Chinese people in Portugal

Ethnic group

Chinese people in PortugalTotal population

26,074[1]
Includes foreign citizens only
Regions with significant populations
Lisbon[2]
Languages
Chinese (primarily Wenzhounese and Mandarin among recent arrivals; Cantonese among established migrants), Portuguese[3]
Religion
Mahayana Buddhism[4]
Related ethnic groups
Ethnic Chinese in Mozambique, other overseas Chinese groups[5]
Chinese people in Portugal

Chinese name
Traditional Chinese| 葡萄牙華人
Simplified Chinese| 葡萄牙华人
| Transcriptions

Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin| Pútáoyá Huárén

Romanization| Phu-toh-ngaa-gho-nin
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization| pòuh tòuh ngàh wàh yàhn
Jyutping| pou4 tou4 ngaa4 waa4 jan4
Portuguese name
Portuguese| Chineses em Portugal

Chinese people in Portugal (Chinese: 葡萄牙華人, Cantonese Yale: pòuh tòuh ngàh wàh yàhn) form the country's largest Asian community, and the twelfth-largest foreign community overall.[6] Despite forming only a small part of the overseas Chinese population in Europe, the Chinese community in Portugal is one of the continent's oldest due to the country's colonial and trade history with Macau dating back to the 16th century. There are about 30,000 people of Chinese descent residing in Portugal.[7]

## Migration history

[edit]

### Early history

[edit]

See also: Chinese people in Spain, Chinese Brazilians, Indians in Portugal, and Slavery in Portugal

Some Chinese slaves in Spain ended up there after being taken to Lisbon in Portugal and sold when they were young. Tristán de la China was a Chinese boy who was taken as a slave by the Portuguese,[8] while he was still a boy. In the 1520s, he was bought by Cristobál de Haro in Lisbon and was taken to live in Seville and Valladolid.[9] He was paid for his service as a translator on the 1525 Loaísa expedition,[10] during which he was still an adolescent.[11] The survivors, including Tristan, were shipwrecked for a decade until 1537 when they were taken back by a Portuguese ship to Lisbon.[12]

There are records of Chinese slaves in Lisbon in 1540.[13] A Chinese scholar, apparently enslaved by Portuguese raiders somewhere on the southern China coast, was brought to Portugal around 1549. Purchased by João de Barros, he worked with the Portuguese historian on translating Chinese texts into Portuguese.[14]

In sixteenth century southern Portugal there were Chinese slaves but the number of them was described as "negligible", being outnumbered by East Indian, Mourisco, and African slaves.[15] Amerindians, Chinese, Malays, and Indians were slaves in Portugal but in far fewer number than Turks, Berbers, and Arabs.[16] China and Malacca were origins of slaves delivered to Portugal by Portuguese viceroys.[17] A testament from 23 October 1562 recorded a Chinese man named António who was enslaved and owned by a Portuguese woman, Dona Maria de Vilhena, a wealthy noblewoman in Évora.[18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31] In Evora, António was among the three most common male names given to male slaves.[32] D. Maria owned one of the only two Chinese slaves in Evora and she used him from among the slaves she owned to drive her mules for her because he was Chinese since rigorous and demanding tasks were assigned to Mourisco, Chinese, and Indian slaves.[33] D. Maria's owning a Chinese among her fifteen slaves reflected on her high social status, since Chinese, Mouriscos, and Indians were among the ethnicities of prized slaves and were much more expensive compared to blacks, so high class individuals owned these ethnicities and it was because her husband Simão was involved in the slave trade in the east that she owned slaves of many different ethnicities.[33] When she died, D. Maria freed this Chinese man in her testament along with several other slaves, leaving him with 10,000 réis in money.[25] D. Maria de Vilhena was the daughter of the nobleman and explorer Sancho de Tovar, the capitão of Sofala (List of colonial governors of Mozambique), and she was married twice, the first marriage to the explorer Cristóvão de Mendonça, and her second marriage was to Simão da Silveira, capitão of Diu (Lista de governadores, capitães e castelões de Diu).[34][35][36] D. Maria was left a widow by Simão,[37] and she was a major slave owner, possessing the most slaves in Évora, with her testament recording fifteen slaves.[38]

A legal case was brought before the Spanish Council of the Indies in the 1570s, involving two Chinese men in Seville, one of them a freeman, Esteban Cabrera, and the other a slave, Diego Indio, against Juan de Morales, Diego's owner. Diego called on Esteban to give evidence as a witness on his behalf.[39][40] Diego recalled that he was taken as a slave by Francisco de Casteñeda from Mexico, to Nicaragua, then to Lima in Peru, then to Panama, and eventually to Spain via Lisbon, while he was still a boy.[41][42][43][44]

