Christian monasticism

A Christian religious way of life

Part of a series on

Christian mysticism

Theology and philosophy

* Apophatic
* Ascetical
* Cataphatic
* Catholic spirituality
* Hellenistic
* Mystical theology
* Neoplatonic
* Henosis

Practices

Monasticism

* Monasticism
* New
* Silence
* Asceticism
* Mendicant
* Spiritual direction

Meditation

* Meditation
* Lectio Divina
* Invoking of Mystic Saints

Active asceticism

* Contemplation
* Hesychasm
* Jesus Prayer
* Quietism
* Stages of Christian perfection
* Hesychia
* Divinization
* Catharsis
* Theosis
* Kenosis
* Spiritual dryness
* Religious ecstasy

Passive asceticism

* Abstinence

Esoteric

* Charismatic
* Esoteric

People (by era or century)

Antiquity

* Ancient African
* Origen
* Thomasines
* Gregory of Nyssa
* Pseudo-Dionysius

Desert Fathers

* Paul of Thebes
* Anthony the Great
* Arsenius the Great
* Poemen
* Macarius of Egypt
* Moses the Black
* Syncletica
* Athanasius
* John Chrysostom
* Hilarion
* John Cassian

11th · 12th

* Bernard of Clairvaux
* Guigo II
* Hildegard of Bingen
* Symeon the New Theologian

13th · 14th

|  Dominican

* Dominic de Guzmán

Franciscan

* Francis of Assisi
* Anthony of Padua
* Bonaventure
* Jacopone da Todi
* Angela of Foligno

English

* Richard Rolle
* Walter Hilton
* Julian of Norwich
* Margery Kempe

Flemish

* Beatrice of Nazareth
* Lutgardis
* Hadewijch
* John van Ruysbroeck

German

* Meister Eckhart
* Johannes Tauler
* Henry Suso

Female

* Beatrice of Nazareth
* Bridget of Sweden
* Catherine of Siena
* Mechthild of Magdeburg
* Marguerite Porete

15th · 16th

|  Spanish

* Ignatius of Loyola
* Francisco de Osuna
* John of Ávila
* Teresa of Ávila
* John of the Cross

Others

* Catherine of Genoa

17th · 18th

|  French

* Margaret Mary Alacoque
* Pierre de Bérulle
* Jean-Jacques Olier
* Louis de Montfort
* Charles de Condren
* John Eudes
* John of St. Samson

Others

* Mary of Jesus of Ágreda
* Anne Catherine Emmerich
* Veronica Giuliani
* Francis de Sales

19th

* Dina Bélanger
* Catherine Labouré
* Mélanie Calvat
* Maximin Giraud
* Bernadette Soubirous
* Conchita de Armida
* Luisa Piccarreta
* Mary of the Divine Heart
* Thérèse of Lisieux
* Gemma Galgani

20th

* Padre Pio
* Therese Neumann
* Marthe Robin
* Alexandrina of Balazar
* Faustina Kowalska
* Sister Lúcia of Fátima
* Edgar Cayce
* Simone Weil
* Alfred Delp
* Thomas Merton
* Charles de Foucauld
* Edvige Carboni
* Elena Aiello

Contemporary papal views

Aspects of meditation
(Orationis Formas, 1989)

Reflection on the New Age (2003)

Literature and media

* Lingua ignota
* Ordo Virtutum
* Scivias
* Ascent of Mount Carmel
* Dark Night of the Soul
* Spiritual Canticle
* Way of Perfection
* Book of the First Monks
* The Interior Castle
* Abbey of the Holy Ghost
* A Dialogue of Comfort against Tribulation
* From Willow Creek to Sacred Heart
* The Glories of Mary
* The Imitation of Christ
* The Ladder of Divine Ascent
* Philokalia
* Revelations of Divine Love
* The Story of a Soul
* Theologia Germanica
* Devotio Moderna
* Fatima in Lucia's Own Words
* Calls from the Message of Fatima
* The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima
* Sol de Fátima
* The Cloud of Unknowing
* On the Consolation of Philosophy
* The Mirror of Simple Souls
* Sister Catherine Treatise
* Tractatus de Purgatorio Sancti Patricii
* The Vision of Adamnán
* Divine Comedy
* Inferno
* Purgatorio
* Paradiso
* Fatima

* v
* t
* e

St. Paul the Hermit Fed by the Raven, after Il Guercino (17th century), Dayton Art Institute

Christian monasticism is a religious way of life of Christians who live ascetic and typically cloistered lives that are dedicated to Christian worship. It began to develop early in the history of the Christian Church, modeled upon scriptural examples and ideals, including those in the Old Testament. It has come to be regulated by religious rules (e. g., the Rule of Saint Augustine, Anthony the Great, St Pachomius, the Rule of St Basil, the Rule of St Benedict) and, in modern times, the Canon law of the respective Christian denominations that have forms of monastic living. Those living the monastic life are known by the generic terms monks (men) and nuns (women). The word monk originated from the Greek μοναχός (monachos, 'monk'), itself from μόνος (monos) meaning 'alone'.[1][2]

Christian monks did not live in monasteries at first; rather, they began by living alone as solitaries, as the word monos might suggest. As more people took on the lives of monks, living alone in the wilderness, they started to come together and model themselves after the original monks nearby. Quickly, the monks formed communities to further their ability to observe an ascetic life.[3] According to Christianity historian Robert Louis Wilken, "By creating an alternate social structure within the Church they laid the foundations for one of the most enduring Christian institutions..."[4] Monastics generally dwell in a monastery, whether they live there in a community (cenobites), or in seclusion (recluses).

## Life for monks and nuns

[edit]

Nun profession ceremony for a new nun, admitted to the cloister (behind the half door).

Monasticism, in all its varieties, involves withdrawal from society. Monastic life is distinct from the "religious orders" such as the friars, canons regular, clerks regular, and the more recent religious congregations. The latter involves a special work or aim, such as preaching, teaching, liberating captives, etc., which occupies a large place in their activities. While monks have variously labored, in every case this work is extrinsic to the essence of the monastic state.[5] Monks and friars are two distinct roles. In the thirteenth century "...new orders of friars were founded to teach the Christian faith," because monasteries had declined.[6][better source needed]

Both ways of living out the Christian life are regulated by the respective church law of those Christian denominations that recognize it (e.g., the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, the Anglican Church, or the Lutheran Church). Christian monastic life does not always involve communal living with like-minded Christians. Christian monasticism has varied greatly in its external forms, but, broadly speaking, it has two main types: (a) the eremitical or secluded, (b) the cenobitical or city life. St. Anthony the Abbot may be called the founder of the first and St. Pachomius of the second.[7] The monastic life is based on Jesus's teaching to "be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect" (Matthew 5:48). This ideal, also called the state of perfection, can be seen, for example, in the Philokalia, a book of monastic writings. Their manner of self-renunciation has three elements corresponding to the three evangelical counsels: poverty, chastity and obedience.[citation needed]

A priest-monk is sometimes called a hieromonk.

## History

[edit]

See also: Chronology of early Christian monasticism

### Biblical precedent

[edit]

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First-century groups such as the Essenes and the Therapeutae followed lifestyles that could be seen as precursors to Christian monasticism.[8] Early Christian monasticism drew its inspiration from the examples of the Prophet Elijah and John the Baptist, who both lived alone in the desert, and above all from the story of Jesus' time in solitary struggle with Satan in the desert, before his public ministry.[9] Another monastic precedent in Bible would be Nazirites as they practiced tonsure,[10] followed a certain diet as a form of fasting,[11] lived consecrated lives[12][13] and they followed a certain practice concerning hygiene.[14] However, the case of Nazirites is usually defined as a form of a historical Jewish vow or oath instead of being a direct precedent of monastic orders because of the historical context concerning Israelites and the importance of private rituals concerning vow making in historical Israelite religion.[15][failed verification]

### Early Christianity

[edit]

Icon of Saint Anthony the Great, an early, well-known Christian monastic

Main article: Christian monasticism before 451

Early Christian ascetics have left no confirmed archaeological traces and only hints in the written record[citation needed]. Communities of virgins who had consecrated themselves to Christ are found at least as far back as the 2nd century. There were also individual ascetics, known as the "devout", who usually lived not in the deserts but on the edge of inhabited places, still remaining in the world but practicing asceticism and striving for union with God. In ante-Nicene asceticism, a man would lead a single life, practice long and frequent fasts, abstain from meat and wine, and support himself, if he were able, by some small handicraft, keeping of what he earned only so much as was absolutely necessary for his own sustenance, and giving the rest to the poor.[16]

An early form of "proto-monasticism" appeared as well in the 3rd century among Syriac Christians through the "Sons of the covenant" movement. Eastern Orthodoxy looks to Basil of Caesarea as a founding monastic legislator, as well to as the example of the Desert Fathers.

#### Eremitic Monasticism

[edit]

Main article: Hermit

Eremitic monasticism, or solitary monasticism, is characterized by a complete withdrawal from society. The word 'eremitic' comes from the Greek word eremos, which means desert.[17]

The Monastery of Saint Mary of Parral (Spain) of the Hieronymite hermit monks

Paul the Hermit is the first Christian historically known to have been living as a monk. In the 3rd century, Anthony of Egypt (252–356) lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. This type of monasticism is called eremitical or "hermit-like".

Another option for becoming a solitary monastic was to become an anchorite, someone who lived apart from society. In later times, those who wanted to live in monastic solitude but were unable to live alone could request that a bishop perform the rite of enclosure. These anchorites would live alone in a room that typically had a window that opened into a church so they could receive communion and participate in church services. There were two other windows that allowed food to be passed in and people to come to seek advice.[18] The most well-known anchoress was Julian of Norwich who was born in England in 1342.[19]

#### Cenobitic monasticism

[edit]

Main article: Cenobitic monasticism

While the earliest Desert Fathers lived as hermits, they were rarely completely isolated, but often lived in proximity to one another, and soon loose-knit communities began to form in such places as the Desert of Nitria and the Desert of Skete.[9] Saint Macarius established individual groups of cells such as those at Kellia, founded in 338. These monks were anchorites, following the monastic ideal of St. Anthony. They lived by themselves, gathering together for common worship on Saturdays and Sundays only.[20]

In 346 in Egypt, St Pachomius established the first cenobitic (from the Greek words "koine" (common) and "bio" (life)) Christian monastery.[9] At Tabenna in Upper Egypt, sometime around 323 AD, Pachomius decided to mold his disciples into a more organized community in which the monks lived in individual huts or rooms (cellula in Latin,) but worked, ate, and worshipped in shared space. The intention was to bring together individual ascetics who, although pious, did not, like Saint Anthony, have the physical ability or skills to live a solitary existence in the desert. This method of monastic organization is called cenobitic or "communal". In Catholic theology, this community-based living is considered superior because of the obedience practiced and the accountability offered. The head of a monastery came to be known by the word for "Father"—in Syriac, Abba; in English, "Abbot".

