Church of the East

Church of the East Syriac Rite of Christianity

"Nestorian Church" redirects here. For the church in Cyprus, see Nestorian Church (Famagusta).

For other uses, see Church of the East (disambiguation).

Church of the East

ܥܕܬܐ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ

East Syriac ceramic epitaph with Syriac and Uyghur writing.

Type| Eastern Christian
Orientation| Syriac Christianity[1]
Theology| East Syriac theology
Polity| Episcopal
Head| Catholicos-Patriarch of the East
Region| Middle East, Central Asia, Far East, India[2]
Liturgy| East Syriac Rite
(Liturgy of Addai and Mari)
Headquarters| Seleucia-Ctesiphon (410–775)[3]
Baghdad (775–1317)[4]
Rabban Hormizd Monastery, Alqosh[5]
Founder| Jesus Christ (by sacred tradition)
Peter the Apostle
Thomas the Apostle
Thaddeus the Apostle
Origin| Apostolic Age, by its tradition
Edessa,[6][7]
Mesopotamia[1][note 1]
Branched from| Nicene Christianity
Separations| Its schism of 1552 divided it originally into two patriarchates, and later four, but by 1830 it returned to two, one of which is now the Chaldean Catholic Church, while the other sect split further in 1968 into the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East.
Other name(s)| Nestorian Church, Persian Church, East Syrian Church, Chaldean Church, Assyrian Church, Babylonian Church[12]
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The Church of the East (Classical Syriac: ܥܕܬܐ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ʿĒḏtā d-Maḏenḥā) or the East Syriac Church,[13] also called the Church of Seleucia-Ctesiphon,[14] the Persian Church, the Assyrian Church, the Babylonian Church[12][15][16] or the Nestorian Church,[note 2] is one of three major branches of Eastern Nicene Christianity that arose from the Christological controversies in the 5th century and the 6th century, alongside that of Miaphysitism (which came to be known as the Oriental Orthodox Churches) and the Chalcedonian Church.

Having its origins in Mesopotamia during the time of the Parthian Empire, the Church of the East developed its own unique form of Christian theology and liturgy. During the early modern period, a series of schisms gave rise to rival patriarchates, sometimes two, sometimes three.[17] In the latter half of the 20th century, the traditionalist patriarchate of the church underwent a split into two rival patriarchates, namely the Assyrian Church of the East and the Ancient Church of the East, which continue to follow the traditional theology and liturgy of the mother church. The Chaldean Catholic Church based in Iraq and the Syro-Malabar Church in India are two Eastern Catholic churches which also claim the heritage of the Church of the East.[2]

## Background

[edit]

The Church of the East organized itself initially in the year 410 as the national church of the Sasanian Empire through the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon.[18] In 424, it declared itself independent of the state church of the Roman Empire, which it calls the 'Church of the West'. The Church of the East was headed by the Catholicos-Patriarch of the East seated originally in Seleucia-Ctesiphon, continuing a line that, according to its tradition, stretched back to Thomas the Apostle in the first century. Its liturgical rite is the East Syrian rite that employs the Liturgy of Addai and Mari.

The Church of the East, which was part of the Great Church, shared communion with those in the Roman Empire until the Council of Ephesus condemned Nestorius in 431.[1] The Church of the East refused to condemn Nestorius and was therefore called the "Nestorian Church" by those of the Roman Imperial church.[19][20][21] More recently, the "Nestorian" appellation has been called "a lamentable misnomer",[22][23] and theologically incorrect by scholars.[16][24][25][26][6]

The Church of the East's declaration in 424 of the independence of its head, the Patriarch of the East, preceded by seven years the 431 Council of Ephesus, which condemned Nestorius and declared that Mary, mother of Jesus, can be described as Theotokos "Mother of God." Two of the generally accepted ecumenical councils were held earlier: the First Council of Nicaea, in which a Persian bishop took part, in 325, and the First Council of Constantinople in 381. The Church of the East accepted the teaching of these two councils but ignored the 431 Council and those that followed, seeing them as concerning only the patriarchates of the Roman Empire (Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem), all of which were for it "Western Christianity."[27]

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Theologically, the Church of the East adopted the dyophysite doctrine of Theodore of Mopsuestia[28] that emphasised the "distinctiveness" of the divine and the human natures of Jesus; this doctrine was misleadingly labelled as 'Nestorian' by its theological opponents.[28]

Continuing as a dhimmi community under the Rashidun Caliphate after the Muslim conquest of Persia (633–654), the Church of the East played a major role in the history of Christianity in Asia. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest Christian denomination in terms of geographical extent, and in the Middle Ages was one of the three major Christian powerhouses of Eurasia alongside Latin Catholicism and Greek Orthodoxy.[29] It established dioceses and communities stretching from the Mediterranean Sea and today's Iraq and Iran, to India, the Mongol kingdoms and Turkic tribes in Central Asia, and China during the Tang dynasty (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the Mongol Empire, where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court.

Even before the Church of the East underwent a rapid decline in its field of expansion in Central Asia in the 14th century, it had already lost ground in its home territory. The decline is indicated by the shrinking list of active dioceses from over sixty in the early 11th century to only seven in the 14th century.[30] In the aftermath of the division of the Mongol Empire, the rising Buddhist and Islamic Mongol leaderships pushed out the Church of the East and its followers in Central Asia. The Chinese Ming dynasty overthrew the Mongols (1368) and ejected Christians and other foreign influences from China, and many Mongols in Central Asia converted to Islam. The Muslim Turco-Mongol leader Timur (1336–1405) nearly eradicated the remaining Christians in the Middle East. Nestorian Christianity remained largely confined to communities in Upper Mesopotamia and the Saint Thomas Syrian Christians of the Malabar Coast in the Indian subcontinent.[citation needed]

Ruins of the Monastery of Saint Elijah in Mosul, Iraq, in 2005. The site was destroyed by the Islamic State in 2014.

The Church faced a major schism in 1552 following the consecration of monk Yohannan Sulaqa by Pope Julius III in opposition to the reigning Catholicos-Patriarch Shimun VII, leading to the formation of the Chaldean Catholic Church. Divisions occurred within the two factions, but by 1830 two unified patriarchates and distinct churches remained: the traditionalist Assyrian Church of the East and the Chaldean Catholic Church. The Ancient Church of the East split from the traditionalist patriarchate in 1968. In 2017, the Chaldean Catholic Church had approximately 628,405 members[31] and the Assyrian Church of the East had 323,300 to 380,000,[32][33] while the Ancient Church of the East had 100,000.

### Description as Nestorian

[edit]

Main articles: Nestorianism and Nestorian schism

Christological spectrum during the 5th–7th centuries showing the views of The Church of the East (light blue)

Nestorianism is a Christological doctrine that emphasises the distinction between the human and divine natures of Jesus. It was attributed to Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople from 428 to 431, whose doctrine represented the culmination of a philosophical current developed by scholars at the School of Antioch, most notably Nestorius's mentor Theodore of Mopsuestia, and stirred controversy when Nestorius publicly challenged the use of the title Theotokos (literally, "Bearer of God") for Mary, mother of Jesus,[34] suggesting that the title denied Christ's full humanity. He argued that Jesus had two loosely joined natures, the divine Logos and the human Jesus, and proposed Christotokos (literally, "Bearer of the Christ") as a more suitable alternative title. His statements drew criticism from other prominent churchmen, particularly from Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria, who had a leading part in the Council of Ephesus of 431, which condemned Nestorius for heresy and deposed him as Patriarch.[35]

After 431, state authorities in the Roman Empire suppressed Nestorianism, a reason for Christians under Persian rule to favour it and so allay suspicion that their loyalty lay with the hostile Christian-ruled empire.[36][37]

It was in the aftermath of the slightly later Council of Chalcedon (451) that the Church of the East formulated a distinctive theology. The first such formulation was adopted at the Synod of Beth Lapat in 484. This was developed further in the early seventh century, when in an at first successful war against the Byzantine Empire the Sasanid Persian Empire incorporated broad territories populated by West Syrians, many of whom were supporters of the Miaphysite theology of Oriental Orthodoxy which its opponents term "Monophysitism" (Eutychianism), the theological view most opposed to Nestorianism. They received support from Khosrow II, influenced by his wife Shirin. Shirin was a member of the Church of East, but later joined the miaphysite church of Antioch.[citation needed]

