies

* Capitalism
* Party-state
* Confucianism
* New
* Conservatism
* Authoritarian
* Cultural
* Social
* Ultra
* Legalism
* Nationalist
* Han
* Neo
* Ultra

Principles

* Authority
* Authoritarianism
* Bureaucracy
* Chinese culture
* PRC
* Chinese Dream
* Democratic centralism
* Developmentalism
* Duty
* Eight Honors and Eight Shames
* Elitism
* Four Cardinal Principles
* Four Modernizations
* Imperialism
* Irredentism
* Law and order
* Market economy
* Dirigisme
* Meritocracy
* One country, one system (factions)
* One country, two systems (factions)
* Patriotism
* Post-communism
* Revisionism (Marxism)
* Social order
* Statism
* Syncretic politics
* Technocracy
* Three Stricts and Three Honests
* Unification
* One China principle
* "United front"
* Unified power
* Unitary state
* Whole-process people's democracy
* Zhonghua minzu

History

* 1989 Tiananmen Square massacre
* 1992 Consensus
* 2020 Hong Kong national security law
* Anti-corruption campaign under Xi Jinping
* Anti-Secession Law
* Belt and Road Initiative
* Boluan Fanzheng
* Campaign against spiritual pollution
* Hong Kong Basic Law Article 23
* Macau national security law
* Persecution of Falun Gong
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China
* Property Law
* Reform and opening up
* Sinicization of Tibet
* Social Credit System
* Strike Hard Against Crime Campaign
* Territorial disputes of the PRC
* Wolf warrior diplomacy

Intellectuals

* Bell
* Chen
* Deng
* Gan
* Hu (Xijin)
* Jiang (Qing)
* Jiang (Shigong)
* Jin
* Li
* Liu
* Tam
* Tan
* Wang
* Wu
* Xiao
* Yan
* Zhang
* Zheng

Politicians

Mainland China

* Chen (Kuiyuan)
* Chen (Yun)
* Deng
* Hu
* Huang
* Jiang
* Li (Peng)
* Li (Xiannian)
* Peng
* Wang (Huning)
* Wang (Qishan)
* Wu
* Xi
* Yang
* Zhou
* Zhu

* * *

Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)

* Chan (Gary)
* Chan (Joephy)
* Chow
* Fok
* Ho
* Ip (Kwok-him)
* Ip (Regina)
* Kwok
* Lam
* Lee (Dominic)
* Lee (John)
* Lee (Starry)
* Leung
* Liao
* Quat
* Tsang (Donald)
* Tsang (Yok-sing)
* Tung
* Yung

* * *

Macau (pro-Beijing)

* Chui
* Ho (Edmund)
* Ho (Iat Seng)
* Sam

* * *

Republic of China (Taiwan, pro-Beijing)

* Chang
* Chou
* Chiu
* Hung

Extant parties

Mainland China

* Chinese Communist Party (factions)

* * *

Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)

* Business and Professionals Alliance
* Civil Force
* Democratic Alliance for the Betterment and Progress
* Federation of Public Housing Estates
* Hong Kong Federation of Education Workers
* Hong Kong Federation of Trade Unions
* Kowloon West New Dynamic
* Liberal Party
* New Century Forum
* New People's Party
* New Prospect
* New Territories Association of Societies
* Politihk Social Strategic
* Roundtable
* Silent Majority

* * *

Macau (pro-Beijing)

* Alliance for Change
* Macau-Guangdong Union
* New Macau Development Union
* United Citizens Association
* Union for Development
* Women's Association

* * *

Republic of China (Taiwan, pro-Beijing)

* Chinese Unification Promotion Party
* For Public Good Party
* Labor Party
* Patriot Alliance Association

Historical parties

Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)

* Federation for the Stability
* Hong Kong Alliance of Chinese and Expatriates
* Hong Kong Progressive Alliance
* Liberal Democratic Federation
* New Hong Kong Alliance
* Professional Forum
* Progressive Hong Kong Society

Alliances

* Pro-Beijing camp
* Hong Kong
* Macau
* United front
* Hong Kong
* Taiwan

Literature

* America Against America
* The China Wave
* Farewell to Revolution

Organisations

* Confucius Institute
* Group of 89
* Triad § Chinese government connections

Media

Mainland China

* Beijing Daily
* Economic Daily
* Global Times
* Guancha

* * *

Hong Kong (pro-Beijing)

* Headline Daily
* Hong Kong Economic Times
* Oriental Daily News
* Sing Tao Daily
* The Standard

By region

* Hong Kong
* Taiwan (Republic of China)

Related ideologies

* Authoritarian capitalism
* Authoritarian socialism
* Conservative socialism
* Fascism
* Market socialism
* Carl Schmitt Thought
* Social imperialism
* Neocolonialism
* Socialism with Chinese characteristics
* Deng Xiaoping Theory
* Three Represents
* Scientific Outlook on Development
* Xi Jinping Thought