Guidelines for daily life were created, and separate monasteries were created for men and women. St Pachomius introduced a monastic Rule of cenobitic life, giving everyone the same food and attire. The monks of the monastery fulfilled the obediences assigned them for the common good of the monastery. Among the various obediences was copying books. St Pachomius considered that an obedience fulfilled with zeal was greater than fasting or prayer.[21]

A Pachomian monastery was a collection of buildings surrounded by a wall. The monks were distributed in houses, each house containing about forty monks. There would be thirty to forty houses in a monastery. There was an abbot over each monastery and provosts with subordinate officials over each house. The monks were divided into houses according to the work they were employed in: thus there would be a house for carpenters, a house for agriculturists, and so forth. But other principles of division seem to have been employed, e.g., there was a house for the Greeks. On Saturdays and Sundays, all the monks assembled in the church for Mass; on other days the Office and other spiritual exercises were celebrated in the houses.[16]

Monasteries thus functioned as industrial communities in which almost every kind of trade was practised. Monks had ships of their own on the Nile to distribute their agricultural produce and manufactured goods to the market and then bring back what the monasteries required[16]

The community of Pachomius was so successful he was called upon to help organize others, and by one count by the time he died in 346 there were thought to be 3,000 such communities dotting Egypt, especially in the Thebaid. From there monasticism quickly spread out first to Palestine and the Judean Desert, Syria, North Africa and eventually the rest of the Roman Empire.

In 370, Basil the Great, monastic founder in Cappadocia, became bishop of Caesarea and wrote principles of ascetic life. Eastern monastic teachings were brought to the western church by Saint John Cassian (c. 360 – c. 435). As a young adult, he and his friend Germanus entered a monastery in Palestine, and then journeyed to Egypt to visit the eremitic groups in Nitria. Many years later, Cassian founded a monastery of monks and probably also one of nuns near Marseille. He wrote two long works, the Institutes and Conferences. In these books, he provided a view of Christian monasticism that had a strongly evangelical and theological basis.[9]

At the time of his conversion in Milan in the years 386–387, Augustine was aware of the life of Saint Anthony in the desert of Egypt. Upon his return to Africa as a Christian in the year 388, however, Augustine and a few Christian friends founded at Thagaste a lay community. They became cenobites in the countryside rather than in the desert.[22]

Saint Benedict (c. 480 – 547 AD) lived for many years as a hermit in a cave near Subiaco, Italy. He was asked to be head over several monks who wished to change to the monastic style of Pachomius by living in the community. Between the years 530 and 560, he wrote the Rule of Saint Benedict as a guideline for monks living in community.[22]

Some scholars attribute the rise of monasticism at this time to the immense changes in the church brought about by Constantine's legalization of Christianity. The subsequent transformation of Christianity into the main Roman religion ended the position of Christians as a minority sect. In response, a new form of dedication was developed.

### Opposition

[edit]

Jovinian was the most influential early opponent of monasticism[23]

There were opponents of Monasticism in the early days of the church. Among the first opponents to Monasticism were Helvidius, Jovinian, Vigilantius and Aerius of Sebaste. Most of them were rebutted by Jerome, a priest and theologian who defended monastic and ascetic ideas.[23][24] Monasticism was also opposed by some Arians.[25]

## Eastern Christian monasticism

[edit]

Main article: Eastern Christian monasticism

See also: Monk § Eastern Christianity

Analavos worn by Eastern Orthodox Schema-Monks.

Orthodox monasticism does not have religious orders as in the West,[26] therefore there are no formal Monastic Rules (Regulae); rather, each monk and nun is encouraged to read all of the Holy Fathers and emulate their virtues. There is also no division between the "active" and "contemplative" life. Orthodox monastic life embraces both active and contemplative aspects.

Within the Eastern Orthodox Church, there exist three types of monasticism: eremitic, cenobitic, and the skete (see also lavra). The skete is a very small community, often of two or three (Matthew 18:20), under the direction of an Elder. They pray privately for most of the week, then come together on Sundays and Feast Days for communal prayer, thus combining aspects of both eremitic and coenobitic monasticism.

### Historical development

[edit]

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Even before Saint Anthony the Great (sometimes called the "Father of Monasticism") went out into the desert, there were Christians who devoted their lives to ascetic discipline and striving to lead an evangelical life (i.e., in accordance with the teachings of the Gospel). As monasticism spread in the East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into Asia Minor and beyond, the sayings (apophthegmata) and acts (praxeis) of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the laity as well.

Among these earliest recorded accounts was the Paradise, by Palladius of Galatia, Bishop of Helenopolis (also known as the Lausiac History, after the prefect Lausus, to whom it was addressed). Saint Athanasius of Alexandria (whose Life of Saint Anthony the Great set the pattern for monastic hagiography), Saint Jerome, and other anonymous compilers were also responsible for setting down very influential accounts. Also of great importance are the writings surrounding the communities founded by Saint Pachomius, the father of cenobiticism, and his disciple Saint Theodore, the founder of the skete form of monasticism.

Among the first to set forth precepts for the monastic life was Saint Basil the Great, a man from a professional family who was educated in Caesarea, Constantinople, and Athens. Saint Basil visited colonies of hermits in Palestine and Egypt but was most strongly impressed by the organized communities developed under the guidance of Saint Pachomius. Saint Basil's ascetical writings set forth standards for well-disciplined community life and offered lessons in what became the ideal monastic virtue: humility.

Saint Basil wrote a series of guides for monastic life (the Lesser Asketikon, the Greater Asketikon, the Morals, etc.) which, while not "Rules" in the legalistic sense of later Western rules, provided firm indications of the importance of a single community of monks, living under the same roof, and under the guidance—and even discipline—of a strong abbot. His teachings set the model for Greek and Russian monasticism but had less influence in the Latin West.

Of great importance to the development of monasticism is the Saint Catherine's Monastery on Mount Sinai in Egypt. Here the Ladder of Divine Ascent was written by Saint John Climacus (c.600), a work of such importance that many Orthodox monasteries to this day read it publicly either during the Divine Services or in Trapeza during Great Lent.

At the height of the East Roman Empire, numerous great monasteries were established by the emperors, including the twenty "sovereign monasteries" on the Holy Mountain,[27] an actual "monastic republic" wherein the entire country is devoted to bringing souls closer to God. In this milieu, the Philokalia was compiled.

As the Great Schism between East and West grew, conflict arose over misunderstandings about Hesychasm. Saint Gregory Palamas, bishop of Thessalonica, an experienced Athonite monk, defended Eastern Orthodox spirituality against the critiques of Barlaam of Calabria, and left numerous important works on the spiritual life.

Konstantin Savitsky, monk 1897

### Present

[edit]

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Candidates for the Office of Bishop in the Eastern Orthodox Church are still required by canon law to be unwed/widowed and to take monastic vows if they have not previously done so.[28]

Monastic centers thrive to this day in Bulgaria, Ethiopia, Georgia, Greece, North Macedonia, Russia, Romania, Serbia, the Holy Land, and elsewhere. The Autonomous Monastic State of Mount Athos remains the spiritual center of monasticism for the Eastern Orthodox Church.

Monasticism continues to be influential in the Eastern Orthodox Church. Fasting, Hesychasm, and spiritual life are strongly encouraged not only among monastics but also among the laity.

### Types of Eastern Orthodox monks

[edit]

Main article: Degrees of Eastern Orthodox monasticism

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Orthodox monks farming potatoes in Russia, c. 1910

There are three levels of monasticism: the Rassophore, the Stavrophore, and the Schema-Monk (or Schema-Nun). Each of the three degrees represents an increased level of asceticism. In the early days of monasticism, there was only one level—the Great Schema—and even Saint Theodore the Studite argued against the establishment of intermediate grades, but nonetheless the consensus of the church has favored the development of three distinct levels.

When a candidate wishes to embrace the monastic life, he will enter the monastery of his choice as a guest and ask to be received by the Hegumen (Abbot). After a period of at least three days the Hegumen may at his discretion clothe the candidate as a novice.[29] There is no formal ceremony for the clothing of a novice; he or she would simply be given the Podraznik, belt and skoufos.

After a period of about three years, the Hegumen may at his discretion tonsure the novice as a Rassophore monk, giving him the outer garment called the Rassa (Greek: Rason). A monk or nun may remain in this grade for the rest of his or her life, if they so choose. The Rite of Tonsure for the Rassophore refers to the grade as that of the "Beginner." The Rassophore is also given a klobuk which he wears in church and on formal occasions. In addition, Rassophores will be given a prayer rope at their tonsure.

The next rank, Stavrophore, is the grade that most Russian monks remain all their lives. The title Stavrophore means "cross-bearer" because when Tonsured into this grade the monastic is given a cross to wear at all times. This cross is called a Paramand—a wooden cross attached by ribbons to a square cloth embroidered with the Instruments of the Passion and the words, "I bear upon my body the marks of the Lord Jesus" (Galatians 6:17). The Paramand is so-called because it is worn under the Mantle (Greek: Mandyas; Church Slavonic: Mantya), which is a long cape which completely covers the monk from neck to foot.

St. Anthony of Kiev wearing the Great Schema.

The highest rank of monasticism is the Great Schema (Greek: Megaloschemos; Church Slavonic: Schimnik). The Schema monk or Schema nun wears the same habit as the Rassophore, with the addition of the Analavos (Church Slavonic: Analav). The Analavos is a garment shaped like a cross, covering the shoulders and coming down to the knees (or lower) in the front and back. This garment is roughly reminiscent of the scapular worn by some Roman Catholic orders, but it is finely embroidered with the Cross and instruments of the Passion. The Klobuk worn by a Schema monk is also embroidered with a red cross and other symbols. the Klobuk may be shaped differently, more rounded at the top, in which case it is referred to as a koukoulion.

The religious habit worn by Eastern Orthodox monastics is the same for both monks and nuns, except that the nuns wear an additional veil, called an apostolnik.