Drawing inspiration from Theodore of Mopsuestia, Babai the Great (551−628) expounded, especially in his Book of Union, what became the normative Christology of the Church of the East. He affirmed that the two qnome (a Syriac term, plural of qnoma, not corresponding precisely to Greek φύσις or οὐσία or ὑπόστασις)[38] of Christ are unmixed but eternally united in his single parsopa (from Greek πρόσωπον prosopon "mask, character, person"). As happened also with the Greek terms φύσις (physis) and ὐπόστασις (hypostasis), these Syriac words were sometimes taken to mean something other than what was intended; in particular "two qnome" was interpreted as "two individuals".[39][40][41][42] Previously, the Church of the East accepted a certain fluidity of expressions, always within a dyophysite theology, but with Babai's assembly of 612, which canonically sanctioned the "two qnome in Christ" formula, a final christological distinction was created between the Church of the East and the "western" Chalcedonian churches.[43][44][45]

The justice of imputing Nestorianism to Nestorius, whom the Church of the East venerated as a saint, is disputed.[46][22][47] David Wilmshurst states that for centuries "the word 'Nestorian' was used both as a term of abuse by those who disapproved of the traditional East Syrian theology, as a term of pride by many of its defenders [...] and as a neutral and convenient descriptive term by others. Nowadays it is generally felt that the term carries a stigma".[48] Sebastian P. Brock says: "The association between the Church of the East and Nestorius is of a very tenuous nature, and to continue to call that church 'Nestorian' is, from a historical point of view, totally misleading and incorrect – quite apart from being highly offensive and a breach of ecumenical good manners".[49]

Apart from its religious meaning, the word "Nestorian" has also been used in an ethnic sense, as shown by the phrase "Catholic Nestorians".[50][51][52][53]

In his 1996 article, "The 'Nestorian' Church: a lamentable misnomer", published in the Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Sebastian Brock, a Fellow of the British Academy, lamented the fact that "the term 'Nestorian Church' has become the standard designation for the ancient oriental church which in the past called itself 'The Church of the East', but which today prefers a fuller title 'The Assyrian Church of the East'. Such a designation is not only discourteous to modern members of this venerable church, but also − as this paper aims to show − both inappropriate and misleading".[22]

## Organisation and structure

[edit]

At the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410,[18] the Church of the East was declared to have at its head the bishop of the Persian capital Seleucia-Ctesiphon, who in the acts of the council was referred to as the Grand or Major Metropolitan, and who soon afterward was called the Catholicos of the East. Later, the title of Patriarch was used.[citation needed]

The Church of the East had, like other churches, an ordained clergy in the three traditional orders of bishop, priest (or presbyter), and deacon. Also like other churches, it had an episcopal polity: organisation by dioceses, each headed by a bishop and made up of several individual parish communities overseen by priests. Dioceses were organised into provinces under the authority of a metropolitan bishop. The office of metropolitan bishop was an important one, coming with additional duties and powers; canonically, only metropolitans could consecrate a patriarch.[54] The Patriarch also has the charge of the Province of the Patriarch.

For most of its history the church had six or so Interior Provinces. In 410, these were listed in the hierarchical order of: Seleucia-Ctesiphon (central Iraq), Beth Lapat (western Iran), Nisibis (on the border between Turkey and Iraq), Prat de Maishan (Basra, southern Iraq), Arbela (Erbil, Kurdistan region of Iraq), and Karka de Beth Slokh (Kirkuk, northeastern Iraq). In addition it had an increasing number of Exterior Provinces further afield within the Sasanian Empire and soon also beyond the empire's borders. By the 10th century, the church had between 20[36] and 30 metropolitan provinces.[48] According to John Foster, in the 9th century there were 25 metropolitans[55] including those in China and India. The Chinese provinces were lost in the 11th century, and in the subsequent centuries other exterior provinces went into decline as well. However, in the 13th century, during the Mongol Empire, the church added two new metropolitan provinces in North China, one being Tangut, the other Katai and Ong.[48]

## Scriptures

[edit]

Main article: Peshitta

The Peshitta, in some cases lightly revised and with missing books added, is the standard Syriac Bible for churches in the Syriac tradition: the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Syrian Catholic Church, the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Catholic Church, the Maronites, the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.

The Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated from Hebrew, although the date and circumstances of this are not entirely clear. The translators may have been Syriac-speaking Jews or early Jewish converts to Christianity. The translation may have been done separately for different texts, and the whole work was probably done by the second century. Most of the deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament are found in the Syriac, and the Wisdom of Sirach is held to have been translated from the Hebrew and not from the Septuagint.[56]

The New Testament of the Peshitta, which originally excluded certain disputed books (Second Epistle of Peter, Second Epistle of John, Third Epistle of John, Epistle of Jude, Book of Revelation), had become the standard by the early 5th century.[citation needed]

## Iconography

[edit]

It was often said in the 19th century that the Church of the East was opposed to religious images of any kind. The cult of the image was never as strong in the Syriac Churches as it was in the Byzantine Church, but they were indeed present in the tradition of the Church of the East.[57] Opposition to religious images eventually became the norm due to the rise of Islam in the region, which forbade any type of depictions of Saints and biblical prophets.[58] As such, the Church was forced to get rid of icons.[58][59]

There is both literary and archaeological evidence for the presence of images in the church. Writing in 1248 from Samarkand, an Armenian official records visiting a local church and seeing an image of Christ and the Magi. John of Cora (Giovanni di Cori), Latin bishop of Sultaniya in Persia, writing about 1330 of the East Syrians in Khanbaliq says that they had 'very beautiful and orderly churches with crosses and images in honour of God and of the saints'.[57] Apart from the references, a painting of a Christian figure discovered by Aurel Stein at the Library Cave of the Mogao Caves in 1908 is probably a representation of Jesus Christ.[60]

An illustrated 13th-century Nestorian Peshitta Gospel book written in Estrangela from northern Mesopotamia or Tur Abdin, currently in the State Library of Berlin, proves that in the 13th century the Church of the East was not yet aniconic.[61] The Nestorian Evangelion preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France contains an illustration depicting Jesus Christ in the circle of a ringed cross surrounded by four angels.[62] Three Syriac manuscripts from early 19th century or earlier - they were published in a compilation titled The Book of Protection by Hermann Gollancz in 1912 - contain some illustrations of no great artistic worth that show that use of images continued.

A life-size male stucco figure discovered in a late-6th-century Nestorian church in Seleucia-Ctesiphon, beneath which were found the remains of an earlier church, also shows that the Church of the East used figurative representations.[61]

* Palm Sunday procession of Nestorian clergy in a 7th- or 8th-century wall painting from the Nestorian church at Karakhoja, Chinese Turkestan.

* Mogao Christian painting, a late-9th-century silk painting preserved in the British Museum.

* Feast of the Discovery of the Cross, from a 13th-century Nestorian Peshitta Gospel book written in Estrangela, preserved in the SBB.

* An angel announces the resurrection of Christ to Mary and Mary Magdalene, from the Nestorian Peshitta Gospel.

* The Twelve Apostles are gathered around Peter at Pentecost, from the Nestorian Peshitta Gospel.

* Illustration from the Nestorian Evangelion, a Syriac gospel manuscript preserved in the BnF.

* Portraits of the Four Evangelists, from a gospel lectionary according to the Nestorian use. Mosul, Timurid Empire, 1499.

* Drawing of a rider (Entry into Jerusalem), a lost wall painting from the Nestorian church at Karakhoja, 9th century.

* Nestorian Christian statuette probably from Imperial China, a bodhisattva-like figurine seated on a cross, probably Mongol dynasty (1271–1368).

* Anikova Plate, showing the Siege of Jericho. It was probably made in and for a Sogdian Nestorian Christian community located in Semirechye. 9th–10th century.