After the Portuguese first made contact with Japan in 1543, a large scale slave trade developed in which Portuguese purchased Japanese as slaves in Japan and sold them to various locations overseas, including Portugal itself, throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.[45][46] Many documents mention the large slave trade along with protests against the enslavement of Japanese. Japanese slaves are believed to be the first of their nation to end up in Europe, and the Portuguese purchased large numbers of Japanese slave girls to bring to Portugal for sexual purposes, as noted by the Church in 1555. King Sebastian feared that it was having a negative effect on Catholic proselytization since the slave trade in Japanese was growing to massive proportions, so he commanded that it be banned in 1571[47][48] Some Korean slaves were bought by the Portuguese and brought back to Portugal from Japan, where they had been among the tens of thousands of Korean prisoners of war transported to Japan during the Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–98).[49][50] Historians pointed out that at the same time Hideyoshi expressed his indignation and outrage at the Portuguese trade in Japanese slaves, he himself was engaging in a mass slave trade of Korean prisoners of war in Japan.[51][52] Chinese were bought in large numbers as slaves by the Portuguese in the 1520s.[53] Japanese Christian Daimyos were mainly responsible for selling to the Portuguese their fellow Japanese. Japanese women and Japanese men, Javanese, Chinese, and Indians were all sold as slaves in Portugal.[54]

Chinese boys were kidnapped from Macau and sold as slaves in Lisbon while they were still children.[55] Brazil imported some of Lisbon's Chinese slaves.[56] Fillippo Sassetti saw some Chinese and Japanese slaves in Lisbon among the large slave community in 1578, although most of the slaves were blacks.[57] Brazil and Portugal were both recipients of Chinese slaves bought by Portuguese.[58] Portugal exported to Brazil some Chinese slaves. Military, religious, and civil service secretarial work and other lenient and light jobs were given to Chinese slaves while hard labor was given to Africans. Only African slaves in 1578 Lisbon outnumbered the large numbers of Japanese and Chinese slaves in the same city.[59] Some of the Chinese slaves were sold in Brazil, a Portuguese colony.[60][61] Cooking was the main profession of Chinese slaves around 1580 in Lisbon according to Fillippo Sassetti from Florence and they were viewed as "hard working", "intelligent", and "loyal" by the Portuguese.[62][63][64]

The Portuguese also valued Oriental slaves more than the black Africans and the Moors for their rarity. Chinese slaves were more expensive than Moors and blacks and showed off the high status of the owner[65][66] The Portuguese attributed qualities like intelligence and industriousness to Chinese slaves.[67] Traits such as high intelligence were ascribed to Chinese, Japanese and Indian slaves.[68][69][70]

In 1595 a law was passed banning the selling and buying of Chinese and Japanese slaves[71] due to hostility from the Chinese and Japanese regarding the trafficking in Japanese and Chinese slaves[72] On 19 February 1624, the King of Portugal forbade the enslavement of Chinese people of either sex.[73][74]

### 20th century to present day

[edit]

Small communities of Chinese people formed in Portugal in the mid-20th century.[5] Following World War II, an influx of Macanese people (those of mixed Portuguese and often Chinese heritage from the colony of Macau) began settling in Portugal in significant numbers. This was most prominent in 1975, when the Portuguese military withdrew much of its presence from Macau and Macanese and local Chinese families with ties to the military immigrated to Portugal. Ethnic Chinese intending to work in the colonial Macau government also arrived in Portugal during this time to study or train for their positions.[75]

Some members of the Chinese community in Mozambique also moved to Portugal as the process of decolonisation in Mozambique began in the 1970s and its independence drew near.[76] However, mass Chinese migration to Portugal did not begin until the 1980s; the new migrants came primarily from Zhejiang, with some from Macau as well.[5] As the number of migrants continued to grow, social institutions formed in order to serve the Chinese community. Nevertheless, the nature of the institutions differed according to migrant groups. Established migrants and recent arrivals from Macau, along with Chinese from Mozambique, were already familiar with the Portuguese language and culture and formed community associations and a Chinese language newspaper to better assist newer immigrants in adjusting to a new life in Portugal. Meanwhile, among arrivals from mainland China, informal social networks headed by earlier arrivals helped newer immigrants in employment needs, often under established Chinese migrant entrepreneurs.[2]

There were expectations that the 1999 transfer of sovereignty over Macau back to the People's Republic of China would result in as many as 100,000 Chinese migrants from Macau settling in Portugal.[5] Between 1985 and 1996, 5,853 Chinese acquired Portuguese nationality; however, most of these were residents of Macau and did not reside in Portugal or migrate there later.[77] Prior to the 1999 transfer of sovereignty over Macau, some Chinese triad members from Macau also married Portuguese prostitutes.[78]

### Asian DNA in the Azores

[edit]