The central and unifying feature of Eastern Orthodox monasticism is Hesychasm, the practice of silence, and the concentrated saying of the Jesus Prayer. Monastic humility is guided towards preparing the heart for theoria or the "divine vision" that comes from the union of the soul with God.[30]

## Western Christian monasticism

[edit]

### History

[edit]

St. Jerome, Paula and Eustochium by Francisco de Zurbarán, 1638-1640).

The introduction of monasticism into the West may be dated from about A.D. 340 when St. Athanasius visited Rome accompanied by the two Egyptian monks Ammon and Isidore, disciples of St. Anthony. The publication of the "Vita Antonii" some years later and its translation into Latin spread the knowledge of Egyptian monachism widely and many were found in Italy to imitate the example thus set forth. The first Italian monks aimed at reproducing exactly what was done in Egypt and not a few—such as Saint Jerome, Rufinus, Paula, Eustochium and the two Melanias (Elder and Younger)—actually went to live in Egypt or Palestine as being better suited to monastic life than Italy.[5]

The earliest phases of monasticism in Western Europe involved figures like Martin of Tours, who after serving in the Roman legions converted to Christianity and established a hermitage near Milan, then moved on to Poitiers where a community gathered around his hermitage. He was called to become Bishop of Tours in 372, where he established a monastery at Marmoutier on the opposite bank of the Loire, a few miles upstream from the city. His cell was a hut of wood, and round it his disciples, who soon numbered eighty, dwelt in caves and huts. His monastery was laid out as a colony of hermits rather than as a single integrated community. The type of life was simply the Antonian monachism of Egypt.[5]

Honoratus of Marseille was a wealthy Gallo-Roman aristocrat, who after a pilgrimage to Egypt, founded the Monastery of Lérins in 410, on an island lying off the modern city of Cannes. The monastery combined a community with isolated hermitages where older, spiritually-proven monks could live in isolation. Lérins became, in time, a center of monastic culture and learning, and many later monks and bishops would pass through Lérins in the early stages of their career.[31] Honoratus was called to be Bishop of Arles.

John Cassian began his monastic career at a monastery in Palestine and Egypt around 385 to study monastic practice there. In Egypt, he had been attracted to the isolated life of hermits, which he considered the highest form of monasticism, yet the monasteries he founded were all organized monastic communities. About 415 he established two monasteries near Marseille,[31] one for men, one for women. In time these attracted a total of 5,000 monks and nuns. Most significant for the future development of monasticism were Cassian's Institutes, which provided a guide for monastic life and his Conferences, a collection of spiritual reflections.

#### Celtic monasticism

[edit]

It seems that the first Celtic monasteries were merely settlements where the Christians lived together—priests and laity, men, women, and children alike—as a kind of religious clan.[31] According to James F. Kenney, every important church was a monastic establishment, with a small walled village of monks and nuns living under ecclesiastical discipline, and ministering to the people of the surrounding area.[32] Monastic spirituality came to Britain and then Ireland from Gaul, by way of Lérins, Tours, and Auxerre. Its spirituality was heavily influenced by the Desert Fathers, with a monastic enclosure surrounding a collection of individual monastic cells.[33] The British church employed an episcopal structure corresponding closely to the model used elsewhere in the Christian world.[34] Illtud, David, Gildas, and Deiniol were leading figures in 6th-century Britain.

According to Thomas O'Loughlin, "Each monastery should be seen, as with most monasteries of the period, as an individual response to the monastic impulse by someone who had experienced monasticism and then went off to establish either a hermitage to which others later came or a cenobitic community."[35] The monasteries were organized on a family basis. Next in importance to the abbot was the scribe, in charge of the scriptorium, the teaching function of the monastery, and the keeping of the annals. The role of scribe was often a path to the position of abbot.[36] Hereditary right and relationship to the abbot were factors influencing appointment to monastic offices.

Buildings would generally have been of wood, wattle, and thatch. Monasteries tended to be cenobitical in that monks lived in separate cells but came together for common prayer, meals, and other functions. Celtic monasticism was characterized by a rigorous asceticism and a love for learning.[37]

Some more austere ascetics became hermits living in remote locations in what came to be called the "green martyrdom".

#### Double monasteries

[edit]

The monastery of Brigit of Kildare at Kildare, Ireland, was a double monastery, with both men and women, supervised by an Abbess, a pattern found in other monastic foundations.[38]

#### Scotland

[edit]

Around 397, Ninian, a Briton probably from the area south of the Firth of Clyde, dedicated his church at Whithorn to St. Martin of Tours. According to Bede, Ninian evangelized the southern Picts.[39]

Kentigern was an apostle of the British Kingdom of Strathclyde in the late 6th century and the founder and patron saint of the city of Glasgow. Due to anti-Christian sentiment, he re-located for a time to Wales, where he established a monastery at St. Asaph's. Here he divided the monks into three groups. The unlettered was assigned to the duty of agriculture, the care of cattle, and the other necessary duties outside the monastery. He assigned 300 to duties within the cloister of the monastery, such as doing the ordinary work[clarification needed], preparing food, and building workshops. The remaining monks, who were lettered, he appointed to the celebration of divine service in church by day and by night.

#### Wales

[edit]

Cadoc founded Llancarfan in the latter part of the fifth century. He received the religious habit from an Irish monk, St. Tathai, superior of a small community near Chepstow, in Monmouthshire. Returning to his native county, Cadoc built a church, and monastery, which was called Llancarfan, or the "Church of the Stags". There he also established a college and a hospital.[40] His legend recounts that he daily fed a hundred clergy and a hundred soldiers, a hundred workmen, a hundred poor men, and the same number of widows. When thousands left the world and became monks, they very often did so as clansmen, dutifully following the example of their chief. Bishoprics, canonries, and parochial benefices passed from one to another member of the same family, and frequently from father to son. Their tribal character is a feature which Irish and Welsh monasteries had in common.[41]

Illtyd spent the first part of his religious life as a disciple of Cadoc at Llancarfan. He founded the monastery at Llanilltyd Fawr. One of his students was Paul Aurelian, a key figure in Cornish monasticism.[42] Gildas the Wise was also a student at Llanilltyd Fawr,[40] as was Samson of Dol. Samson founded a monastery in an abandoned Roman fort near the river Severn and lived for a time the life of a hermit in a nearby cave before going to Brittany.

St David established his monastery on a promontory on the western sea, well placed to be a centre of Insular Christianity. His establishment became known for its austerity and holiness, more than as a centre of learning,[43] although when King Alfred sought a scholar for his court, he summoned Asser of St David's. Contemporary with David were Teilo, Cadoc, Padarn, Beuno and Tysilio among them.

#### Cornwall

[edit]

Many early medieval settlements in the region were occupied by hermitage chapels which are often dedicated to St Michael as the conventional slayer of pagan demons, as at St Michael's Mount.

#### Ireland

[edit]

Clonmacnois Round Tower

The earliest monastic settlements in Ireland emerged at the end of the fifth century. It was from Illtud and his colleagues that the Irish sought guidance on matters of ritual and discipline. Enda of Aran is called the "patriarch of Irish monasticism".[43] A warrior prince of Oriel, upon the death of his betrothed he decided to study for the priesthood. He first joined St Ailbe at Emly, before traveling to Ninian's Candida Casa in Scotland, where he was ordained. About 484 he established the first Irish monastery at Killeaney on Aran Mor. Finnian of Clonard is said to have studied under Cadoc at Llancarfan in Glamorganshire.[44] Finnian of Moville studied under Colman of Dromore and Mochae of Noendrum, before he too went to Candida Casa.[45]

Ireland was a rural society of chieftains living in the countryside. As in Wales, if a clan chieftain accepted Christianity so did those he ruled.[46] Commonly, Irish monasteries were established by grants of land to an abbot or abbess who came from a local noble family. The monastery became the spiritual focus of the tribe or kin group. Successive abbots and abbesses were members of the founder's family, a policy which kept the monastic lands under the jurisdiction of the family (and corresponded to Irish legal tradition, which only allowed the transfer of land within a family). In Ireland, the abbot was often called "coarb", a term designating the heir or successor of the founder.[39]

The abbots of the principal monasteries— such as Clonard, Armagh, Clonmacnoise, Swords, etc.—were of the highest rank and held in the greatest esteem. They wielded great power and had vast influence. The abbot usually was only a presbyter, but in the large monasteries, there were one or more resident bishops who conferred orders and discharged the other functions of a bishop. The abbot was superior of the house, and all were subject to him.[47]

The Irish rule was rigorous. The daily routine of monastic life was prayer, study, and manual labor. With regard to food, the rule was very strict. Only one meal a day, at 3 o'clock p.m., was allowed, except on Sundays and Feast days. Wednesdays and Fridays were fast days, except the interval between Easter and Whit Sunday. The food allowed was barley bread, milk, fish, and eggs. Flesh meat was not allowed except on great feasts.[47]

In Ireland, a distinctive form of penance developed, where confession was made privately to a priest, under the seal of secrecy, and where penance was given privately and ordinarily performed privately as well.[48] Penance was considered therapeutic rather than punitive.[49] Certain handbooks were made, called "penitentials", designed as a guide for confessors and as a means of regularising the penance given for each particular sin. According to Thomas Pollock Oakley, the penitential guides first developed in Wales, probably at St. David's, and spread by missions to Ireland.[50]

Irish monasticism maintained the model of a monastic community while, like John Cassian, marking the contemplative life of the hermit as the highest form of monasticism. Saints' lives frequently tell of monks (and abbots) departing some distance from the monastery to live in isolation from the community. Irish monastic rules specify a stern life of prayer and discipline in which prayer, poverty, and obedience are the central themes.

Irish monks learned Latin, the language of the Church. Thus they read Latin texts, both spiritual and secular. Subjects taught included Latin, Greek, Hebrew, grammar, rhetoric, poetry, arithmetic, chronology, the Holy Places, hymns, sermons, natural science, history and especially the interpretation of Sacred Scripture.[47] In 544 AD, St Ciarán founded a monastery at Clonmacnoise, which became one of the most important centers of learning and religious life in Ireland. Contrary to common practice, the title of abbot – which included the title "Comarba of Saint Ciarán" – at the community was not hereditary, which reflected the humble origins of its founder. In 557, St Brendan founded a monastery at Clonfert.