* The Grigorovskoye Plate: Paten with biblical scenes in medallions, counterclockwise from bottom left: women at the empty tomb, the crucifixion, and the Ascension. Semirechye, 9th–10th century.[63]

* Detail of the rubbing of the Nestorian pillar of Luoyang, discovered in Luoyang. 9th century.

* Detail of the rubbing of the Nestorian pillar of Luoyang, discovered in Luoyang. 9th century.

## Early history

[edit]

See also: Nestorian Schism and Nestorianism

Although the East Syriac Christian community traced their history to the 1st century AD, the Church of the East first achieved official state recognition from the Sasanian Empire in the 4th century with the accession of Yazdegerd I (reigned 399–420) to the throne of the Sasanian Empire. The policies of the Sasanian Empire, which encouraged syncretic forms of Christianity, greatly influenced the Church of the East.[64]

The early Church had branches that took inspiration from Neo-Platonism,[65][66] other Near Eastern religions[67][64] like Judaism,[68] and other forms of Christianity.[64]

In 410, the Synod of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, held at the Sasanian capital, allowed the church's leading bishops to elect a formal Catholicos (leader). Catholicos Isaac was required both to lead the Assyrian Christian community and to answer on its behalf to the Sasanian emperor.[69][70]

Under pressure from the Sasanian Emperor, the Church of the East sought to increasingly distance itself from the Pentarchy (at the time being known as the church of the Eastern Roman Empire). Therefore, in 424, the bishops of the Sasanian Empire met in council under the leadership of Catholicos Dadishoʿ (421–456) and determined that they would not, henceforth, refer disciplinary or theological problems to any external power, and especially not to any bishop or church council in the Roman Empire.[71]

Thus, the Mesopotamian churches did not send representatives to the various church councils attended by representatives of the "Western Church". Accordingly, the leaders of the Church of the East did not feel bound by any decisions of what came to be regarded as Roman Imperial Councils. Despite this, the Creed and Canons of the First Council of Nicaea of 325, affirming the full divinity of Christ, were formally accepted at the Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon in 410.[72] The church's understanding of the term hypostasis differs from the definition of the term offered at the Council of Chalcedon of 451. For this reason, the Assyrian Church has never approved the Chalcedonian definition.[72]

The theological controversy that followed the Council of Ephesus in 431 proved a turning point in the Christian Church's history. The Council condemned as heretical the Christology of Nestorius, whose reluctance to accord the Virgin Mary the title Theotokos "God-bearer, Mother of God" was taken as evidence that he believed two separate persons (as opposed to two united natures) to be present within Christ.

The Sasanian Emperor, hostile to the Byzantines, saw the opportunity to ensure the loyalty of his Christian subjects and lent support to the Nestorian Schism. The Emperor took steps to cement the primacy of the Nestorian party within the Assyrian Church of the East, granting its members his protection,[73] and executing the pro-Roman Catholicos Babowai in 484, replacing him with the Nestorian Bishop of Nisibis, Barsauma. The Catholicos-Patriarch Babai (497–503) confirmed the association of the Assyrian Church with Nestorianism.

### Parthian and Sasanian periods

[edit]

Saint Mary Church: an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of Urmia, West Azerbaijan province, Iran.

Christians were already forming communities in Mesopotamia as early as the 1st century under the Parthian Empire. In 266, the area was annexed by the Sasanian Empire (becoming the province of Asōristān), and there were significant Christian communities in Upper Mesopotamia, Elam, and Fars.[74] The Church of the East traced its origins ultimately to the evangelical activity of Thaddeus of Edessa, Mari and Thomas the Apostle. Leadership and structure remained disorganised until 315 when Papa bar Aggai (310–329), bishop of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, imposed the primacy of his see over the other Mesopotamian and Persian bishoprics which were grouped together under the Catholicate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon; Papa took the title of Catholicos, or universal leader.[75] This position received an additional title in 410, becoming Catholicos and Patriarch of the East.[76][77]

These early Christian communities in Mesopotamia, Elam, and Fars were reinforced in the 4th and 5th centuries by large-scale deportations of Christians from the eastern Roman Empire.[78] However, the Persian Church faced several severe persecutions, notably during the reign of Shapur II (339–379), from the Zoroastrian majority who accused it of Roman leanings.[79] Shapur II attempted to dismantle the catholicate's structure and put to death some of the clergy including the catholicoi Simeon bar Sabba'e (341),[80] Shahdost (342), and Barba'shmin (346).[81] Afterward, the office of Catholicos lay vacant nearly 20 years (346–363).[82] In 363, under the terms of a peace treaty, Nisibis was ceded to the Persians, causing Ephrem the Syrian, accompanied by a number of teachers, to leave the School of Nisibis for Edessa still in Roman territory.[83] The church grew considerably during the Sasanian period,[36] but the pressure of persecution led the Catholicos, Dadisho I, in 424 to convene the Council of Markabta of the Arabs and declare the Catholicate independent from "the western Fathers".[84]

Assyrian Mar Toma church near Urmia, Iran.

Meanwhile, in the Roman Empire, the Nestorian Schism had led many of Nestorius' supporters to relocate to the Sasanian Empire, mainly around the theological School of Nisibis. The Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the Dyophisites, a measure encouraged by the Zoroastrian ruling class. The church became increasingly Dyophisite in doctrine over the next decades, furthering the divide between Roman and Persian Christianity. In 484 the Metropolitan of Nisibis, Barsauma, convened the Synod of Beth Lapat where he publicly accepted Nestorius' mentor, Theodore of Mopsuestia, as a spiritual authority.[44] In 489, when the School of Edessa in Mesopotamia was closed by Byzantine Emperor Zeno for its Nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the School of Nisibis, leading to a wave of Nestorian immigration into the Sasanian Empire.[85][86] The Patriarch of the East Mar Babai I (497–502) reiterated and expanded upon his predecessors' esteem for Theodore, solidifying the church's adoption of Dyophisitism.[36]

A 6th century Nestorian church, St. John the Arab, in the Assyrian village of Geramon.

Now firmly established in the Persian Empire, with centres in Nisibis, Ctesiphon, and Gundeshapur, and several metropolitan sees, the Church of the East began to branch out beyond the Sasanian Empire. However, through the 6th century the church was frequently beset with internal strife and persecution from the Zoroastrians. The infighting led to a schism, which lasted from 521 until around 539, when the issues were resolved. However, immediately afterward Byzantine-Persian conflict led to a renewed persecution of the church by the Sasanian emperor Khosrau I; this ended in 545. The church survived these trials under the guidance of Patriarch Aba I, who had converted to Christianity from Zoroastrianism.[36]

By the end of the 5th century and the middle of the 6th, the area occupied by the Church of the East included "all the countries to the east and those immediately to the west of the Euphrates", including the Sasanian Empire, the Arabian Peninsula, with minor presence in the Horn of Africa, Socotra, Mesopotamia, Media, Bactria, Hyrcania, and India; and possibly also to places called Calliana, Male, and Sielediva (Ceylon).[87] Beneath the Patriarch in the hierarchy were nine metropolitans, and clergy were recorded among the Huns, in Persarmenia, Media, and the island of Dioscoris in the Indian Ocean.[88]

The Church of the East also flourished in the kingdom of the Lakhmids until the Islamic conquest, particularly after the ruler al-Nu'man III ibn al-Mundhir officially converted in c. 592.[citation needed]

### Islamic rule

[edit]

Ecclesiastical provinces of the Church of the East in 10th century A 9th-century mural of a cleric of the Church of the East from the palace of al-Mukhtar in Samarra, Iraq.