Related topics

* Anti-national sentiments
* American
* Japanese
* Taiwanese
* Tibetan
* "Capitalist roader"
* Economy of China
* Hong Kong
* Macau
* New Economic Policy
* Penal system in China
* People's democratic dictatorship
* Politics of China
* Liberalism
* New Left
* Taiwan, PRC (claimed)
* Transnational repression by China
* Xi Jinping faction

* Conservatism portal
* People's Republic of China portal

* v
* t
* e

Further information: Transnational repression by China and Chinese censorship abroad

Traditional Taiwanese independence activists advocate the establishment of a "Republic of Taiwan" in line with Taiwanese national self-determination, which is not influenced by Chinese imperialism; in the late 1980s, the short-lived far-left Taiwan Revolutionary Party, defended Taiwan's independence from a Marxist-Leninist perspective, criticizing the "People's Republic of China" as "great power" (列強).[62] Many Taiwanese nationalists compared Taiwan under Kuomintang rule to South Africa under apartheid.[63] The Taipei Times linked the CCP's term "united front" to Chinese imperialism and expansionism.[64]

Hong Kong's Trotskyist political organization Socialist Action criticizes CCP-led "Chinese imperialism" for its political repression and economic colonization of Hong Kong.[65]

Freedom House also reported that China has supported authoritarian dictatorships in internet censorship and cyber surveillance, advancing the PRC's political model, having "supplied telecommunications hardware, advanced facial-recognition technology, and data-analytics tools to a variety of governments with poor human rights records, which could benefit Chinese intelligence services as well as repressive local authorities".[66][67]

## Views of Chinese imperialism

[edit]

There are fierce debates among left-wing intellectuals in China and around the world about whether China has become an imperialist country.[68] Li Minqi, a member of the Chinese New Left, believes that China is becoming increasingly important in the global capitalist system, but is still "semi-peripheral" rather than an imperialist country.[69] Wang Hui is also critical of China's changes: he argues in New Left Review that China has become one of the "strategic partners" of imperialism, and that any analysis that attempts to point out the social issues would be accused of wanting to "return to the days of the Cultural Revolution".[70]

The Communist Party of the Philippines (CPP), a Maoist party of the Philippines, views the CCP as an imperialist party attacking Filipino fishermen and the Filipino people, and in collusion with Duterte. "The CCP pays lip service to Mao occasionally, especially in happy rituals, and avoids offending the great number of Chinese people and party cadres and members who love his memory and agree with his ideas and deeds," said Jose Maria Sison, a key figure in the party.[71] The New People's Army, the armed wing of the CPP, has been ordered to attack Chinese businesses in the Philippines due to the territorial disputes in the South China Sea and dissatisfaction with Chinese investments.[72]

In 2020, the Japanese Communist Party (JCP) criticized the CCP for engaging in "great-power chauvinism and hegemonism" and describe it as "an adverse current to world peace and progress". The JCP also removed a line from its platform which described China as a country "that is beginning a new quest for socialism". JCP members have stated that this was due to human rights conditions in China. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of China denounced the accusations of the JCP as "groundless and biased".[73][74]

In a 2017 paper David A. Lake argued the autocratic system of the People's Republic of China would "make it harder for the country to commit credibly to limits on its authority over others. [...] In the absence of such credible restraints, potential subordinates will be far more reluctant to accept the authority of China over their affairs. It will be harder for China to build international hierarchies in the twenty-first century than it was for Britain or the United States during their respective rises to power."[75]

Edward Wong, former Beijing bureau chief of The New York Times, believes that both China and the United States are empires, and the US as an empire is known for its soft power, while China is known for its hard power.[76] Tanner Mirrlees, a political economist, conducted a comparative analysis of the economic, military and media-technological power of the United States and China. He argues: "the United States and China are clearly the world's most significant imperial powers... but not yet equal powers because the United States outmatches China in many ways. If there is an incipient inter-imperialist rivalry between the United States and China, it is an asymmetrical one because the United States possesses greater structural capacities and resources to achieve its goals in world affairs than China currently does."[58]

Chinese exceptionalists and nationalists such as Zhang Weiwei argue that China has never been a global imperialist force in its thousands of years of history.[77]

## China's military bases

[edit]

Map of Chinese overseas military bases according to one report which was published in The Economist:[78]

China

Countries with a Chinese base

Countries that China has probably approached to host a base

China has one official overseas base in Djibouti but probably has approached other countries as well.[78][79][80]

This section is an excerpt from List of countries with overseas military bases § China.[edit]

Country  | Location  | Details

|
|

Cambodia | Preah Sihanouk province | China-backed expansions at the Ream Naval Base have been characterized by some as a base for the People's Liberation Army Navy but disputed by others. Cambodia's government emphasizes that the naval base is under Cambodian control.[81][82][83][84]
Djibouti | Djibouti City | People's Liberation Army Support Base, officially China's only overseas military base as of 2024[85][82]
Tajikistan | Gorno-Badakhshan | The Chinese and Tajik governments deny the existence of one base, while the other was under construction as of 2024. China funds but does not directly own the bases. According to reports they are intended to support joint operations in response to the security situation in Afghanistan.[86][87][88]

## See also

[edit]