By the end of the seventh century, Irish monastic schools attracted students from England and Europe.[51]

Irish monastic achievements of insular art, in illuminated manuscripts like the Book of Kells, high crosses, metalwork like the Ardagh Chalice and the Cross of Cong and manuscript decoration had a profound influence on Western medieval art.[52] The manuscripts were produced by and for monasteries, and evidence suggests that metalwork was produced in both monastic and royal workshops.[53]

#### Culdees

[edit]

Main article: Culdees

The Culdees (Irish: Céilí Dé, lit. "Spouses of God") were members of ascetic Christian monastic and eremitical communities of Ireland, Scotland, Wales and England in the Middle Ages. Appearing first in Ireland and subsequently in Scotland, attached to cathedral or collegiate churches, they lived in monastic fashion though not taking monastic vows.[54]

#### Hiberno-Scottish mission

[edit]

Irish monasticism spread widely, first to Scotland and Northern England, then to Gaul and Italy. Columba and his followers established monasteries at Bangor, on the northeastern coast of Ireland, at Iona, an island north-west of Scotland, and at Lindisfarne, which was founded by Aidan, an Irish monk from Iona, at the request of King Oswald of Northumbria. Abbots of Iona were normally appointed from the founders kin, with an abbot often naming his successor.[39]

Columbanus, an abbot from a Leinster noble family, traveled to Gaul in the late 6th century with twelve companions. Columbanus and his followers spread the Irish model of monastic institutions to the continent. A whole series of new monastic foundations under Irish influence sprang up, starting with Columbanus's foundations of Luxeuil and Fontaine-lès-Luxeuil and, sponsored by the Frankish King Childebert II. After Childebert's death Columbanus traveled east to Metz, where Theudebert II allowed him to establish a new monastery among the semi-pagan Alemanni in what is now Switzerland. One of Columbanus's followers founded the monastery of St. Gall on the shores of Lake Constance, while Columbanus continued onward across the Alps to the kingdom of the Lombards in Italy. There King Agilulf and his wife Theodolinda granted Columbanus land in the mountains between Genoa and Milan, where he established the monastery of Bobbio. From about 698 until the reign of Charlemagne in the 770s, the Hiberno-Scottish efforts in the Frankish Empire were continued by the Anglo-Saxon mission. The rule of St. Columbanus, which was originally followed in most of these monasteries, was eventually superseded by that of St. Benedict.

#### Benedictine monasticism

[edit]

Saint Benedict by Herman Nieg, Heiligenkreuz Abbey, Austria

Benedict of Nursia is the most influential of Western monks and is called "the Father of Western Monasticism". He was educated in Rome but soon sought the life of a hermit in a cave at Subiaco, outside the city. He then attracted followers with whom he founded the monastery of Monte Cassino around 520, between Rome and Naples. He established the Rule of St Benedict, adapting in part the earlier anonymous Rule of the Master (Regula magistri), which was written somewhere south of Rome around 500, and defined the activities of the monastery, its officers, and their responsibilities. By the ninth century, largely under the inspiration of the Emperor Charlemagne, Benedict's Rule became the basic guide for Western monasticism.

While the Celtic monasteries had a stronger connection to the semi-eremitical tradition of Egypt via Lérins and Tours, Benedict and his followers were more influenced by the cenobitism of St Pachomius and Basil the Great. Early Benedictine monasteries were relatively small and consisted of an oratory, refectory, dormitory, scriptorium, guest accommodation, and out-buildings, a group of often quite separate rooms more reminiscent of a decent-sized Roman villa than a large medieval abbey. A monastery of about a dozen monks would have been normal during this period.

Medieval monastic life consisted of prayer, reading, and manual labor.[55] Prayer was a monk's first priority. Apart from prayer, monks performed a variety of tasks, such as preparing medicine, lettering, reading, and others. Also, these monks would work in the gardens and on the land. They might also spend time in the cloister, a covered colonnade around a courtyard, where they would pray or read. Some monasteries held a scriptorium where monks would write or copy books.

The efficiency of Benedict's cenobitic Rule in addition to the stability of the monasteries made them very productive. The monasteries were the central storehouses and producers of knowledge. Vikings started attacking Irish monasteries famous for learning in 793. One monk wrote about how he did not mind the bad weather one evening because it kept the Vikings from coming: "Bitter is the wind tonight, it tosses the ocean's white hair, I need not fear—as on a night of calm sea—the fierce raiders from Lochlann."[56]

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, the growing pressure of monarchies and the nation-states undermined the wealth and power of the orders. Monasticism continued to play a role in Catholicism, but after the Protestant reformation many monasteries in Northern Europe were shut down and their assets seized.

### Military orders

[edit]

In the twelfth century, traditional monastic orders in Outremer evolved into military orders, initially for the purpose of defending pilgrims, although they later became larger military forces that played a key role in combating Muslim efforts at reconquest and propping up continued Christian rule in the region. These orders included the Knights Templar and the Hospitallers. In large part, the notion of military monasticism was popularised because of the advocacy of St. Bernard of Clairvaux, who believed that existing Christian methods of serving the Church's ends in the war were inadequate and that a group of dedicated warrior monks, who achieved spiritual merit and served God through waging war, was necessary. In his view, advancing the cause of Christendom was an end that justified means that might fall outside the bounds of just war.[57] These orders largely declined with the loss of Outremer in the 1200s - except for the Teutonic Order, which transferred itself to the Baltic where it took up a major role in the Baltic Crusades.

### Western Christian orders in the modern era

[edit]

Many distinct monastic orders developed within Roman Catholicism and Protestantism. Monastic communities in the West, broadly speaking, are organized into orders and congregations guided by a particular religious rule, most commonly the Rule of St Benedict.

#### Roman Catholicism

[edit]

Part of a series on the
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Catholicism portal

* v
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* e

Main article: Religious order (Catholic)

* Benedictines, founded in 529 by Saint Benedict at Monte Cassino, stresses manual labor in a self-sufficient monastery. They are an order of independent monastic communities.
* Cluniacs, a branch of the Benedictines, at its height c.950-c.1130
* Camaldolese, a branch of the Benedictines, founded c.1000 Saint Romuald of Ravenna.
* Vallombrosans, a branch of the Benedictines, founded c. 1038 by Saint Gualberto Visdomini.
* Carthusians, also known as the Order of Saint Bruno, founded 1084 by Saint Bruno of Cologne. Open to both sexes; combines eremitical and cenobitic life.
* Cistercians, the Order of Cîteaux, sometimes referred to as the Order of Saint Bernard, founded in 1098 by Saint Robert of Molesme.
* Paulines, founded in Hungary in 1225 by Blessed Eusebius.
* Celestines, founded in 1244 and originally called Hermits of Saint Damiano, or Moronites (or Murronites). Became known as Celestines after their founder was elected Pope and took the name Celestine V.
* Olivetans or the Order of Our Lady of Mount Olivet, a branch of the Benedictines, founded in 1313 by Bernardo Tolomei (born Giovanni Tolomei) along with two of his friends from the noble families of Siena, Patrizio Patrizi and Ambrogio Piccolomini.
* Bridgettines, founded in 1344 by Saint Bridget of Sweden.
* Hieronymites, founded in Spain in 1364, by an eremitical community formally known as the Order of Saint Jerome.
* Conceptionists, formally the Order of the Immaculate Conception, founded in 1484 by Saint Beatrice of Silva.
* Turchines, formally the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation, founded in 1604 by Blessed Maria Vittoria De Fornari Strata
* Visitandines: the Order of the Visitation of Holy Mary, an order of women. Members of the order are also known as the Visitation Sisters. The Order was founded in 1610 by Saint Francis de Sales and Saint Jane Frances de Chantal in Annecy, Haute-Savoie, France.
* Trappists, a Cistercian reform, begun c. 1664.
* Monastic Brothers and Monastic Sisters of Bethlehem, who practice Carthusian spirituality and were founded in consequence of the influence on a small group of French pilgrims of the promulgation of the dogma of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary into Heaven on November 1, 1950, in St. Peter's Square, in Vatican City.[58] The Monastic Sisters were founded in France, soon after the event, and the Monastic Brothers in 1976.

#### Lutheran Church

[edit]

Loccum Abbey has been a Lutheran monastery since the 16th century A.D.

After the foundation of the Lutheran Churches, some monasteries in Lutheran lands (such as Amelungsborn Abbey near Negenborn and Loccum Abbey in Rehburg-Loccum) and convents (such as Ebstorf Abbey near the town of Uelzen and Bursfelde Abbey in Bursfelde) adopted the Lutheran Christian faith.[59]

Loccum Abbey and Amelungsborn Abbey have the longest traditions as Lutheran monasteries. Since the 19th century, there has been a renewal in the monastic life among Protestants. There are many present-day Lutherans who practice the monastic teaching of the Catholic Church.

In 1947 Mother Basilea Schlink and Mother Martyria founded the Evangelical Sisterhood of Mary, in Darmstadt, Germany. This movement is largely considered Evangelical or Lutheran in its roots.

In 1948 Bavarian Lutheran pastor Walter Hümmer and his wife Hanna founded the Communität Christusbruderschaft Selbitz.

In 1958, men joined Father Arthur Kreinheder in observing the monastic life and offices of prayer and "The Congregation of the Servants of Christ" was established at St. Augustine's House[60] in Oxford, Michigan. These men and others came and went over the years. The community has remained small; at times the only member was Father Arthur. During the 35 years of its existence, over 25 men tested their vocations to monastic life by living at the house for some time, from a few months to many years, but at Father Arthur's death in 1989, only one permanent resident remained. At the beginning of 2006, there are two permanent professed members and two long-term guests. Strong ties remain with this community and their brothers in Sweden (Östanbäck Monastery)[61] and in Germany the (Priory of St. Wigbert).[62]

In Germany, Communität Casteller Ring[63] is a Lutheran Benedictine community for women.

In 2011, an Augustinian religious order, the Priestly Society of St. Augustine (Societas Sacerdotalis Sancti Augustini) was established by the Anglo-Lutheran Catholic Church.[64]

In Lutheran Sweden, religious life for women had been established by 1954, when Sister Marianne Nordström made her profession through contacts with The Order of the Holy Paraclete and Mother Margaret Cope (1886–1961) at St Hilda's Priory, Whitby, Yorkshire.

The Evangelical Lutheran Church in America was founded through the merger of three churches in 1988.[65]

#### Anglican Communion

[edit]

Main article: Anglican religious order

In England, John Wycliffe organized the Lollard Preacher Order (the "Poor Priests") to promote his views, many of which resounded with those held by the later Protestant Reformers.