After the Sasanian Empire was conquered by Muslim Arabs in 644, the newly established Rashidun Caliphate designated the Church of the East as an official dhimmi minority group headed by the Patriarch of the East. As with all other Christian and Jewish groups given the same status, the church was restricted within the Caliphate, but also given a degree of protection. In order to resist the growing competition from Muslim courts, patriarchs and bishops of the Church of the East developed canon law and adapted the procedures used in the episcopal courts.[89] Nestorians were not permitted to proselytise or attempt to convert Muslims, but their missionaries were otherwise given a free hand, and they increased missionary efforts farther afield. Missionaries established dioceses in India (the Saint Thomas Christians). They made some advances in Egypt, despite the strong Miaphysite presence there, and they entered Central Asia, where they had significant success converting local Tartars. Nestorian missionaries were firmly established in China during the early part of the Tang dynasty (618–907); the Chinese source known as the Nestorian Stele describes a mission under a proselyte named Alopen as introducing Nestorian Christianity to China in 635. In the 7th century, the church had grown to have two Nestorian archbishops, and over 20 bishops east of the Iranian border of the Oxus River.[90]

Patriarch Timothy I (780–823), a contemporary of the Caliph Harun al-Rashid, took a particularly keen interest in the missionary expansion of the Church of the East. He is known to have consecrated metropolitans for Damascus, for Armenia, for Dailam and Gilan in Azerbaijan, for Rai in Tabaristan, for Sarbaz in Segestan, for the Turks of Central Asia, for China, and possibly also for Tibet. He also detached India from the metropolitan province of Fars and made it a separate metropolitan province, known as India.[91] By the 10th century the Church of the East had a number of dioceses stretching from across the Caliphate's territories to India and China.[36]

Nestorian Christians made substantial contributions to the Islamic Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, particularly in translating the works of the ancient Greek philosophers to Syriac and Arabic.[92][93] Nestorians made their own contributions to philosophy, science (such as Hunayn ibn Ishaq, Qusta ibn Luqa, Masawaiyh, Patriarch Eutychius, Jabril ibn Bukhtishu) and theology (such as Tatian, Bar Daisan, Babai the Great, Nestorius, Toma bar Yacoub). The personal physicians of the Abbasid Caliphs were often Assyrian Christians such as the long serving Bukhtishu dynasty.[94][95]

## Expansion

[edit]

See also: Christianity in Asia § Expansion of Nestorian Christianity (431–1360 AD)

Church of the East at its largest extent during the Middle Ages.

After the split with the Western World and synthesis with Nestorianism, the Church of the East expanded rapidly due to missionary works during the medieval period.[96] During the period between 500 and 1400 the geographical horizon of the Church of the East extended well beyond its heartland in present-day northern Iraq, north eastern Syria and south eastern Turkey. Communities sprang up throughout Central Asia, and missionaries from Assyria and Mesopotamia took the Christian faith as far as China, with a primary indicator of their missionary work being the Nestorian Stele, a Christian tablet written in Chinese found in China dating to 781 AD. Their most important conversion, however, was of the Saint Thomas Christians of the Malabar Coast in India, who alone escaped the destruction of the church by Timur at the end of the 14th century, and the majority of whom today constitute the largest group who now use the liturgy of the Church of the East, with around 4 million followers in their homeland, in spite of the 17th-century defection to the West Syriac Rite of the Syriac Orthodox Church.[97] The St Thomas Christians were believed by tradition to have been converted by St Thomas, and were in communion with the Church of the East until the end of the medieval period.[98]

### India

[edit]

Main articles: Church of the East in India, India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province), and Saint Thomas Christians

The Christian "King of Colombo" (Kollam in India, flags: , identified as Christian due to the early Christian presence there)[99] in the contemporary Catalan Atlas of 1375.[100][101] The caption above the king of Kollam reads: Here rules the king of Colombo, a Christian.[102] The black flags () on the coast belong to the Delhi Sultanate.

The Saint Thomas Christian community of Kerala, India, who according to tradition trace their origins to the evangelizing efforts of Thomas the Apostle, had a long association with the Church of the East. The earliest known organised Christian presence in Kerala dates to 295/300 when Christian settlers and missionaries from Persia headed by Bishop David of Basra settled in the region.[103] The Saint Thomas Christians traditionally credit the mission of Thomas of Cana, a Nestorian from the Middle East, with the further expansion of their community.[104] From at least the early 4th century, the Patriarch of the Church of the East provided the Saint Thomas Christians with clergy, holy texts, and ecclesiastical infrastructure. And around 650 Patriarch Ishoyahb III solidified the church's jurisdiction in India.[105] In the 8th century Patriarch Timothy I organised the community as the Ecclesiastical Province of India, one of the church's Provinces of the Exterior. After this point the province of India was headed by a metropolitan bishop, provided from Persia, who oversaw a varying number of bishops as well as a native Archdeacon, who had authority over the clergy and also wielded a great amount of secular power. The metropolitan see was probably in Cranganore, or (perhaps nominally) in Mylapore, where the Shrine of Thomas was located.[104]

In the 12th century Indian Nestorianism engaged the Western imagination in the figure of Prester John, supposedly a Nestorian ruler of India who held the offices of both king and priest. The geographically remote Malabar Church survived the decay of the Nestorian hierarchy elsewhere, enduring until the 16th century when the Portuguese arrived in India. With the establishment of Portuguese power in parts of India, the clergy of that empire, in particular members of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), determined to actively bring the Saint Thomas Christians into full communion with Rome under the Latin Church and its Latin liturgical rites. After the Synod of Diamper in 1599, they installed Padroado Portuguese bishops over the local sees and made liturgical changes to accord with the Latin practice and this led to a revolt among the Saint Thomas Christians.[106] The majority of them broke with the Catholic Church and vowed never to submit to the Portuguese in the Coonan Cross Oath of 1653. In 1661, Pope Alexander VII responded by sending a delegations of Carmelites headed by two Italians, one Fleming and one German priests to reconcile the Saint Thomas Christians to Catholic fold.[107] These priests had two advantages – they were not Portuguese and they were not Jesuits.[107] By the next year, 84 of the 116 Saint Thomas Christian churches had returned, forming the Syrian Catholic Church (modern day Syro-Malabar Catholic Church). The rest, which became known as the Malankara Church, soon entered into communion with the Syriac Orthodox Church. The Malankara Church also produced the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church.

### Sri Lanka

[edit]

See also: Christianity in Sri Lanka

Nestorian Christianity is said to have thrived in Sri Lanka with the patronage of King Dathusena during the 5th century. There are mentions of involvement of Persian Christians with the Sri Lankan royal family during the Sigiriya Period. Over seventy-five ships carrying Murundi soldiers from Mangalore are said to have arrived in the Sri Lankan town of Chilaw most of whom were Christians. King Dathusena's daughter was married to his nephew Migara who is also said to have been a Nestorian Christian, and a commander of the Sinhalese army. Maga Brahmana, a Christian priest of Persian origin is said to have provided advice to King Dathusena on establishing his palace on the Sigiriya Rock.[108]

The Anuradhapura Cross discovered in 1912 is also considered to be an indication of a strong Nestorian Christian presence in Sri Lanka between the 3rd and 10th century in the then capitol of Anuradhapura of Sri Lanka.[108][109][110][111]

### China

[edit]

Main articles: Church of the East in China and Christianity in China

See also: Church of the East in Sichuan

The Nestorian Stele, created in 781, describes the introduction of Nestorian Christianity to China

Christianity reached China by 635, and its relics can still be seen in Chinese cities such as Xi'an. The Nestorian Stele, set up on 7 January 781 at the then-capital of Chang'an, attributes the introduction of Christianity to a mission under a Persian cleric named Alopen in 635, in the reign of Emperor Taizong of Tang during the Tang dynasty.[112][113] The inscription on the Nestorian Stele, whose dating formula mentions the patriarch Hnanisho II (773–780), gives the names of several prominent Christians in China, including Metropolitan Adam, Bishop Yohannan, 'country-bishops' Yazdbuzid and Sargis and Archdeacons Gigoi of Khumdan (Chang'an) and Gabriel of Sarag (Luoyang). The names of around seventy monks are also listed.[114]

Nestorian Christianity thrived in China for approximately 200 years, but then faced persecution from Emperor Wuzong of Tang (reigned 840–846). He suppressed all foreign religions, including Buddhism and Christianity, causing the church to decline sharply in China. A Syrian monk visiting China a few decades later described many churches in ruin. The church disappeared from China in the early 10th century, coinciding with the collapse of the Tang dynasty and the tumult of the next years (the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period).[115]

Christianity in China experienced a significant revival during the Mongol-created Yuan dynasty, established after the Mongols had conquered China in the 13th century. Marco Polo in the 13th century and other medieval Western writers described many Nestorian communities remaining in China and Mongolia; however, they clearly were not as active as they had been during Tang times.