* Anti-People's Republic of China
* Chinese irredentism
* Chinese expansionism
* Celestial Empire
* Sinocentrism
* Territorial disputes of the People's Republic of China

## References

[edit]

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## External links

[edit]

* Media related to Chinese imperialism at Wikimedia Commons

* v
* t
* e

Empires

Ancient
(colonies)|

* Akkadian
* Armenian
* Urartu
* Orontid
* Ancient
* Assyrian
* Middle Assyrian
* Neo-Assyrian
* Babylonian
* Old Babylonian
* Kassite
* Neo-Babylonian
* Chinese
* Qin
* Han
* Jin
* Dʿmt
* Egyptian
* Old Kingdom
* Middle Kingdom
* New Kingdom
* Goguryeo
* Harsha
* Hellenistic
* Macedonian
* Seleucid
* Ptolemaic
* Bactrian
* Indo-Greek
* Hittite
* Hunnic
* White
* Xiongnu
* Iranian
* Median
* Achaemenid
* Parthian
* Sasanian
* Kush
* Kushan
* Magadha
* Haryanka
* Shaishunaga
* Nanda
* Maurya
* Shunga
* Gupta
* Phoenician
* Carthaginian
* Roman
* Western
* Eastern
* Satavahana
* Neo-Sumerian
* Xianbei
* Rouran

Post-classical|

* Angevin
* Aragonese
* Armenian
* Bagratid
* Vaspurakan
* Artsakh
* Cilician
* Zakarid
* Ayyubid
* Aztec
* Benin
* Bornu
* Bruneian
* Bulgarian
* First
* Second
* Burmese
* First
* Calakmul
* Caliphate
* Rashidun
* Umayyad
* Abbasid
* Fatimid
* Chalukya
* Western
* Eastern
* Chinese
* Sui
* Tang
* Liao
* Song
* Jīn
* Yuan
* Chola
* Ethiopian
* Aksum
* Zagwe
* Solomonic
* Genoese
* Georgian
* Huetar
* Inca
* Kannauj
* Pala
* Gurjara-Pratihara
* Rashtrakuta
* Iranian
* Tahirid
* Saffarid
* Samanid
* Buyid
* Japanese
* Yamato
* Kamakura
* Muromachi
* Edo
* Kanem
* Khmer
* Latin
* Lithuanian
* Grand Duchy
* Commonwealth
* Majapahit
* Mali
* Mongol
* Yuan
* Golden Horde
* Chagatai Khanate
* Ilkhanate
* Berber
* Almoravid
* Almohad
* Norwegian
* North Sea
* Oyo
* Polish
* Kingdom
* Commonwealth
* Roman
* Byzantine
* Nicaea
* Thessalonica
* Trebizond
* Epirus
* Morea
* Romano-Germanic
* Carolingian
* Holy Roman
* Serbian
* Singhasari
* Songhai
* Srivijaya
* Tibetan
* Tikal
* Tiwanaku
* Toltec
* Turco-Persian
* Ghaznavid
* Great Seljuk
* Khwarezmian
* Timurid
* Turkic
* First
* Western
* Eastern
* Second
* Türgesh
* Uighur
* Kyrgyz
* Venetian
* Vietnamese
* Dinh
* Early Le
* Ly
* Tran
* Ho
* Later Tran
* Later Le
* Vijayanagara
* Wagadou
* Wari

Modern|

* Afghan
* Ashanti
* Austro-Hungarian
* Brazilian
* Burmese
* Second
* Third
* Central African
* Chinese
* Ming
* Qing
* China
* Manchukuo
* Contemporary
* Ethiopian
* Haitian
* First
* Second
* French
* First
* Second
* German
* German Empire
* Nazi Germany
* Indian
* Indo-Persian
* Mughal
* Sikh
* Iranian
* Safavid
* Afsharid
* Zand
* Qajar
* Pahlavi
* Japanese
* Korean
* Maratha
* Mexican
* First
* Second
* Mongol
* Oirat
* Khoshut
* Dzungar
* Kalmyk
* Bogd
* Moroccan
* Saadi
* 'Alawi
* Polish
* Russian
* Tsarist
* Imperial
* Contemporary
* Sokoto
* Somali
* Isaaq
* Swedish
* Tongan
* Vietnamese
* Mạc
* Revival Lê
* Tay Sơn
* Dainam
* Vietnam

| Colonial|

* American
* Austrian
* attempts
* Belgian
* British
* English
* Scottish
* Chinese
* Danish
* Dutch
* French
* German
* attempts
* Italian
* Venetian
* Genoese
* Maltese
* attempts
* Japanese
* Mongol
* Norwegian
* Omani
* Ottoman
* Polish–Lithuanian
* Couronian
* attempts
* Portuguese
* Russian
* Spanish
* Catalan-Aragonese
* Basque
* Swedish

|

Lists|

* Empires
* largest
* Ancient great powers
* Medieval great powers
* Modern great powers
* European colonialism
* African empires

Miscellaneous|

* Academic
* Anti-imperialism
* Cultural
* Ecological
* Green
* Media
* Liberal
* Linguistic
* Social
* Soviet
* Theories
* U.S.

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*[e]: Edit this template