Monastic life in England came to an abrupt end with Dissolution of the Monasteries during the reign of King Henry VIII. The property and lands of the monasteries were confiscated and either retained by the King, sold to landowners, or given to loyal nobility. Monks and nuns were pensioned off and retired or some were forced to either flee for the continent or to abandon their vocations. For around 300 years, there were no monastic communities within any of the Anglican churches.

Shortly after the Oxford Movement began to advocate restoring catholic faith and practice to the Church of England (see Anglo-Catholicism), there was felt to be a need for a restoration of the monastic life. Anglican priest John Henry Newman established a community of men at Littlemore near Oxford in the 1840s while he was vicar of Church of St Mary and St Nicholas, Littlemore. From then forward, there have been many communities of monks, friars, sisters, and nuns established within the Anglican Communion. In 1848, Mother Priscilla Lydia Sellon founded the Anglican Sisters of Charity and became the first woman to take religious vows within the Anglican Communion since the Reformation. In October 1850 the first building specifically built for the purpose of housing an Anglican Sisterhood was consecrated at Abbeymere in Plymouth. It housed several schools for the destitute, a laundry, a printing press, and a soup kitchen. From the 1840s and throughout the following one hundred years, religious orders for both men and women proliferated in the UK and the United States, as well as in various countries of Africa, Asia, Canada, India and the Pacific.

Some Anglican religious communities are contemplative, some active, but a distinguishing feature of the monastic life among Anglicans is that most practice the so-called "mixed life", a combination of a life of contemplative prayer with active service. Anglican religious life closely mirrors that of Roman Catholicism. Like Roman Catholic religious, Anglican religious also take the three vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience. Religious communities live together under a common rule, reciting the Divine Office and celebrating the Eucharist daily.

In the early 20th century when the Anglo-Catholic movement was at its height, the Anglican Communion had hundreds of orders and communities, and thousands of religious. However, since the 1960s there has been a sharp falling off in the numbers of religious in many parts of the Anglican Communion, most notably in the United Kingdom and the United States. In the last few decades of the 20th century, novices have for most communities been few and far between. Some orders and communities have already become extinct. There are, however, still thousands of Anglican religious working today in religious communities around the world. While vocations remain few in some areas, Anglican religious communities are experiencing exponential growth in Africa, Asia, and Oceania.

Around 1964, Reuben Archer Torrey III, an Episcopal missionary, grandson of R. A. Torrey, founded Jesus Abbey as a missionary community in Korea. It has some links with the Episcopal Church and holds an Evangelical doctrine.

#### Methodist Churches

[edit]

In February 2001, the United Methodist Church organized the Saint Brigid of Kildare Monastery. It is a Methodist-Benedictine residential double monastery in Collegeville, Minnesota. Besides monastic orders, the Order of Saint Luke is a dispersed religious order within Methodism.

#### Presbyterian Churches

[edit]

The Community of the Sisterhood Emmanuel was founded in 1973 in Makak, Cameroon, in the Centre Province by Mother Marie, one of the first female Pastors of the Presbyterian Church in Cameroon. In 1975, she moved the community to Agyati in Bafut. In 2019, the sisters relocated to Foumbot.[66] The Sisters are trained in strong collaboration with the sister Institutes of the Catholic Church.

#### Anabaptism

[edit]

Anabaptist Christians "retained many elements of the monastic understanding of a 'holy life' that followed true faith".[67] The Hutterites and Bruderhof, for example, live in intentional communities with their big houses having "ground floors for common work, meals and worship, the two-storey attics with small rooms, like monastic cells, for married couples".[68]

#### Quakerism and Shakerism

[edit]

The Shakers, who are also known as the "Shaking Quakers", have been characterized as a "Protestant monastic order providing refuge and otherworldly compensation".[69] They practice a celibate and communal lifestyle, pacifism, and their model of equality of the sexes, which they institutionalized in their society in the 1780s. They are also known for their simple living, architecture, and furniture. Sincere newcomers are invited to become Shakers:

> If someone wants to become a Shaker, and the Shakers assent, the would-be member can move into the dwelling house. If the novices, as they are called, stay a week, they sign an articles of agreement, which protects the colony from being sued for lost wages. After a year, the Shakers will take a vote whether to allow the novice in, but it takes another four years to be granted full Shaker status in sharing in the colony’s finances and administrative and worship decisions.[70]

Currently, there are two remaining Shakers, Brother Arnold Hadd and Sister June Carpenter, though they hope that others will join them at the only remaining Shaker community, the Sabbathday Lake Shaker Village.[71]

## Ecumenical expressions

[edit]

Christian monasticism is experiencing renewal in the form of several new foundations with an 'inter-Christian' vision for their respective communities.

In 1944 Roger Schütz, a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church, founded a small religious brotherhood in France which became known as the Taizé Community. Although he was partly inspired by the hope of reviving monasticism in the Protestant tradition, the brotherhood was interdenominational, accepting Roman Catholic brothers, and is thus an ecumenical rather than a specifically Protestant community.

The Order of Ecumenical Franciscans is a religious order of men and women devoted to following the examples of Saint Francis of Assisi and Saint Clare of Assisi in their life and understanding of the Christian gospel: sharing a love for creation and those who have been marginalized. It includes members of many different denominations, including Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Orthodox, and a range of Protestant traditions. The Order understands its charism to include not only ecumenical efforts and the traditional emphases of the Franciscans in general, but also to help to develop relationships between the various Franciscan orders.

Additional expressions of ecumenical monasticism can be seen in the New Monasticism movement arising from Protestant Evangelicalism.

## Contributions

[edit]

A monastery in Hronský Beňadik (Slovakia).

In traditional Catholic societies, monastic communities often took charge of social services such as education and healthcare.

Max Weber compared the closeted and Puritan societies of the English Dissenters, who sparked much of the Industrial Revolution, to monastic orders.

Many Utopian thinkers (starting with Thomas More) felt inspired by the common life of monks and sought to apply it to society as a whole (an example is the phalanstère).

Today, monasticism remains a part of the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox and Anglican faiths.[72]

### Education

[edit]

The capitulary of 789 reads: "Let every monastery and every abbey have its school, in which boys may be taught the Psalms, the system of musical notation, singing, arithmetic, and grammar."[73]

In the Middle Ages, monasteries conserved and copied ancient manuscripts in their scriptoria. A prospective monk first learned grammar, logic, and oratory. Later, he would take up mathematics, astronomy, and music. The students would use a stylus on wax. Later, when their handwriting improved, they would be given ink and parchment. Eventually, many of those schools became universities.[74] Monks in scriptoria copied texts of Greece and Rome, as well as religious texts, and kept these manuscripts from being lost during the Middle Ages.

### Medicine

[edit]

The hospital at Soutra Aisle.

Monastic pharmacies stored and studied medicaments. Some of the works that the monks copied were by medical writers, and reading and copying these works helped create a store of medical knowledge. Monasteries had infirmaries to treat the monks, travelers, the poor, old, weak and sick. In 2005, archeologists uncovered waste at Soutra Aisle which helped scientists figure out how people in the Middle Ages treated certain diseases, such as scurvy; because of the vitamin C in watercress, patients would eat it to stop their teeth from falling out. The same archeological group discovered hemlock, a known pain killer, in the drains of the hospital.[75]

Monasteries also aided in the development of agricultural techniques. The requirement of wine for the Mass led to the development of wine culture, as shown in the discovery of the méthode champenoise by Dom Perignon. Several liquors like Bénédictine and the Trappist beers were also developed in monasteries. Even today many monasteries and convents are locally renowned for their cooking specialties.

The consequence of this centralisation of knowledge was that they initially controlled both public administration and education, where the trivium led through the quadrivium to theology. Christian monks cultivated the arts as a way of praising God. Gregorian chant and miniatures are examples of the practical application of quadrivium subjects.

The status of monks as separate from secular life (at least theoretically), also served a social function. Dethroned Visigothic kings were tonsured and sent to a monastery so that they could not reclaim the crown. Monasteries became a place for second sons to live in celibacy to ensure that a family's inheritance went to the first son; and in exchange the families donated to the monasteries. Many cities had a St Giles house for lepers outside the walls, and a Magdalene house for prostitutes and other "fallen women" within the walls.

Monasteries also provided refuge to those like Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor who retired to Yuste in his late years, and his son Philip II of Spain.

## See also

[edit]

* Christianity portal

* Asceticism
* Chronology of early Christian monasticism
* Clasau—the early Welsh monasteries
* Consensoria Monachorum
* Coptic monasticism
* Hermit
* Intentional community
* Into Great Silence—the award-winning documentary of life within the Carthusian monsastery of La Grande Chartreuse by Philip Groning
* List of monastic houses in England
* Mount Athos
* New Monasticism
* Oblate
* Order of Watchers—a French Protestant fraternity of Hermits
* Pachomius—an early example of a monastic organizer
* Pustynia
* Rule of St Benedict
* Third order

## Notes, references, and sources

[edit]

### References

[edit]