### Mongolia and Central Asia

[edit]

Main article: Christianity among the Mongols

Mongol tribes that adopted Syriac Christianity ca. 600 – 1400

The Church of the East enjoyed a final period of expansion under the Mongols. Several Mongol tribes had already been converted by Nestorian missionaries in the 7th century, and Christianity was therefore a major influence in the Mongol Empire.[116] Genghis Khan was a shamanist, but his sons took Christian wives from the powerful Kerait clan, as did their sons in turn. During the rule of Genghis's grandson, the Great Khan Mongke, Nestorian Christianity was the primary religious influence in the Empire, and this also carried over to Mongol-controlled China, during the Yuan dynasty. It was at this point, in the late 13th century, that the Church of the East reached its greatest geographical reach. But Mongol power was already waning as the Empire dissolved into civil war; and it reached a turning point in 1295, when Ghazan, the Mongol ruler of the Ilkhanate, made a formal conversion to Islam when he took the throne.

### Jerusalem and Cyprus

[edit]

A Nestorian church (1350) in Famagusta, Cyprus.

Rabban Bar Sauma had initially conceived of his journey to the West as a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, so it is possible that there was a Nestorian presence in the city ca.1300. There was certainly a recognisable Nestorian presence at the Holy Sepulchre from the years 1348 through 1575, as contemporary Franciscan accounts indicate.[117] At Famagusta, Cyprus, a Nestorian community was established just before 1300, and a church was built for them c. 1339.[118][119]

### Decline

[edit]

This section needs expansion with: Socotra. You can help by adding to it. (April 2025)

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The expansion was followed by a decline. There were 68 cities with resident Church of the East bishops in the year 1000; in 1238 there were only 24, and at the death of Timur in 1405, only seven. The result of some 20 years under Öljaitü, ruler of the Ilkhanate from 1304 to 1316, and to a lesser extent under his predecessor, was that the overall number of the dioceses and parishes was further reduced.[120]

When Timur, the Turco-Mongol leader of the Timurid Empire, known also as Tamerlane, came to power in 1370, he set out to cleanse his dominions of non-Muslims. He annihilated Christianity in Central Asia.[121] The Church of the East "lived on only in the mountains of Kurdistan and in India".[122] Thus, except for the Saint Thomas Christians on the Malabar Coast, the Church of the East was confined to the area in and around the rough triangle formed by Mosul and Lakes Van and Urmia, including Amid (modern Diyarbakır), Mêrdîn (modern Mardin) and Edessa to the west, Salmas to the east, Hakkari and Harran to the north, and Mosul, Kirkuk, and Arbela (modern Erbil) to the south – a region comprising, in modern maps, northern Iraq, southeast Turkey, northeast Syria and the northwestern fringe of Iran. Small Nestorian communities were located further west, notably in Jerusalem and Cyprus, but the Malabar Christians of India represented the only significant survival of the once-thriving exterior provinces of the Church of the East.[123] The complete disappearance of the Nestorian dioceses in Central Asia probably stemmed from a combination of persecution, disease, and isolation: "what survived the Mongols did not survive the Black Death of the fourteenth century."[121] In many parts of Central Asia, Christianity had died out decades before Timur's campaigns. The surviving evidence from Central Asia, including a large number of dated graves, indicates that the crisis for the Church of the East occurred in the 1340s rather than the 1390s. Several contemporary observers, including the Papal Envoy Giovanni de' Marignolli, mention the murder of a Latin bishop in 1339 or 1340 by a Muslim mob in Almaliq, the chief city of Tangut, and the forcible conversion of the city's Christians to Islam. Tombstones in two East Syriac cemeteries in Mongolia have been dated from 1342, some commemorating deaths during a Black Death outbreak in 1338. In China, the last references to Nestorian and Latin Christians date from the 1350s, shortly before the replacement in 1368 of the Mongol Yuan dynasty with the xenophobic Ming dynasty and the consequential self-imposed isolation of China from foreign influence including Christianity.[124]

## Schisms

[edit]

From the middle of the 16th century, and throughout following two centuries, the Church of the East was affected by several internal schisms. Some of those schisms were caused by individuals or groups who chose to accept union with the Catholic Church. Other schisms were provoked by rivalry between various fractions within the Church of the East. Lack of internal unity and frequent change of allegiances led to the creation and continuation of separate patriarchal lines. In spite of many internal challenges, and external difficulties (political oppression by Ottoman authorities and frequent persecutions by local non-Christians), the traditional branches of the Church of the East managed to survive that tumultuous period and eventually consolidate during the 19th century in the form of the Assyrian Church of the East. At the same time, after many similar difficulties, groups united with the Catholic Church were finally consolidated into the Chaldean Catholic Church

### Schism of 1552

[edit]

Main article: Schism of 1552

Around the middle of the fifteenth century Patriarch Shemʿon IV Basidi made the patriarchal succession hereditary - normally from uncle to nephew. This practice, which resulted in a shortage of eligible heirs, eventually led to a schism in the Church of the East, creating a temporarily Catholic offshoot known as the Shimun line.[125] The Patriarch Shemʿon VII Ishoʿyahb (1539–58) caused great turmoil at the beginning of his reign by designating his twelve-year-old nephew Khnanishoʿ as his successor, presumably because no older relatives were available.[126] Several years later, probably because Khnanishoʿ had died in the interim, he designated as successor his fifteen-year-old brother Eliya, the future Patriarch Eliya VI (1558–91).[54] These appointments, combined with other accusations of impropriety, caused discontent throughout the church, and by 1552 Shemʿon VII Ishoʿyahb had become so unpopular that a group of bishops, principally from the Amid, Sirt and Salmas districts in northern Mesopotamia, chose a new patriarch. They elected a monk named Yohannan Sulaqa, the former superior of Rabban Hormizd Monastery near Alqosh, which was the seat of the incumbent patriarchs;[127] however, no bishop of metropolitan rank was available to consecrate him, as canonically required. Franciscan missionaries were already at work among the Nestorians,[128] and, using them as intermediaries,[129] Sulaqa's supporters sought to legitimise their position by seeking their candidate's consecration by Pope Julius III (1550–55).[130][54]

Sulaqa went to Rome, arriving on 18 November 1552, and presented a letter, drafted by his supporters in Mosul, setting out his claim and asking that the Pope consecrate him as Patriarch. On 15 February 1553 he made a twice-revised profession of faith judged to be satisfactory, and by the bull Divina Disponente Clementia of 20 February 1553 was appointed "Patriarch of Mosul in Eastern Syria"[131] or "Patriarch of the Church of the Chaldeans of Mosul" (Chaldaeorum ecclesiae Musal Patriarcha).[132] He was consecrated bishop in St. Peter's Basilica on 9 April. On 28 April Pope Julius III gave him the pallium conferring patriarchal rank, confirmed with the bull Cum Nos Nuper. These events, in which Rome was led to believe that Shemʿon VII Ishoʿyahb was dead, created within the Church of the East a lasting schism between the Eliya line of Patriarchs at Alqosh and the new line originating from Sulaqa. The latter was for half a century recognised by Rome as being in communion, but that reverted to both hereditary succession and Nestorianism and has continued in the Patriarchs of the Assyrian Church of the East.[130][133]

Sulaqa left Rome in early July and in Constantinople applied for civil recognition. After his return to Mesopotamia, he received from the Ottoman authorities in December 1553 recognition as head of "the Chaldean nation after the example of all the Patriarchs". In the following year, during a five-month stay in Amid (Diyarbakır), he consecrated two metropolitans and three other bishops[129] (for Gazarta, Hesna d'Kifa, Amid, Mardin and Seert). For his part, Shemʿon VII Ishoʿyahb of the Alqosh line consecrated two more underage members of his patriarchal family as metropolitans (for Nisibis and Gazarta). He also won over the governor of ʿAmadiya, who invited Sulaqa to ʿAmadiya, imprisoned him for four months, and put him to death in January 1555.[127][133]

### The Eliya and Shimun lines

[edit]

This new Catholic line founded by Sulaqa maintained its seat at Amid and is known as the "Shimun" line. Wilmshurst suggests that their adoption of the name Shimun (after Simon Peter) was meant to point to the legitimacy of their Catholic line.[134] Sulaqa's successor, Abdisho IV Maron (1555-1570) visited Rome and his Patriarchal title was confirmed by the Pope in 1562.[135] At some point, he moved to Seert.