None of the mainland Portuguese population has E3a and N3, but 1.2% of the Azores population has the sub-Saharan African Y Chromosome E3a Haplogroup while 0.6% of the Azores population has the Asian Y Chromosome N3 Haplogroup.[79] During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Asia-America-Europe trade may have brought the N3 Y chromosome to the Azores and the people of the Azores island of Terceira have a large amount of HLA genes of Mongoloid origin. The region of China-Mongolia is the origin of the N3 Haplogroup while Iberians lack it while only northern Europeans and Asians have it. Black slave men brought the E3a Y Chromosome to the Azores, since both Iberia and the rest of Europe lack the specific Azorean E3a lineage with the sY8a mutation.[79][80]

While mainland Europeans lack it, Azoreans and Asians share the subtype B*2707 and Europeans ranked farther and Asians rank nearer genetically to Azoreans, or were related in the same measure as Europeans were to Azoreans.[81] Azoreans have a large amount of A2-B50-DR7-DQ2, A29-B21-DR7-DQ2, A24-B44-DR6-DQ1 HLA haplotypes of Oriental Mongoloid origin.[81] Presence of Mongoloids on the islands an unknown point in history was suggested.[82]

A multi generational inherited Y chromosomes of Asian or sub-Saharan origins may be held by European looking people as it does not show physical looks, but the origin of the patrilineage.[83]

## Demographic characteristics

[edit]

According to surveys undertaken by Chinese associations, Chinese residents of Portugal have a very young average age, with 29.6% younger than 30, and 38.5% between 31 and 40 years old. Over three-quarters live in Lisbon, Porto, or Faro.[6]

### Migration waves and communities

[edit]

Despite early arrivals of Chinese slaves, servants and traders to Portugal since the latter half of the 16th century, a visible Chinese community did not begin to form until after World War II. Before the war, Macanese people of mixed Chinese and Portuguese descent and ethnic Chinese with ties to the colonial Macau government were the primary Chinese immigrants to the country.[75]

Since Chinese migration to Portugal greatly increased since the 1950s, the community's population has been categorized based on migration waves and purpose.[5] The most established Chinese community in Portugal consists of those originally from the colony of Macau and their descendants. They are the most assimilated group of Chinese migrants and are dispersed throughout the country.[5] Macau Chinese arrived in Portugal primarily as professional workers and students or due to family and career ties with the country. A smaller wave also arrived shortly before the Portuguese Handover of Macau to China in 1999.

The second group of migrants is composed of ethnic Chinese from other former Portuguese colonies, especially Mozambique, who arrived as those colonies sought independence during the early 1970s. The political instability and decline of economic activity in Portugal's African colonies created favorable conditions to immigrate to the metropole rather than remaining as a segregated group within a new government.[84] Members of this migrant wave were able to integrate well into Portuguese society due to high levels of fluency in the Portuguese language and familiarity with Portuguese society.[85]

Ethnic Chinese immigrants to Portugal continued to chiefly originate from Macau and Mozambique until the 1980s, when the number of students and economic migrants from mainland China began to rise. The vast majority of the new immigrants originated from the province of Zhejiang and consisted of entrepreneurs and laborers (chiefly unskilled) who found work under them.[5] Groups of more skilled laborers and students later arrived along with family members brought over by earlier arrivals. Illegal immigration has been reported among this group of migrants, including those who remain in Portugal even after having residency permits denied.[86]

Due to the different natures of Chinese immigration to Portugal, the community is not strongly unified on its ethnic lines but rather through migrant history. Ethnic Chinese originating from Macau and Mozambique have successfully integrated into Portuguese society, while at the same time have established Chinese community organizations for cultural purposes that serve both groups.[84] Meanwhile, recent arrivals from China continue to seek out informal social networks usually headed by earlier migrants. The lack of Portuguese fluency and reluctance for inter-ethnic communication are major attributes for this dependency. Also, contact between recent and established immigrants is hindered through varieties of Chinese spoken, as the latter use Cantonese rather than Mandarin.[84] Nevertheless, there has been some recent intergroup contact through professional services offered by the established Chinese community.[85]

## Employment

[edit]

82.6% of the Chinese workforce in Portugal are employees. However, the number of entrepreneurs has shown an upward trend, nearly doubling from 9.4% in 1990 to 17.4% in 2000.[6] Four-fifths of the self-employed are drawn from the population of recent migrants from Zhejiang; rates of entrepreneurship in the other groups are much lower.[76] Chinese migrants from Mozambique and the other ex-Portuguese colonies, due to their fluency in Portuguese and familiarity with local business practices, are able to enter the mainstream economy and find professional employment, especially as bank employees, engineers, and doctors.[6][84]

Most Chinese-owned firms are small family enterprises, in the services, retail, and import-export sectors.[87] Their suppliers are Chinese-owned firms in other parts of Europe; Portuguese firms are among their clients but rarely among their suppliers.[88] There is a tendency for Chinese business owners to seek out areas with few other Chinese, to avoid competition and find new markets.[2]

## Neighbourhoods

[edit]

Main article: Chinatowns in Europe § Portugal

In Lisbon from Martim Moniz Station on Rua da Palma, and in the 21st century in the outskirts of Vila do Conde Chinese have settled in Portugal.