1. ^ Harper, Douglas. "monk". Online Etymology Dictionary.
2. ^ Corbishley, Mike. Monks lived a very strict and regulated life. Life in a monastery included prayer, manual work, and this promoted the idea of the dignity and labour. Cultural Atlas for Young People The Middle Ages Revised Edition. New York: Facts On File, Inc., 2004, page 38.
3. ^ Rowling, Marjorie. Everyday Life in Medieval Times. London: Jarrold and Sons Ltd, 1968, page 125.
4. ^ Wilken, Robert Louis (27 November 2012). The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. p. 100\. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1.
5. ^ a b c "Huddleston, Gilbert. "Monasticism." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 31 May 2013". Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 21 August 2009.
6. ^ Macdonald, Fiona. How would you survive in the Middle Ages?. New York: Franklin Watts, 1995, page 37.
7. ^ ""Early Monasticism", Monastery of the Holy Spirit". Archived from the original on 5 July 2013. Retrieved 19 July 2013.
8. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea, in his Ecclesiastical History, describes Philos Therapeutae as the first Christian monks, identifying their renunciation of property, chastity, fasting, solitary lives with the cenobitic ideal of the Christian monks. Professor Constantine Scouteris, Source Archived 25 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
9. ^ a b c d ""Early Christian Monasticism", Order of Cistercians of the Strict Observance". Archived from the original on 29 September 2015. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
10. ^ Numbers 6:5-18
11. ^ Mishneh Torah 5:1-7
12. ^ Numbers 6:5
13. ^ Numbers 6:8
14. ^ Numbers 6:6-7
15. ^ Bennett 2002, p. 83.
16. ^ a b c "Bacchus, Francis Joseph. "Eastern Monasticism Before Chalcedon (A.D. 451)". The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 31 May 2013". Archived from the original on 7 May 2021. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
17. ^ "Idiorrythmic Monasticism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
18. ^ "Anchoress". The Middle Ages Website. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
19. ^ Gardner, Edmund. "Juliana of Norwich". The Catholic Encyclopaedia Vol. 8. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
20. ^ "Monasticism", Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church, Nassau, Bahamas Archived 25 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
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22. ^ a b "Monasticism", Augnet Archived 12 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine
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24. ^ "Philip Schaff: History of the Christian Church, Volume III: Nicene and Post-Nicene Christianity. A.D. 311–600 – Christian Classics Ethereal Library". ccel.org. Retrieved 22 February 2022.
25. ^ Robertson, J. M. (15 May 2018). A Short History of Christianity. BoD – Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-7326-7204-2.
26. ^ One may hear Orthodox monks referred to as "Basilian Monks", but this is really an inappropriate application of western categories to Orthodoxy.
27. ^ Both Mount Sinai and Mount Athos are referred to as "the Holy Mountain" in Orthodox literature,
28. ^ "The Consecration (Ordination) Of An Orthodox Bishop". American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Diocese of North America. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
29. ^ "- The Monastic Grades". www.stots.edu. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
30. ^ "The Orthodox Faith - Volume II - Worship - The Sacraments - Monasticism". www.oca.org. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
31. ^ a b c Huddleston, Gilbert. "Western Monasticism." The Catholic Encyclopedia Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine Vol. 10. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. 18 December 2015
32. ^ Kenney, J.F., The Sources for the Early History of Ireland, New York, 1929
33. ^ ""Celtic Monasteries", Orthodox Christian Contact Wales". Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
34. ^ Corning, Caitlin. The Celtic and Roman Traditions: Conflict and Consensus in the Early Medieval Church. Macmillan. (2006) ISBN 1-4039-7299-0
35. ^ "Celtic Monasticism", Encyclopedia of Monasticism, (William M. Johnston, ed.), Routledge, 2013 ISBN 9781136787164
36. ^ Hughes, Kathleen. "The Distribution of Irish Scriptoria and Centres of Learning from 730 to 1111", Studies in the Early British Church, (N. Chdwick et sl, eds.), Cambridge, 1958
37. ^ McGonigle, Thomas C., McGonigle, Thomas D., and Quigley, James F., "A History of the Christian Tradition", Paulist Press, 1988 Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9780809129645
38. ^ Bateson, Mary (December 1899). "Origin and Early History of Double Monasteries". Transactions of the Royal Historical Society. 13: 137–198\. doi:10.2307/3678130. ISSN 1474-0648. JSTOR 3678130.
39. ^ a b c Addleshaw, George William Outram. "The Pastoral Structure of the Celtic Church in Northern Britain", Borthwick Publications, 1973 Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9780900701375
40. ^ a b Chandlery, Peter. "Welsh Monastic Foundations." The Catholic Encyclopedia Archived 8 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 18 December 2015
41. ^ Newell, E.J., A History of the Welsh Church to the Dissolution of the Monasteries, Chapter III, Elliot Stock, London, 1895
42. ^ "Thurston, Herbert. "Welsh Church." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 15. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1912. 19 Nov. 2013". Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 19 December 2015.
43. ^ a b Woods, Richard J., Christian Spirituality, Orbis Books, 2015 Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9781608334261
44. ^ ""Irish Monasticism", Early Christian Sites in Ireland". Archived from the original on 13 March 2014. Retrieved 5 May 2014.
45. ^ "Grattan-Flood, William. "St. Finnian of Moville." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 6. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1909. 19 Jul. 2013". Archived from the original on 22 December 2015. Retrieved 20 December 2015.
46. ^ Duckett, Eleanor Shipley. The Gateway to the Middle Ages: Monasticism, University of Michigan Press, 1988 ISBN 9780472060511
47. ^ a b c "O'Halloran, W., Early Irish History and Antiquities and the History of West Cork, Chapter XI, 1916". Archived from the original on 6 May 2014. Retrieved 6 May 2014.
48. ^ Medieval Handbooks of Penance, eds. John T. McNeil and Helena M. Gamer (New York, Columbia University Press, 1938), p. 28
49. ^ Hinson, E. Glenn. The Church Triumphant: A History of Christianity Up to 1300, Mercer University Press, 1995 Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9780865544369
50. ^ Oakley, Thomas Pollock. English Penitential Discipline and Anglo-Saxon Law in Their Joint Influence, p.28, The Lawbook Exchange, Ltd., 2003 Archived 11 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine ISBN 9781584773023
51. ^ "Ireland - Early Christianity, Monasteries, Saints | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 4 January 2025. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
52. ^ De Breffny, Brian (1983). Ireland: A Cultural Encyclopedia. London: Thames and Hudson. p. 153.
53. ^ "'The Work of Angels', Masterpieces of Celtic Metalwork", (Susan Youngs, ed.) London: British Museum Press. 1989, ISBN 0-7141-0554-6
54. ^ D'Alton, Edward Alfred (1908). "Culdees". In Catholic Encyclopedia. 4. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
55. ^ "Middle-ages.org.uk". Archived from the original on 24 September 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2010.
56. ^ Rowling, Marjorie. Everyday Life in Medieval Times. London: Jarrold and Sons Ltd., 1968, page 114
57. ^ Christiansen, Eric. The Northern Crusades. London: Penguin Books. pg. 75.
58. ^ "The beginnings of the Monastic Family of Bethlehem, of the Assumption of the Virgin and of Saint Bruno". Archived from the original on 16 November 2022. Retrieved 16 November 2022.
59. ^ Histories, Medieval (8 August 2014). "Kloster Ebstorf". Medieval Histories. Retrieved 20 November 2017. "The monastery is mentioned for the first time in 1197. It belongs to the group of so-called Lüneklöstern (monasteries of Lüne), which became Lutheran convents following the Protestant Reformation. […] It is currently one of several Lutheran convents maintained by the Monastic Chamber of Hanover (Klosterkammer Hannover), an institution of the former Kingdom of Hanover founded by its Prince-Regent, later King George IV of the United Kingdom, in 1818, in order to manage and preserve the estates of Lutheran convents."
60. ^ "Saint Augustine's House". Archived from the original on 3 September 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
61. ^ Östanbäck monastery Archived 13 August 2011 at the Wayback Machine
62. ^ "Priorat St. Wigberti: Unser Kloster". Archived from the original on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
63. ^ Communität Casteller Ring Archived 11 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine
64. ^ Priestly Society of St. Augustine
65. ^ "History". www.elca.org. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
66. ^ "Evangelical Sisterhood "Emmanuel Sisters"". Mission 21. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
67. ^ Redekop, Calvin Wall; Krahn, Victor A.; Steiner, Samuel J. (1994). Anabaptist/Mennonite Faith and Economics. University Press of America. p. 15\. ISBN 9780819193506.
68. ^ "Learning from the Bruderhof: An Intentional Christian Community". ChristLife. Retrieved 27 August 2018.
69. ^ Hammond, Phillip E. (1985). The Sacred in a Secular Age: Toward Revision in the Scientific Study of Religion. University of California Press. p. 28. ISBN 9780520053434.
70. ^ Williams, Kevin (3 May 2015). "A few good Shakers wanted". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
71. ^ Gibbs, Constance (4 January 2017). "The only two Shakers left live in Maine community". Daily News. New York. Retrieved 19 June 2017.
72. ^ Salgado, Soli. "The rise of monasticism in a modern world". www.globalsistersreport.org. Retrieved 4 January 2025.
73. ^ Turner, William. "Carolingian Schools." Archived 11 February 2015 at the Wayback Machine The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. 11 February 2015
74. ^ "Historymedrend.about.com". Archived from the original on 9 August 2009. Retrieved 18 February 2010.
75. ^ Elliott, Jane (6 August 2005). "The medical world of medieval monks". BBC News. Retrieved 30 April 2010.

### Sources

[edit]

* Ritari, K. (2009). Saints and Sinners in Early Christian Ireland: Moral Theology in the Lives of Saints Brigit and Columba. Turnhout: Brepols Publishers. ISBN 978-2-503-53315-5.
* Lawrence, C. H. (2001). Medieval Monasticism (3rd ed.). Harlow: Pearson Education. ISBN 0-582-40427-4.
* Chitty, D. J. (1966). The Desert a City: An Introduction to the Study of Egyptian and Palestinian Monasticism Under the Christian Empire. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
* Meyer, R. T. (1950). St. Athanasius: The Life of Anthony. ACW 10. Westminster, Md.: Newman Press.
* "Idiorrhythmic Monasticism". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
* Butler, Edward Cuthbert. "St. Anthony". The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 1. Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
* "Anchoress". The Middle Ages Website. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
* Gardner, Edmund. "Juliana of Norwich". The Catholic Encyclopedia Vol. 8. Robert Appleton Company, 1910. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
* "Mendicant Orders in the Medieval World". Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 9 October 2012.
* Thomas, John P. (1987). Private Religious Foundations in the Byzantine Empire. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 9780884021643.
* Bennett, Harold V. (2002). Injustice Made Legal: Deuteronomic Law and the Plight of Widows, Strangers, and Orphans in Ancient Israel. Eerdmans. ISBN 978-0-8028-3909-1.