The Eliya-line Patriarch Shemon VII Ishoyahb (1539–58), who resided in the Rabban Hormizd Monastery near Alqosh, continued to actively oppose union with Rome, and was succeeded by his nephew Eliya (designated as Eliya "VII" in older historiography,[136][137] but renumbered as Eliya "VI" in recent scholarly works).[138][139][140] During his Patriarchal tenure, from 1558 to 1591, the Church of the East preserved its traditional christology and full ecclesiastical independence.[141]

The next Shimun Patriarch was likely Yahballaha IV, who was elected in 1577 or 1578 and died within two years before seeking or obtaining confirmation from Rome.[134] According to Tisserant, problems posed by the "Nestorian" traditionalists and the Ottoman authorities prevented any earlier election of a successor to Abdisho.[142] David Wilmshurst and Heleen Murre believe that, in the period between 1570 and the patriarchal election of Yahballaha, he or another of the same name was looked on as Patriarch.[143] Yahballaha's successor, Shimun IX Dinkha (1580–1600), who moved away from Turkish rule to Salmas on Lake Urmia in Persia,[144] was officially confirmed by the Pope in 1584.[145] There are theories that he appointed his nephew, Shimun X Eliyah (1600-38) as his successor, but others argue that his election was independent of any such designation.[143] Regardless, from then until the 21st century the Shimun line employed a hereditary system of succession - the rejection of which was part of the reason for the creation of that line in the first place.

### Two Nestorian patriarchs

[edit]

The ancient Rabban Hormizd Monastery, former residence of the Patriarchs of the Church of the East.

The next Eliya Patriarch, Eliya VII (VIII) (1591–1617), negotiated on several occasions with the Catholic Church, in 1605, 1610 and 1615-16, but without final resolution.[146] This likely alarmed Shimun X, who in 1616 sent to Rome a profession of faith that Rome found unsatisfactory, and another in 1619, which also failed to win him official recognition.[146] Wilmshurst says it was this Shimun Patriarch who reverted to the "old faith" of Nestorianism,[143][147] leading to a shift in allegiances that won for the Eliya line control of the lowlands and of the highlands for the Shimun line. Further negotiations between the Eliya line and the Catholic Church were cancelled during the Patriarchal tenure of Eliya VIII (IX) (1617–60).[148]

The next two Shimun Patriarchs, Shimun XI Eshuyow (1638-56) and Shimun XII Yoalaha (1656–62), wrote to the Pope in 1653 and 1658, according to Wilmshurst, while Heleen Murre speaks only of 1648 and 1653. Wilmshurst says Shimun XI was sent the pallium, though Heleen Murre argues official recognition was given to neither. A letter suggests that one of the two was removed from office (presumably by Nestorian traditionalists) for pro-Catholic leanings: Shimun XI according to Heleen Murre, probably Shimun XII according to Wilmshurst.[149][143]

Eliya IX (X) (1660–1700) was a "vigorous defender of the traditional [Nestorian] faith",[149] and simultaneously the next Shimun Patriarch, Shimun XIII Dinkha (1662-1700), definitively broke with the Catholic Church. In 1670, he gave a traditionalist reply to an approach that was made from Rome, and by 1672 all connections with the Pope were ended.[150][151] There were then two traditionalist Patriarchal lines, the senior Eliya line in Alqosh, and the junior Shimun line in Qochanis.[152]

### The Josephite line

[edit]

As the Shimun line "gradually returned to the traditional worship of the Church of the East, thereby losing the allegiance of the western regions",[153] it moved from Turkish-controlled territory to Urmia in Persia. The bishopric of Amid (Diyarbakır), the original headquarters of Shimun Sulaqa, became subject to the Alqosh Patriarch. In 1667 or 1668, Bishop Joseph of that see converted to the Catholic faith. In 1677, he obtained from the Turkish authorities recognition as holding independent power in Amid and Mardin, and in 1681 he was recognised by Rome as "Patriarch of the Chaldean nation deprived of its Patriarch" (Amid patriarchate). Thus was instituted the Josephite line, a third line of Patriarchs and the sole Catholic one at the time.[154] All Joseph I's successors took the name "Joseph". The life of this Patriarchate was difficult: the leadership was continually vexed by traditionalists, while the community struggled under the tax burden imposed by the Ottoman authorities.

In 1771, Eliya XI (XII) and his designated successor (the future Eliya XII (XIII) Ishoʿyahb) made a profession of faith that was accepted by Rome, thus establishing communion. By then, acceptance of the Catholic position was general in the Mosul area. When Eliya XI (XII) died in 1778, Eliya XII (XIII) made a renewed profession of Catholic faith and was recognised by Rome as Patriarch of Mosul, but in May 1779 renounced that profession in favor of the traditional faith. His younger cousin Yohannan Hormizd was locally elected to replace him in 1780, but for various reasons was recognised by Rome only as Metropolitan of Mosul and Administrator of the Catholics of the Alqosh party, having the powers of a Patriarch but not the title or insignia. When Joseph IV of the Amid Patriarchate resigned in 1780, Rome likewise made his nephew, Augustine Hindi, whom he wished to be his successor, not Patriarch but Administrator. No one held the title of Chaldean Catholic patriarch for the next 47 years.

### Consolidation of patriarchal lines

[edit]

Main articles: Chaldean Catholic Church and Assyrian Church of the East

When Eliya XII (XIII) died in 1804, the Nestorian branch of the Eliya line died with him.[155][140] With most of his subjects won over to union with Rome by Hormizd, they did not elect a new traditionalist Patriarch. In 1830, Hormizd was finally recognized as the Chaldean Catholic Patriarch of Babylon, marking the last remnant of the hereditary system within the Chaldean Catholic Church.

This also ended the rivalry between the senior Eliya line and the junior Shimun line, as Shimun XVI Yohannan (1780-1820) became the sole primate of the traditionalist Church of the East, "the legal successor of the initially Uniate patriarchate of the [Shimun] line".[156][157] In 1976, it adopted the name Assyrian Church of the East,[158][16][159] and its patriarchate remained hereditary until the death in 1975 of Shimun XXI Eshai.

Accordingly, Joachim Jakob remarks that the original Patriarchate of the Church of the East (the Eliya line) entered into union with Rome and continues down to today in the form of the Chaldean [Catholic] Church,[160] while the original Patriarchate of the Chaldean Catholic Church (the Shimun line) continues today in the Assyrian Church of the East.

## See also

[edit]

* Ancient Church of the East
* Assyrian Genocide
* Chaldean Catholic Church
* Saint Thomas Christians
* Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church
* Jacobite Syrian Christian Church
* Christianity in Eastern Arabia
* Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon (410)
* Dioceses of the Church of the East after 1552
* Dioceses of the Church of the East to 1318
* Dioceses of the Church of the East, 1318–1552
* List of patriarchs of the Church of the East
* Patriarchs of the Church of the East
* Schism of the Three Chapters
* Synod of Beth Lapat
* Syriac Christianity
* Syriac Orthodox Church

## Explanatory notes

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1. ^ Traditional Western historiography of the Church dated its foundation to the Council of Ephesus of 431 and the ensuing "Nestorian Schism". However, the Church of the East already existed as a separate organisation in 431, and the name of Nestorius is not mentioned in any of the acts of the Church's synods up to the 7th century.[8] Christian communities isolated from the church in the Roman Empire likely already existed in Persia from the 2nd century.[9] The independent ecclesiastical hierarchy of the Church developed over the course of the 4th century,[10] and it attained its full institutional identity with its establishment as the officially recognized Christian church in Persia by Shah Yazdegerd I in 410.[11]
2. ^ The "Nestorian" label is popular, but it has been contentious, derogatory, and considered a misnomer. See the § Description as Nestorian section for the naming issue and alternate designations for the church.