## See also

[edit]

* China–Portugal relations
* Macau people
* Macanese people
* Macau
* Immigration to Portugal

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "Relatório de Imigração, Fronteiras e Asilo 2020" (PDF). sef.pt (in Portuguese). Retrieved 25 April 2024.
2. ^ a b c de Oliveira 2003, p. 10
3. ^ Santos Neves & Rocha-Trindade 2008, p. 163
4. ^ "BLIA Lisboa". BLIA Lisboa. 22 November 2023. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
5. ^ a b c d e f g de Oliveira 2003, p. 9
6. ^ a b c d Santos Neves & Rocha-Trindade 2008, p. 162
7. ^ "Eles já não são apenas chineses. Sentem-se portugueses e adoram". 2 December 2018.
8. ^ Dr Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 13\. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
9. ^ Dr Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 13\. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
10. ^ Christina H. Lee, ed. (2016). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-75959-0. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
11. ^ Dr Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
12. ^ Dr Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
13. ^ Boxer 1939, pp. 542–543
14. ^ Mungello 2009, p. 81
15. ^ Peter C. Mancall, ed. (2007). The Atlantic World and Virginia, 1550–1624 (illustrated ed.). UNC Press Books. p. 228\. ISBN 978-0-8078-3159-5. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
16. ^ Alberto da Costa e Silva (2014). "25 Escravo ugual a negro". A manilha e o libambo: A África e a escravidão, de 1500 a 1700 (2 ed.). Nova Fronteira. ISBN 978-85-209-3949-9. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
17. ^ Hugh Thomas (1997). The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (illustrated, reprint ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 119. ISBN 978-0-684-83565-5. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
18. ^ Fonseca 1997, p. 21: "e o chinês, também António, ainda há pouco referido e que era condutor das azémolas de D. Maria de Vilhena"
19. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 21\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
20. ^ Alberto Da Costa E Silva (2002). A Manilha e o Libambo (in Portuguese). Editora Nova Fronteira. p. 849\. ISBN 978-85-209-1262-1. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
21. ^ Hugh Thomas (2013). The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade: 1440–1870 (illustrated ed.). Simon and Schuster. p. 119\. ISBN 978-1-4767-3745-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
22. ^ Maria do Rosário Pimentel (1995). Viagem ao fundo das consciências: a escravatura na época moderna (in Portuguese). Vol. 3 of Colibri história. Edições Colibri. p. 49\. ISBN 978-972-8047-75-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
23. ^ Viagem ao fundo das consciências: a escravatura na época moderna (in Portuguese). Palácio da Independencia. 1966. p. 19. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
24. ^ Fortunato de Almeida (1925). História de Portugal, Volume 3 (in Portuguese). F. de Almeida. p. 222. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
25. ^ a b Ana Maria Rodrigues, ed. (1999). Os Negros em Portugal: sécs. XV a XIX: Mosteiro dos Jerónimos 23 de Setembro de 1999 a 24 de Janeiro de 2000 (in Portuguese) (illustrated ed.). Comissão Nacional para as Comemorações dos Descobrimentos Portugueses. p. 77\. ISBN 978-972-8325-99-2. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
26. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 30\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
27. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 31\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
28. ^ Gabriel Pereira (1886). Estudos eborenses: historia, arte, archeologia (O Archivo Da Santa Casa de Misericordia d'Evora 2.a Parte)(O testamento de uma grande dama do seculo 16) (in Portuguese). Evora : Minerva Eborense. p. 5 (575). Retrieved 2 February 2014.
29. ^ O Testamento de uma Grande Dama do Século XVI (PDF) (in Portuguese). p. 27. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
30. ^ Jack D. Forbes (1993). Africans and Native Americans: The Language of Race and the Evolution of Red-Black Peoples (reprint ed.). University of Illinois Press. p. 40\. ISBN 978-0-252-06321-3. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
31. ^ A. C. de C. M. Saunders (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 214\. ISBN 978-0-521-23150-3. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
32. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 24\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
33. ^ a b Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 21\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
34. ^ Cristovão Alão de Morais; Eugénio de Andrea da Cunha e Freitas (1699). Alexandre António Pereira de Miranda Vasconcellos; António Cruz (eds.). Pedatura lusitana (nobiliário de famílias de Portugal) ... (in Portuguese). Vol. 2\. Livraria Fernando Machado. p. 276. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
35. ^ Cristovão Alão de Morais; Eugénio de Andrea da Cunha e Freitas (1673). Alexandre António Pereira de Miranda Vasconcellos; António Cruz (eds.). Pedatura lusitana (nobiliário de famílias de Portugal) ... (in Portuguese). Vol. 4\. Livraria Fernando Machado. p. 463. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
36. ^ Sociedade Histórica da Independência de Portugal (Lisbon, Portugal) (2000). João Paulo Oliveira e Costa (ed.). Descobridores do Brasil: exploradores do Atlântico e construtores do Estado da Índia (in Portuguese). Vol. 8 of Memória lusíada. Sociedade Histórica da Independência de Portugal. p. 77\. ISBN 978-972-9326-31-8. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
37. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 41\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