## External links

[edit]

* Directory of Contemplative Men's Monasteries in the United States
* Directory of Contemplative Women's Monasteries in the United States
* "Catholic Hermitage" – Christian Perspective on Monasticism
* Congregation of the Servants of Christ at St. Augustine’s House \- Lutheran information on monasticism
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* Robert Bellarmine
* Francisco Suárez
* Lawrence of Brindisi
* Francis de Sales

Baroque period to
French Revolution

* Tommaso Campanella
* Pierre de Bérulle
* Pierre Gassendi
* René Descartes
* Mary of Jesus of Ágreda
* António Vieira
* Jean-Jacques Olier
* Louis Thomassin
* Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet
* François Fénelon
* Cornelius Jansen (Jansenism)
* Blaise Pascal
* Nicolas Malebranche
* Giambattista Vico
* Alphonsus Liguori
* Louis de Montfort
* Maria Gaetana Agnesi
* Alfonso Muzzarelli
* Johann Michael Sailer
* Clement Mary Hofbauer
* Bruno Lanteri

19th century|

* Joseph Görres
* Félicité de La Mennais
* Luigi Taparelli
* Antonio Rosmini
* Ignaz von Döllinger
* John Henry Newman
* Henri Lacordaire
* Jaime Balmes
* Gaetano Sanseverino
* Giovanni Maria Cornoldi
* Wilhelm Emmanuel Freiherr von Ketteler
* Giuseppe Pecci
* Joseph Hergenröther
* Tommaso Maria Zigliara
* Matthias Joseph Scheeben
* Émile Boutroux
* Modernism
* Neo-scholasticism
* Léon Bloy
* Désiré-Joseph Mercier
* Friedrich von Hügel
* Vladimir Solovyov
* Marie-Joseph Lagrange
* George Tyrrell
* Maurice Blondel
* Thérèse of Lisieux

20th century|

* G. K. Chesterton
* Reginald Garrigou-Lagrange
* Joseph Maréchal
* Pierre Teilhard de Chardin
* Jacques Maritain
* Étienne Gilson
* Ronald Knox
* Georges Bernanos
* Dietrich von Hildebrand
* Gabriel Marcel
* Marie-Dominique Chenu
* Romano Guardini
* Edith Stein
* Fulton Sheen
* Henri de Lubac
* Dorothy Day
* Henri Daniel-Rops
* Jean Guitton
* Josemaría Escrivá
* Nouvelle théologie
* Karl Rahner
* Yves Congar
* Bernard Lonergan
* Emmanuel Mounier
* Jean Daniélou
* Hans Urs von Balthasar
* Marcel Lefebvre
* Frederick Copleston
* Alfred Delp
* Edward Schillebeeckx
* Thomas Merton
* René Girard
* Hans Küng
* Johann Baptist Metz
* Jean Vanier
* Henri Nouwen

21st century|

* Pope John Paul II
* Alice von Hildebrand
* Carlo Maria Martini
* Pope Benedict XVI
* Gustavo Gutiérrez
* Alasdair MacIntyre
* Walter Kasper
* Raniero Cantalamessa
* Michał Heller
* Peter Kreeft
* Jean-Luc Marion
* Tomáš Halík
* Aidan Nichols
* Scott Hahn

* Catholicism portal

* v
* t
* e

History of the Catholic Church

General|

* History of the Catholic Church
* By country or region
* Ecclesiastical history
* Timeline
* Papacy
* Papal primacy
* Catholic ecumenical councils
* First seven
* Catholic Bible
* Biblical canon
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* History of the Roman Curia
* Religious institutes
* Christian monasticism
* Catholic culture
* Art
* Role in civilization
* Vatican City
* Papal States
* Latin Church
* Eastern Catholic Churches

Early Church
(30–325/476)|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age (30–100)|

* Jesus
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Holy Spirit
* Mary
* John the Baptist
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Commissioning
* Peter
* John
* Paul
* Stephen
* Council of Jerusalem
* Split with Judaism
* New Testament
* Background
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene period (100–325)|

* Persecution
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers
* Pope Clement I
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Canon
* Tertullian
* Origen

Late antiquity
(313–476)|

| Great Church
(180–451)
Roman
state church
(380–451)|

* Constantine the Great
* Christianity
* Arian controversy
* Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran
* Old St. Peter's Basilica
* First Council of Nicaea
* Pope Sylvester I
* First Council of Constantinople
* Biblical canon
* Jerome
* Vulgate
* Council of Ephesus
* Council of Chalcedon

|

Early Middle Ages|

* Benedict of Nursia
* Monasticism
* Second Council of Constantinople
* Pope Gregory I
* Gregorian chant
* Third Council of Constantinople
* Saint Boniface
* Byzantine Iconoclasm
* Second Council of Nicaea
* Charlemagne
* Pope Leo III
* Fourth Council of Constantinople
* East–West Schism

High Middle Ages|

* Pope Urban II
* Investiture Controversy
* Clash against the empire
* Crusades
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* First Council of the Lateran
* Second Council of the Lateran
* Third Council of the Lateran
* Pope Innocent III
* Latin Empire
* Francis of Assisi
* Fourth Council of the Lateran
* Inquisition
* First Council of Lyon
* Second Council of Lyon
* Bernard of Clairvaux

Late Middle Ages|

* Thomas Aquinas
* Pope Boniface VIII
* Western Schism
* Avignon Papacy
* Pope Clement V
* Council of Vienne
* Knights Templar
* Catherine of Siena
* Pope Alexander VI
* Age of Discovery

Protestant Reformation
Counter-Reformation

* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Counter-Reformation
* Exsurge Domine
* Dissolution of the monasteries
* Council of Trent
* Thomas More
* Pope Leo X
* Society of Jesus
* Ignatius of Loyola
* Francis Xavier
* Pope Pius V
* Tridentine Mass
* Teresa of Ávila
* John of the Cross
* Peter Canisius
* Philip Neri
* Robert Bellarmine
* European wars of religion
* Thirty Years' War

Baroque period to the
French Revolution

* Pope Innocent XI
* Pope Benedict XIV
* Suppression of the Society of Jesus
* Age of Enlightenment
* Anti-clericalism
* Pope Pius VI
* Shimabara Rebellion
* Edict of Nantes
* Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution

19th century|

* Pope Pius VII
* Pope Pius IX
* United States
* Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary
* Our Lady of La Salette
* Our Lady of Lourdes
* First Vatican Council
* Papal infallibility
* Pope Leo XIII
* Mary of the Divine Heart
* Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart
* Rerum novarum

20th century|

* Pope Pius X
* Our Lady of Fátima
* Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII
* Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary
* Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary
* Lateran Treaty
* Nazism
* Mit brennender Sorge
* Pope John XXIII
* Pacem in terris
* Second Vatican Council
* Ecumenism
* Judaism
* Pope Paul VI (coronation)
* Pope John Paul I
* Mother Teresa
* Communism
* Pope John Paul II
* HIV/AIDS
* World Youth Day
* 1995

21st century|

* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam
* World Youth Day
* 2000
* 2002
* 2005
* 2008
* 2011
* 2013
* 2016
* 2019
* 2023
* Pope Benedict XVI
* Pope Francis
* Laudato si'
* Patriarch Kirill
* COVID-19 pandemic

* Vatican City portal
* Catholicism portal

* v
* t
* e

Catholic Church

* Index
* Outline
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History
Timeline
Ecclesiastical
Legal|

| Early Church|

* Jesus Christ
* Ministry
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Apostles
* Succession
* Petrine primacy
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers
* History of the papacy
* Primacy

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* Late antiquity
* Biblical canon
* Monasticism

Middle Ages|

* Islamic conquests
* Pope Gregory I
* Papal States
* Schism (1054)
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Schism (1378)
* Inquisition
* Universities
* Scholasticism
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Protestantism
* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Trent
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Nazism
* Vatican II
* Communism
* Sexual abuse scandal
* Islam
* COVID-19 pandemic

Theology
Bible
Tradition
Catechism|

| General|

* God
* Trinity
* Kingdom
* Body and soul
* Divine grace
* Dogma
* Nicene Creed
* Original sin
* Saints
* Salvation
* Sermon on the Mount
* Ten Commandments
* Vulgate
* Official Bible
* Sixtine Vulgate
* Sixto-Clementine Vulgate
* Nova Vulgata
* Worship

|

Ecclesiology|

* Communitas perfecta
* Councils
* Ecumenism
* Four marks
* One true church
* Catholic
* Infallibility
* Mystici Corporis Christi
* People of God
* Three states
* Subsistit in
* In canon law

Sacraments|

* Baptism
* Confirmation
* Eucharist
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Last rites
* Holy orders
* Matrimony

Mariology|

* Assumption
* History
* Immaculate Conception
* Mariology of the popes
* Mariology of the saints
* Mother of God
* Perpetual virginity
* Veneration
* See also:
* Josephology

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Moral theology
* Personalism
* Social teaching
* Philosophers
* Philosophy of canon law
* See also:
* Science
* Evolution
* Separation of church and state
* Relations
* Politics

Saints|

* Holy Family
* Mary
* Joseph
* Patriarchs
* Prophets
* Archangels
* Martyrs
* Doctors of the Church
* Evangelists
* Confessors
* Disciples
* Virgins

Organisation
Hierarchy
Canon law
Laity
Precedence
By country|

| Holy See
(List of popes)|

* Pope Sede vacante
* Ecumenical councils
* College of Cardinals
* List
* Advisers
* Roman Curia
* Dicasteries
* Synod of Bishops
* Properties

|

Vatican City|

* Index
* Outline
* Apostolic Palace
* Lateran Treaty
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* St. Peter's Basilica
* Swiss Guard
* Vatican Museums

Polity (Holy orders)|

* Diocese
* Episcopal conference
* Eparchy
* Bishop
* Patriarch
* Major
* Primate
* Metropolitan
* Archbishop
* Diocesan
* Coadjutor
* Auxiliary
* Titular
* Emeritus
* Parish
* Priest
* Deacon

Consecrated life|

* Religious:
* Superior
* Abbot, Abbess
* General
* Provincial
* Prior, Prioress
* Grand master
* Brother
* Friar
* Monk
* Sister
* Nun
* Hermit
* Novice
* Master
* Oblate
* Postulant

Particular churches
sui iuris|

* Latin Church
* Eastern Catholic Churches
* Albanian
* Armenian
* Belarusian
* Bulgarian
* Chaldean
* Coptic
* Croatian and Serbian
* Eritrean
* Ethiopian
* Georgian
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* Macedonian
* Maronite
* Melkite
* Romanian
* Russian
* Ruthenian
* Slovak
* Syriac
* Syro-Malabar
* Syro-Malankara
* Ukrainian

Catholic liturgy|

* Eastern Catholic liturgy
* Alexandrian
* Antiochian
* Armenian
* Byzantine
* East Syriac
* West Syriac
* Malankara
* Latin
* Ambrosian
* Braga
* Mozarabic
* Roman
* Paul VI
* Tridentine
* Anglican
* Zaire

Culture|

* Art
* Marian
* Artists
* Writers
* Church buildings
* Altarpieces
* Folk
* Library
* Museums
* Music
* Distinctions
* Role in civilisation
* See also:
* Criticism of the Catholic Church
* Anti-Catholicism