## Citations

[edit]

1. ^ a b c Wilken, Robert Louis (2013). "Syriac-Speaking Christians: The Church of the East". The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. pp. 222–228\. ISBN 978-0-300-11884-1. JSTOR j.ctt32bd7m.28. LCCN 2012021755. S2CID 160590164.
2. ^ a b Baum & Winkler 2003, p. 2.
3. ^ Stewart 1928, p. 15.
4. ^ Vine, Aubrey R. (1937). The Nestorian Churches. London: Independent Press. p. 104.
5. ^ Amir Harrak. "Patriarchal Funerary Inscriptions in the Monastery of Rabban Hormizd". Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies. Archived from the original on 17 June 2010. Retrieved 15 November 2009..
6. ^ a b Meyendorff 1989, pp. 287–289.
7. ^ Broadhead, Edwin K. (2010). Jewish Ways of Following Jesus: Redrawing the Religious Map of Antiquity. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck. p. 123\. ISBN 9783161503047.
8. ^ Brock 2006, p. 8.
9. ^ Brock 2006, p. 11.
10. ^ Lange 2012, pp. 477–479.
11. ^ Payne 2015, p. 13.
12. ^ a b Paul, J.; Pallath, P. (1996). Pope John Paul II and the Catholic Church in India. Mar Thoma Yogam publications. Centre for Indian Christian Archaeological Research. p. 5. Retrieved 17 June 2022. "Authors are using different names to designate the same Church : the Church of Seleucia – Ctesiphon, the Church of the East, the Babylonian Church, the Assyrian Church, or the Persian Church."
13. ^ Baum & Winkler 2003, p. 3,4.
14. ^ Orientalia Christiana Analecta. Pont. institutum studiorum orientalium. 1971. p. 2. Retrieved 17 June 2022. "The Church of Seleucia – Ctesiphon was called the East Syrian Church or the Church of the East."
15. ^ Fiey 1994, pp. 97–107.
16. ^ a b c Baum & Winkler 2003, p. 4.
17. ^ Baum & Winkler 2003, pp. 112–123.
18. ^ a b Curtin, D. P. (2021). Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon: Under Mar Isaac. Dalcassian Publishing Company. ISBN 9781088234327.
19. ^ Procopius, Wars, I.7.1–2
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62
20. ^ Joshua the Stylite, Chronicle, XLIII
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 62
21. ^ Procopius, Wars, I.9.24
* Greatrex–Lieu (2002), II, 77
22. ^ a b c Brock 1996, pp. 23–35.
23. ^ Brock 2006, pp. 1–14.
24. ^ Joseph 2000, p. 42.
25. ^ Wood 2013, p. 140.
26. ^ Moffett, Samuel H. (1992). A History of Christianity in Asia. Vol. I: Beginnings to 1500. HarperCollins. p. 219.
27. ^ Baum & Winkler 2003, pp. 3, 30.
28. ^ a b Brock, Sebastian P; Coakley, James F. "Church of the East". e-GEDSH:Gorgias Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Syriac Heritage. Retrieved 27 June 2022. "The Church of the East follows the strictly dyophysite ('two-nature') christology of Theodore of Mopsuestia, as a result of which it was misleadingly labelled as 'Nestorian' by its theological opponents."
29. ^ Winkler, Dietmar (2009). Hidden Treasures And Intercultural Encounters: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China And Central Asia. LIT Verlag Münster. ISBN 978-3-643-50045-8.
30. ^ Baum & Winkler 2003, pp. 84–89.
31. ^ The Eastern Catholic Churches 2017 Archived 2018-10-24 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved December 2010. Information sourced from Annuario Pontificio 2017 edition.
32. ^ "Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East – World Council of Churches". oikoumene.org. January 1948.
33. ^ Rassam, Suha (2005). Christianity in Iraq: Its Origins and Development to the Present Day. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 166\. ISBN 9780852446331. "The number of the faithful at the beginning of the twenty–first century belonging to the Assyrian Church of the East under Mar Dinkha was estimated to be around 385,000, and the number belonging to the Ancient Church of the East under Mar Addia to be 50,000–70,000."
34. ^ Foltz 1999, p. 63.
35. ^ Seleznyov 2010, pp. 165–190.
36. ^ a b c d e f "Nestorian". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved January 28, 2010.
37. ^ "Nestorius". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 11 November 2018.
38. ^ Kuhn 2019, p. 130.
39. ^ Brock 1999, pp. 286−287.
40. ^ Wood 2013, p. 136.
41. ^ Alfeyev, Hilarion (2016). The Spiritual World of Isaac the Syrian. Liturgical Press. ISBN 978-0-87907-724-2.
42. ^ Brock 2006, p. 174.
43. ^ Meyendorff 1989.
44. ^ a b Baum & Winkler 2003, pp. 28–29.
45. ^ Payne 2009, pp. 398–399.
46. ^ Bethune-Baker 1908, pp. 82–100.
47. ^ Winkler 2003.
48. ^ a b c Wilmshurst 2000, p. 4.
49. ^ Brock 2006, p. 14.
50. ^ Joost Jongerden, Jelle Verheij, Social Relations in Ottoman Diyarbekir, 1870–1915 (Brill 2012), p. 21
51. ^ Gertrude Lowthian Bell, Amurath to Amurath (Heinemann 1911), p. 281
52. ^ Oussani, Gabriel (1901). "The Modern Chaldeans and Nestorians, and the Study of Syriac among Them". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 22: 81. doi:10.2307/592420. JSTOR 592420.
53. ^ Albrecht Classen (editor), East Meets West in the Middle Ages and Early Modern Times (Walter de Gruyter 2013), p. 704
54. ^ a b c Wilmshurst 2000, pp. 21–22.
55. ^ Foster 1939, p. 34.
56. ^ Syriac Versions of the Bible by Thomas Nicol
57. ^ a b Parry, Ken (1996). "Images in the Church of the East: The Evidence from Central Asia and China" (PDF). Bulletin of the John Rylands Library. 78 (3): 143–162\. doi:10.7227/BJRL.78.3.11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 3 July 2018. Retrieved 23 July 2018.
58. ^ a b Baumer 2006, p. 168.
59. ^ "The Shadow of Nestorius".
60. ^ Kung, Tien Min (1960). 唐朝基督教之研究 [Christianity in the T'ang Dynasty] (PDF) (in Chinese (Hong Kong)). Hong Kong: The Council on Christian Literature for Overseas Chinese. p. 7 (PDF page). "佐伯博士主張此像乃景敎的耶穌像"
61. ^ a b Baumer 2006, pp. 75, 94.
62. ^ Drège 1992, pp. 43, 187.
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* Payne, Richard E. (2009). "Persecuting Heresy in Early Islamic Iraq: The Catholicos Ishoyahb III and the Elites of Nisibis". The Power of Religion in Late Antiquity. Farnham: Ashgate. pp. 397–409\. ISBN 9780754667254.
* Payne, Richard E. (2015). A State of Mixture: Christians, Zoroastrians, and Iranian Political Culture in Late Antiquity. Oakland: University of California Press. ISBN 9780520292451.
* Penn, Michael Philip (2019). "Early Syriac Reactions to the Rise of Islam". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 175–188\. ISBN 9781138899018.
* Pirtea, Adrian C. (2019). "The Mysticism of the Church of the East". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 355–376\. ISBN 9781138899018.
* Reinink, Gerrit J. (1995). "Edessa Grew Dim and Nisibis Shone Forth: The School of Nisibis at the Transition of the Sixth-Seventh Century". Centres of Learning: Learning and Location in Pre-modern Europe and the Near East. Leiden: Brill. pp. 77–89\. ISBN 9004101934.
* Reinink, Gerrit J. (2009). "Tradition and the Formation of the 'Nestorian' Identity in Sixth- to Seventh-Century Iraq". Church History and Religious Culture. 89 (1–3): 217–250\. doi:10.1163/187124109X407916. JSTOR 23932289.1–3&rft.pages=217-250&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/187124109X407916&rft_id=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23932289#id-name=JSTOR&rft.aulast=Reinink&rft.aufirst=Gerrit+J.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Church+of+the+East" class="Z3988">
* Roberson, Ronald (1999) [1986]. The Eastern Christian Churches: A Brief Survey (6th ed.). Roma: Orientalia Christiana. ISBN 9788872103210.
* Rossabi, Morris (1992). Voyager from Xanadu: Rabban Sauma and the First Journey from China to the West. Kodansha International. ISBN 9784770016508.
* Rücker, Adolf (1920). "Über einige nestorianische Liederhandschriften, vornehmlich der griech. Patriarchatsbibliothek in Jerusalem" (PDF). Oriens Christianus. 9: 107–123.
* Saeki, Peter Yoshiro (1937). The Nestorian Documents and Relics in China. Tokyo: Academy of oriental culture.
* Seleznyov, Nikolai N. (2008). "The Church of the East & Its Theology: History of Studies". Orientalia Christiana Periodica. 74 (1): 115–131.
* Seleznyov, Nikolai N. (2010). "Nestorius of Constantinople: Condemnation, Suppression, Veneration: With special reference to the role of his name in East-Syriac Christianity". Journal of Eastern Christian Studies. 62 (3–4): 165–190.3–4&rft.pages=165-190&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Seleznyov&rft.aufirst=Nikolai+N.&rft_id=https://www.academia.edu/1845014&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Church+of+the+East" class="Z3988">
* Silverberg, Robert (1972). The Realm of Prester John. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
* Spuler, Bertold (1961). "Die Nestorianische Kirche". Religionsgeschichte des Orients in der Zeit der Weltreligionen. Leiden: Brill. pp. 120–169\. ISBN 9789004293816. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
* Stewart, John (1928). Nestorian Missionary Enterprise: A Church on Fire. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.
* Tajadod, Nahal (1993). Les Porteurs de lumière: Péripéties de l'Eglise chrétienne de Perse, IIIe-VIIe siècle. Paris: Plon.
* Taylor, David G. K. (2019). "The Coming of Christianity to Mesopotamia". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 68–87\. ISBN 9781138899018.
* Tfinkdji, Joseph (1914). "L' église chaldéenne catholique autrefois et aujourd'hui". Annuaire Pontifical Catholique. 17: 449–525.
* Tisserant, Eugène (1931). "L'Église nestorienne". Dictionnaire de théologie catholique. Vol. 11\. Paris: Letouzey et Ané. pp. 157–323.
* Vine, Aubrey R. (1937). The Nestorian Churches. London: Independent Press. ISBN 9780404161880. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
* Vosté, Jacques Marie (1925). "Missio duorum fratrum Melitensium O. P. in Orientem saec. XVI et relatio, nunc primum edita, eorum quae in istis regionibus gesserunt". Analecta Ordinis Praedicatorum. 33 (4): 261–278.
* Vosté, Jacques Marie (1928). "Catalogue de la bibliothèque syro-chaldéenne du couvent de Notre-Dame des Semences près d'Alqoš (Iraq)". Angelicum. 5: 3–36, 161–194, 325–358, 481–498.
* Vosté, Jacques Marie (1930). "Les inscriptions de Rabban Hormizd et de N.-D. des Semences près d'Alqoš (Iraq)". Le Muséon. 43: 263–316.
* Vosté, Jacques Marie (1931). "Mar Iohannan Soulaqa, premier Patriarche des Chaldéens, martyr de l'union avec Rome (†1555)". Angelicum. 8: 187–234.
* Wigram, William Ainger (1910). An Introduction to the History of the Assyrian Church or The Church of the Sassanid Persian Empire 100–640 A.D. London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. ISBN 9780837080789. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
* Wigram, William Ainger (1929). The Assyrians and Their Neighbours. London: G. Bell & Sons.
* Williams, Daniel H. (2013). "The Evolution of Pro-Nicene Theology in the Church of the East". From the Oxus River to the Chinese Shores: Studies on East Syriac Christianity in China and Central Asia. Münster: LIT Verlag. pp. 387–395\. ISBN 9783643903297.
* Wilkinson, Robert J. (2007). Orientalism, Aramaic, and Kabbalah in the Catholic Reformation: The First Printing of the Syriac New Testament. Leiden & Boston: Brill. ISBN 9789004162501.
* Wilmshurst, David (2000). The Ecclesiastical Organisation of the Church of the East, 1318–1913. Louvain: Peeters Publishers. ISBN 9789042908765.
* Wilmshurst, David (2011). The Martyred Church: A History of the Church of the East. London: East & West Publishing Limited. ISBN 9781907318047.
* Wilmshurst, David (2019a). "The Church of the East in the 'Abbasid Era". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 189–201\. ISBN 9781138899018.
* Wilmshurst, David (2019b). "The patriarchs of the Church of the East". The Syriac World. London: Routledge. pp. 799–805\. ISBN 9781138899018.
* Winkler, Dietmar W. (2003). Ostsyrisches Christentum: Untersuchungen zu Christologie, Ekklesiologie und zu den ökumenischen Beziehungen der Assyrischen Kirche des Ostens. Münster: LIT. ISBN 382586796X.
* Wood, Philip (2013). The Chronicle of Seert: Christian Historical Imagination in Late Antique Iraq. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199670673.