38. ^ Jorge Fonseca (1997). Os escravos em Évora no século XVI (in Portuguese). Vol. 2 of Colecção "Novos estudos eborenses" Volume 2 of Novos Estudos e Eborenses. Câmara Municipal de Évora. p. 18\. ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
39. ^ Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 14\. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
40. ^ Christina H Lee, ed. (2016). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Routledge. p. 13 and 14. ISBN 978-1-134-75952-1. Retrieved 23 May 2016.
41. ^ Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (1984). José Jesús Hernández Palomo; Bibiano Torres Ramírez (eds.). Andalucia y America en el Siglo Xvi. Vol. 292 of Publicaciones de la Escuela de estudios hispano-americanos de Sevilla (illustrated ed.). Editorial CSIC – CSIC Press. p. 553\. ISBN 978-84-00-05664-3. ISSN 0210-5802. Retrieved 2 February 2014. `{{cite book}}`: `|journal=` ignored (help)
42. ^ Fernando Iwasaki Cauti (2005). Extremo Oriente y el Perú en el siglo XVI. Vol. 12 of Colección Orientalia (illustrated ed.). Fondo Editorial PUCP. p. 293\. ISBN 978-9972-42-671-1. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
43. ^ Dr Christina H Lee (2012). Western Visions of the Far East in a Transpacific Age, 1522–1657. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-8368-7. Retrieved 23 May 2014.
44. ^ Ignacio López-Calvo (2013). The Affinity of the Eye: Writing Nikkei in Peru. Fernando Iwasaki. University of Arizona Press. p. 134\. ISBN 978-0-8165-9987-5. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
45. ^ HOFFMAN, MICHAEL (26 May 2013). "The rarely, if ever, told story of Japanese sold as slaves by Portuguese traders". The Japan Times. Archived from the original on 5 May 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
46. ^ "Europeans had Japanese slaves, in case you didn't know…". Japan Probe. 10 May 2007. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 March 2014.
47. ^ Nelson, Thomas (Winter 2004). "Monumenta Nipponica (Slavery in Medieval Japan)". Monumenta Nipponica. 59 (4): 463–492. JSTOR 25066328.
48. ^ "Monumenta Nipponica". Monumenta Nipponica: Studies on Japanese Culture, Past and Present. Vol. 59, no. 3, 4. Sophia University. 2004. p. 463. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
49. ^ Robert Gellately; Ben Kiernan, eds. (2003). The Specter of Genocide: Mass Murder in Historical Perspective (reprint ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 277. ISBN 978-0-521-52750-7. Retrieved 2 February 2014. "Hideyoshi korean slaves guns silk."
50. ^ Gavan McCormack (2001). Reflections on Modern Japanese History in the Context of the Concept of "genocide". Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. Harvard University, Edwin O. Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies. p. 18. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
51. ^ Olof G. Lidin (2002). Tanegashima – The Arrival of Europe in Japan. Routledge. p. 170\. ISBN 978-1-135-78871-1. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
52. ^ Amy Stanley (2012). Selling Women: Prostitution, Markets, and the Household in Early Modern Japan. Vol. 21 of Asia: Local Studies / Global Themes. Matthew H. Sommer. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-95238-6. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
53. ^ José Yamashiro (1989). Chòque luso no Japão dos séculos XVI e XVII. IBRASA. p. 101\. ISBN 978-85-348-1068-5. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
54. ^ José Yamashiro (1989). Chòque luso no Japão dos séculos XVI e XVII. IBRASA. p. 103\. ISBN 978-85-348-1068-5. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
55. ^ José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19\. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
56. ^ Teixeira Leite 1999, p. 20: "Já por aí se vê que devem ter sido numerosos os escravos chineses que tomaram o caminho de Lisboa — e por extensão o do Brasil ... Em 1744 era o imperador Qianlong quem ordenava que nenhum Chinês ou europeu de Macau vendesse filhos e filhas, prohibição reiterada em 1750 pelo vice-rei de Cantão."
57. ^ Jonathan D. Spence (1985). The memory palace of Matteo Ricci (illustrated, reprint ed.). Penguin Books. p. 208\. ISBN 978-0-14-008098-8. Retrieved 5 May 2012. "countryside.16 Slaves were everywhere in Lisbon, according to the Florentine merchant Filippo Sassetti, who was also living in the city during 1578. Black slaves were the most numerous, but there were also a scattering of Chinese"
58. ^ Julita Scarano. "MIGRAÇÃO SOB CONTRATO: A OPINIÃO DE EÇA DE QUEIROZ". Unesp- Ceru. p. 4. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
59. ^ José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19\. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 5 May 2012. "Idéias e costumes da China podem ter-nos chegado também através de escravos chineses, de uns poucos dos quais sabe-se da presença no Brasil de começos do Setecentos.17 Mas não deve ter sido através desses raros infelizes que a influência chinesa nos atingiu, mesmo porque escravos chineses (e também japoneses) já existiam aos montes em Lisboa por volta de 1578, quando Filippo Sassetti visitou a cidade,18 apenas suplantados em número pelos africanos. Parece aliás que aos últimos cabia o trabalho pesado, ficando reservadas aos chins tarefas e funções mais amenas, inclusive a de em certos casos secretariar autoridades civis, religiosas e militares."
60. ^ José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras. Editora da Unicamp. p. 20\. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
61. ^ José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras. Editora da Unicamp. p. 20\. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