Media|

* Holy See Press Office
* Vatican Media
* Vatican News
* Vatican Television Center
* Vatican Radio
* Vatican Polyglot Press
* L'Osservatore Romano
* Acta Apostolicae Sedis
* Annuario Pontificio

Religious orders,
institutes, societies|

* Assumptionists
* Annonciades
* Augustinians
* Basilians
* Benedictines
* Bethlehemites
* Blue nuns
* Camaldoleses
* Camillians
* Carmelites
* Carthusians
* Cistercians
* Clarisses
* Conceptionists
* Crosiers
* Dominicans
* Franciscans
* Good Shepherd Sisters
* Hieronymites
* Jesuits
* Legionaries
* Mercedarians
* Minims
* Olivetans
* Oratorians
* Piarists
* Premonstratensians
* Redemptoristines
* Servites
* Theatines
* Trappists
* Trinitarians
* Visitandines

Associations
of the faithful|

* Confraternities
* Lay
* Marian
* Youth
* Workers
* Third orders
* Saint Dominic
* Lay Carmelites
* Discalced
* Saint Francis
* Secular
* Military orders
* Fimcap
* Catholic Action
* Charismatic Renewal
* Communion and Liberation
* Sant'Egidio
* Focolare
* International Alliance of Catholic Knights
* Scouting
* Legion of Mary
* Neocatechumenal Way
* Opus Dei
* Schoenstatt

Charities|

* Aid to the Church in Need
* Caritas
* Catholic Charities USA
* Home Missions
* Relief Services
* CIDSE
* Pax Christi
* Society of Saint Vincent de Paul

* See also:
* Health care
* Schools
* Universities

* Catholic Church portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

History of Christianity

* Spread
* History of theology
* Historicity of the Bible
* List of martyrs

Timeline|

| Centuries|

* 1st
* 2nd and 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 15th
* 16th
* 17th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st

|

Early
Christianity|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age|

* Background
* Chronology of Jesus
* birth
* baptism
* ministry
* crucifixion
* resurrection
* Great Commission
* ascension
* historical Jesus
* Holy Spirit
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Jewish Christianity
* Split
* Paul the Apostle
* Council of Jerusalem
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene
period|

* Diversity
* Adoptionism
* Arianism
* Docetism
* Donatism
* Gnosticism
* Marcionism
* Montanism
* Canon development
* Persecution
* Apostolic / Church Fathers
* Clement of Rome
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Tertullian
* Origen
* Great Church
* Early African

Late antiquity|

* Constantine
* Constantinian shift
* Roman state religion
* Monasticism
* Councils
* Nicaea I
* Creed
* Christianity
* Athanasius
* Jerome
* Augustine
* Constantinople I
* Ephesus I
* Chalcedon
* Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian
* Biblical canon

Catholicism
(Timeline)|

* Papacy
* Development of primacy
* Eastern Orthodox opposition
* Peace and Truce of God
* Crusading movement
* Lateran IV
* Art patronage of Julius II
* Leo X
* Counter-Reformation
* Trent
* Art
* Catholic Reformation
* Jesuits
* Xavier
* Thomas More
* Monastery dissolution
* Wars
* Mass rocks and priest holes
* Guadalupe
* Jansenists
* Molinists
* Neo-Scholasticism
* Teresa
* Modernism
* Independent Catholics
* Vatican I and Vatican II
* Ecclesial community

Eastern
Christianity|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Church of the East
* Chrysostom
* Nestorianism
* Icons
* Iconodulism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Armenia
* Georgia
* Greece
* Egypt
* Syriac
* Serbian
* Ethiopia
* Ottoman Empire
* Russia
* North America

Middle Ages|

* Pelagianism
* Gregory I
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Franks
* Gothic
* Scandinavian
* Iceland
* Slavs
* Bohemia
* Bulgaria
* Kievan Rus'
* Moravia
* Poland
* Pomerania
* Investiture
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Bernard
* Bogomils
* Bosnian
* Cathars
* Apostolic Brethren
* Dulcinian
* Crusades
* Waldensians
* Inquisition
* Early Scholasticism
* Christian mysticism
* Dominic
* Francis
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Five Ways
* Wycliffe
* Avignon
* Papal Schism
* Bohemian Reformation
* Hus
* Conciliarism
* Synods

Reformation
and
Protestantism|

* Erasmus
* Eucharist
* Calvinist–Arminian debate
* Arminianism
* Wars
* Resistance theories
* Separation of church and state
* Nicodemites
* Hymnody of continental Europe
* Formal and material principles
* Law and Gospel
* Literature
* Protestant work ethic

| Lutheranism|

* Luther
* Ninety-five Theses
* Diet of Worms
* Theology
* Bible
* Melanchthon
* Book of Concord
* Orthodoxy
* Eucharist
* Art

|

Calvinism|

* Zwingli
* Calvin
* Huguenots
* Presbyterianism
* Scotland
* Knox
* TULIP
* Baptism
* Dort
* Three Forms of Unity
* Westminster
* Orthodoxy
* Metrical psalters

Anglicanism
(Timeline)|

* Henry VIII
* Cranmer
* Elizabethan
* 39 Articles
* Puritans
* Civil War
* Church music
* Book of Common Prayer
* King James Version

Anabaptism|

* Theology
* Radical Reformation
* Grebel
* Swiss Brethren
* Müntzer
* Martyrs' Synod
* Menno Simons
* Smyth
* Martyrs Mirror
* Ausbund

1640–1789|

* Revivalism
* Missionaries
* timeline
* Baptists
* Separation of church and state
* Edicts of toleration
* Congregationalism
* First Great Awakening
* Methodism
* Millerism
* Pietism
* Fostering of early experimental science
* Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present|

* Camp meeting
* Holiness movement
* Second Great Awakening
* Restorationists
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Mormonism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Adventism
* Oxford Movement
* Laestadianism
* Finnish Awakening
* Christian existentialism
* Third Great Awakening
* Azusa Revival
* Gospel music
* Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy
* Pacifism
* Ecumenism
* Five solae
* Jesus movement
* Pentecostalism
* Charismatics
* Liberation theology
* Reformed epistemology
* Fourth Great Awakening
* Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
* Christian right and left
* Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

* v
* t
* e

Christianity

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Prophets
* People
* Lists of Christians
* By country

Bible
(Scriptures)|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament

Foundations|

* Church
* Creed
* Gospel
* New Covenant
* Christian tradition
* Worship

History
(timeline)
(spread)|

| Early
Christianity|

* Jesus
* in Christianity
* Chronology
* Nativity
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Sermon on the Mount
* Parables
* Miracles
* Great Commandment
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Ascension
* Apostles
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Christian biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Auto-da-fé
* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Relations with Islam
* Influences

Denominations
(list, members)|

| Western|

* Catholic
* Old Catholic
* Independent Catholic (Palmarian)
* Protestant
* Adventist
* Anabaptist
* Anglican
* Baptist
* Charismatic
* Evangelical
* Holiness
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Quakers
* Reformed
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Church
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic

Restorationist|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Iglesia ni Cristo

Theology|

* Ablution
* Angel
* Born again
* Christology
* Divine apathy
* Ecclesiology
* Four marks
* Body of Christ
* One true church
* People of God
* Canon law
* Faith
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* Of the flesh
* New Covenant
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* Views
* Original sin
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* Sacraments
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* Holy orders
* Saints
* Salvation
* Satan
* Sin
* Eternal sin
* Mortal sin
* Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance
* Seven deadly sins
* Venial sin
* Tradition
* Values
* Vice
* Works of mercy
* Worship

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Ethics
* Science
* Evolution
* Politics
* Social mortgage
* Universal destination of goods
* Views on poverty and wealth
* Option for the poor
* Worldview

Other
features|

| Culture|

* Alcohol
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* Art
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* Mythology
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* Popular piety
* Redemptive suffering
* Role in civilization
* Self-flagellation
* Sign of the cross
* Symbolism

|

Movements|

* Crusading movement
* Anarchism
* Charismatic
* Democracy
* Evangelism
* Mission
* Environmentalism
* Existentialism
* Fundamentalism
* Liberation
* Left/Right
* Mysticism
* Pacifism
* Prosperity
* Supremacy
* Terrorism
* Traditionalist Catholicism

Cooperation|

* Christendom
* Ecumenism
* Charta Oecumenica
* World Council of Churches
* World Evangelical Alliance
* Nondenominationalism

Related|

* ... and Islam
* ... and other religions
* ... and violence
* ... as an ethnicity
* Anti-Christian sentiment
* Christian universalism
* Criticism
* Jesus
* Cultural Christians
* Good and evil
* Great Apostasy
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* Religious views on love
* Role of Christianity in civilization
* Christianization
* Cultural Christians
* Spread
* Unlimited atonement
* Views on homosexuality

* Christianity portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

European Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages|

* Migration Period
* Decline of the Western Roman Empire
* Barbarian kingdoms
* Late antiquity
* Decline of Hellenistic religion
* Christianity in the Middle Ages
* Christianization
* Rise of Islam
* Papal States
* First Bulgarian Empire
* Frankish Empire
* Principality of Serbia
* Duchy of Croatia
* Anglo-Saxon England
* Viking Age
* Carolingian Empire
* Old Church Slavonic
* Rise of the Venetian Republic
* Civitas Schinesghe
* Kievan Rus'
* Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire
* Reconquista

High Middle Ages|

* Norman Conquest
* Holy Roman Empire
* Second Bulgarian Empire
* Georgian Empire
* Kingdom of Poland
* Kingdom of Serbia
* Kingdom of Croatia
* Feudalism
* Rise of the Republic of Genoa
* Great Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Republic of Florence
* Scholasticism
* Capet–Plantagenet feud
* Monasticism
* Communalism
* Manorialism
* Medieval Warm Period
* Mongol invasion of Europe
* Kingdom of Portugal

Late Middle Ages|

* Hundred Years' War
* Wars of the Roses
* Hussite Wars
* Burgundy
* Milan
* France
* England
* Serbian Empire
* Castile
* Western Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Rise of the Ottoman Empire
* Swiss mercenaries
* Chivalry
* Renaissance Humanism
* Universities
* Crisis of the late Middle Ages
* Great Famine
* Little Ice Age

Culture|

* Agriculture
* Architecture
* Art
* Church and State
* Cuisine
* Crusading movement
* Dance
* Demography
* Domes
* Hastilude
* Household
* Hunting
* In popular culture
* Itinerant court
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