62. ^ Jeanette Pinto (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Himalaya Pub. House. p. 18\. ISBN 978-81-7040-587-0. Retrieved 5 May 2012. "ing Chinese as slaves, since they are found to be very loyal, intelligent and hard working' ... their culinary bent was also evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Fillippo Sassetti, recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks."
63. ^ Charles Ralph Boxer (1968). Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770 (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). 2, illustrated, reprint. p. 225\. ISBN 978-0-19-638074-2. Retrieved 5 May 2012. "be very loyal, intelligent, and hard-working. Their culinary bent (not for nothing is Chinese cooking regarded as the Asiatic equivalent to French cooking in Europe) was evidently appreciated. The Florentine traveller Filipe Sassetti recording his impressions of Lisbon's enormous slave population circa 1580, states that the majority of the Chinese there were employed as cooks. Dr. John Fryer, who gives us an interesting ..."
64. ^ José Roberto Teixeira Leite (1999). A China No Brasil: Influencias, Marcas, Ecos E Sobrevivencias Chinesas Na Sociedade E Na Arte Brasileiras (in Portuguese). UNICAMP. Universidade Estadual de Campinas. p. 19\. ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
65. ^ Paul Finkelman (1998). Paul Finkelman, Joseph Calder Miller (ed.). Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery, Volume 2. Macmillan Reference USA, Simon & Schuster Macmillan. p. 737\. ISBN 978-0-02-864781-4. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
66. ^ Finkelman & Miller 1998, p. 737
67. ^ Duarte de Sande (2012). Derek Massarella (ed.). Japanese Travellers in Sixteenth-century Europe: A Dialogue Concerning the Mission of the Japanese Ambassadors to the Roman Curia (1590). Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society Hakluyt Society. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1-4094-7223-0. ISSN 0072-9396. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
68. ^ A. C. de C. M. Saunders (1982). A Social History of Black Slaves and Freedmen in Portugal, 1441–1555. Vol. 25 of 3: Works, Hakluyt Society Hakluyt Society (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 168\. ISBN 978-0-521-23150-3. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
69. ^ Jeanette Pinto (1992). Slavery in Portuguese India, 1510–1842. Himalaya Pub. House. p. 18\. ISBN 978-81-7040-587-0. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
70. ^ Charles Ralph Boxer (1968). Fidalgos in the Far East 1550–1770 (2, illustrated, reprint ed.). Oxford U.P. p. 225\. ISBN 978-0-19-638074-2. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
71. ^ Dias 2007, p. 71
72. ^ Maria Suzette Fernandes Dias (2007). Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71\. ISBN 978-1-84718-111-4. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
73. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 114\. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
74. ^ Gary João de Pina-Cabral (2002). Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao. Berg Publishers. p. 115\. ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3. Retrieved 14 July 2010.
75. ^ a b Zhidong Hao (2011). Macau History and Society. pp. 104, 208.
76. ^ a b Santos Neves & Rocha-Trindade 2008, p. 164
77. ^ de Oliveira 2003, p. 8
78. ^ Kenneth Hugh De Courcy; John De Courcy (1978). Intelligence digest, Volume 1996. Intelligence International Ltd. Retrieved 29 February 2012. "Triads in Portugal. Sources in Lisbon say that Chinese triad gangs from the Portuguese colony of Macau are setting up in Portugal ahead of the handover of Macau to China in 1999. Security sources fear that as many as 1000 triad members could settle in Portugal. They are already involved in securing Portuguese citizenship for Macau residents by arranging marriages of convenience with Portuguese prostitutes."
79. ^ a b Pacheco, PR; Branco, CC; Cabral, R; Costa, S; Araújo, AL; Peixoto, BR; Mendonça, P; Mota-Vieira, Luisa (March 2005). "The Y-chromosomal heritage of the Azores Islands population". Annals of Human Genetics. 69 (Pt 2): 145–56. doi:10.1046/j.1469-1809.2004.00147.x. PMID 15720296. S2CID 90093494.
80. ^ International Society for Forensic Genetics. Congress (2006). António Amorim; Francisco Corte-Real; Niels Morling (eds.). Progress in Forensic Genetics II: Proceedings of the 21st International ISFG Congress Held in Ponta Delgada, the Azores, Portugal, Between 13 and 16 September 2005 (illustrated ed.). Elsevier. p. 259\. ISBN 978-0-444-52102-6. ISSN 0531-5131. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
81. ^ a b Bruges-Armas, J; Martinez-Laso, J; Martins, B; Allende, L; Gomez-Casado, E; Longas, J; Varela, P; Castro, MJ; Arnaiz-Villena, A (October 1999). "HLA in the Azores Archipelago: possible presence of Mongoloid genes". Tissue Antigens. 54 (4): 349–59. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0039.1999.540404.x. PMID 10551418.
82. ^ Bruges-Armas, J; Martinez-Laso, J; Martins, B; Allende, L; Gomez-Casado, E; Longas, J; Varela, P; Castro, MJ; Arnaiz-Villena, A (October 1999). "HLA in the Azores Archipelago: possible presence of Mongoloid genes". Tissue Antigens. 54 (4): 349–59. doi:10.1034/j.1399-0039.1999.540404.x. PMID 10551418.
83. ^ International Society for Forensic Genetics. Congress (2006). António Amorim; Francisco Corte-Real; Niels Morling (eds.). Progress in Forensic Genetics II: Proceedings of the 21st International ISFG Congress Held in Ponta Delgada, the Azores, Portugal, Between 13 and 16 September 2005 (illustrated ed.). Elsevier. p. 15\. ISBN 978-0-444-52102-6. ISSN 0531-5131. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
84. ^ a b c d de Oliveira 2003, p. 12
85. ^ a b de Oliveira 2003, p. 11
86. ^ de Oliveira 2003, p. 5
87. ^ Santos Neves & Rocha-Trindade 2008, p. 166
88. ^ Santos Neves & Rocha-Trindade 2008, p. 167

### Sources

[edit]

* Boxer, C. R. (December 1939), "Notes on Chinese Abroad in the Late Ming and Early Manchu Periods Compiled from Contemporary European Sources (1500–1750)", T'ien Hsia Monthly, XIX: 447–468
* de Oliveira, Catarina Reis (July 2003), "Immigrant's Entrepreneurial Opportunities: The Case of the Chinese in Portugal", FEEM Working Papers (75), doi:10.2139/ssrn.464682, hdl:10419/118087, S2CID 219372860, SSRN 464682
* de Pina-Cabral, Gary João (2002), Between China and Europe: person, culture and emotion in Macao, Berg Publishers, p. 256, ISBN 978-0-8264-5749-3
* Fonseca, Jorge (1997), Os escravos em Évora no século XVI, Câmara Municipal de Évora, p. 21, ISBN 978-972-96965-3-4
* Mungello, David E. (2009), The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500–1800 (3rd ed.), Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, ISBN 978-0-7425-5797-0
* Santos Neves, Miguel; Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz (October 2008), "Diasporas and Globalisation—The Chinese business community in Portugal and the integration of China into the world economy" (PDF), Migrações, 3: 155–179, retrieved 18 March 2009
* Teixeira Leite, José Roberto (1999), A China no Brasil: influências, marcas, ecos e sobrevivências chinesas na sociedade e na arte brasileiras, Editora da Unicamp, p. 288, ISBN 978-85-268-0436-4
* "Foreign population with legal status of residence (No.) by Place of residence (NUTS-2002) and Nationality", Population, Instituto Nacional de Estatística, 2007, retrieved 18 March 2009
* Mancall, Peter C. (2007), The Atlantic world and Virginia, 1550–1624, UNC Press Books, p. 596, ISBN 978-0-8078-5848-6
* Finkelman, Paul; Miller, Joseph Calder (1998), Macmillan encyclopedia of world slavery, Volume 2, Macmillan Reference USA, Simon & Schuster Macmillan, p. 1065, ISBN 978-0-02-864781-4
* Dias, Maria Suzette Fernandes (2007), Legacies of slavery: comparative perspectives, Cambridge Scholars Publishing, p. 238, ISBN 978-1-84718-111-4

## Further reading

[edit]

* Afonso, L. M. C. (1999), "A Comunidade Chinesa em Portugal. Algumas das suas características identitárias", in Amaro, A. M.; Justino, C. (eds.), Estudos sobre a China, Lisbon: ISCSP-UTL, pp. 255–259, ISBN 978-972-9229-63-3
* Gonçalves, J. (2001), Chineses no Martin Moniz: modo específico de incorporação?, SociNova Working Papers, vol. 19, Lisbon: FCSH-UNL
* Matias, Ana (March 2007), Imagens e Estereótipos da Sociedade Portuguesa Sobre a Comunidade Chinesa (PDF) (M.A. dissertation ed.), Instituto Superior de Ciências do Trabalho e das Empresas, retrieved 18 March 2009
* Oliveira, C., Chineses em Portugal: comunidade ou comunidade?, SociNova Working Papers, vol. 18, Lisbon: FCSH-UNL
* Peres, S. N. (1998), "Bolseiros de Macau em Lisbon", in Amaro, A. M.; Justino, C. (eds.), Estudos sobre a China, Lisbon: ISCSP-UTL, pp. 196–203, ISBN 978-972-9229-63-3
* Rocha-Trindade, Maria Beatriz; Santos Neves, Miguel (April 2005), The Chinese Business Communities in Portugal (PDF), Centro de Estudos das Migrações e das Relações Interculturais, Universidade Aberta, retrieved 18 March 2009
* Teixera, Anna (1998), "Entrepreneurship of the Chinese Community in Portugal", in Benton, Gregor; Pieke, Frank N. (eds.), The Chinese in Europe, Macmillan, pp. 244–255, ISBN 978-0-333-66913-6

* v
* t
* e

Immigration to Portugal

Africa|

* Angolans
* Bissau-Guineans
* Cape Verdeans
* Guineans
* Moroccans
* Mozambicans
* São Toméans
* South Africans

Americas|

* Americans (United States)
* Brazilians
* Venezuelans

Asia|

* Chinese
* Filipinos
* East Timorese
* Indians
* Kurds
* Nepalis
* Turks

Europe|

* Britons
* Bulgarians
* Dutch
* French
* Germans
* Italians
* Moldovans
* Romanians
* Russians
* Serbs
* Spaniards
* Ukrainians
* Irish

* v
* t
* e

Overseas Chinese

Africa|

| North|

* Algeria
* Egypt
* Libya
* Morocco

|

West|

* Cape Verde
* Ghana
* Mali
* Nigeria
* Senegal

East|

* Ethiopia
* Kenya
* Tanzania
* Uganda

Central|

* Cameroon
* Democratic Republic of Congo
* Republic of Congo

Southern|

* Angola
* Botswana
* Lesotho
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Namibia
* Réunion1
* Seychelles
* South Africa
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

Americas|

| Caribbean|

* Belize
* Cuba
* Dominican Republic
* Guyana
* Haiti
* Jamaica
* Puerto Rico
* Suriname
* Trinidad and Tobago

|

North|

* Canada
* from Hong Kong
* from Taiwan
* British Columbia (Vancouver)
* Toronto
* Mexico
* United States
* from Hong Kong
* from Taiwan
* by city and state

Central|

* Costa Rica
* Nicaragua
* Panama

South|

* Argentina
* Brazil
* Chile
* Guyana
* Peru
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

| Central|

* Kazakhstan
* Kyrgyzstan

|

East|

* Japan
* Korea
* Mongolia

Southeast|

* Brunei
* Cambodia
* Hokkien
* East Timor
* Indonesia
* Benteng Chinese
* Peranakan Chinese
* Bangka-Belitung
* Laos
* Malaysia
* Peranakan / Baba Nyonya / Straits Chinese
* Sino-Native
* Myanmar
* Kokang
* Panthay
* Pashu
* Philippines
* Sangley
* Singapore
* Chinese nationals
* Straits-Born Chinese
* Thailand
* Chin Haw
* Phuket Baba
* Vietnam
* Minh Hương
* Ngái
* Nùng
* San Diu

South|

* Bangladesh
* India
* Pakistan
* Sri Lanka

West|

* Iran
* Israel
* Turkey
* United Arab Emirates

Europe|

| Northern|

* Denmark
* Finland
* Sweden

|

Western|

* Belgium
* France
* Paris
* Germany
* Ireland
* Netherlands
* United Kingdom
* from Hong Kong
* London

Southern|

* Italy
* Portugal
* Spain

Eastern|

* Bulgaria
* Czech Republic
* Romania
* Russia
* Serbia
* Turkey

Oceania|

* Australia (from Hong Kong)
* Fiji
* Hawaii
* Palau
* New Zealand
* Papua New Guinea
* Samoa
* Tonga

1 An overseas department of France in the western Indian Ocean. See also: Hong Kong Diaspora

Portals:

* China
* Portugal

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template