## External links

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Wikisource has original works on the topic: Church of the East

* v
* t
* e

Syriac Christianity

West Syriac, legacy of
the Church of Antioch|

| Eastern Catholic|

* Maronite Church (685)
* Syriac Catholic Church (1662)

|

Oriental Orthodox|

* Syriac Orthodox Church (512)

East Syriac, legacy of
the Church of the East
(the "Nestorian Church")
(410–1552)|

| Eastern Catholic|

* Chaldean Catholic Church (1552)

|

Nestorian|

* Assyrian Church of the East (1552)
* Ancient Church of the East (1968)

Protestant (Eastern Protestant)|

* Assyrian Evangelical Church (1870)
* Assyrian Pentecostal Church (1940)

Saint Thomas Christians,
legacy of
the Malankara Church
(active 1st century–1601)
in Kerala, India|

| Eastern Catholic|

* Syro-Malabar Church (East Syriac) (1665)
* Syro-Malankara Catholic Church (West Syriac) (1932)

|

Oriental Orthodox|

* Jacobite Syrian Christian Church (1665)
* Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church (1912)
* Malabar Independent Syrian Church (1772)

Nestorian (Assyrian Church of the East)|

* Chaldean Syrian Church (1701)

Protestant (Eastern Protestant)|

* Mar Thoma Syrian Church (1852)
* St. Thomas Evangelical Church of India (1961)
* Believers Eastern Church (2017)

Key figures|

* Ephrem the Syrian
* Aphrahat
* Nestorius
* Jacob Baradaeus
* Jacob of Serugh
* Narsai
* Severus of Antioch
* Paul the Jew
* Maron
* Philoxenus of Mabbug
* Thomas of Cana
* Isaac the Syrian
* John Maron
* Mar Sabor and Mar Proth
* Dionysius bar Salibi
* Bar Hebraeus
* Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa
* Abraham of Angamaly
* Gregorios Abdal Jaleel
* Thoma I
* Abraham Koorilos I
* Ignatius Andrew Akijan
* Cyril VI Tanas
* Elias Mellus
* Dionysius of Vattasseril
* Geevarghese Ivanios
* Coorilos Paulose
* Thoma Darmo
* Baselios Paulose II

Languages|

* Sureth
* Turoyo
* Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
* Garshuni
* Hertevin
* Koy Sanjaq Christian
* Mlaḥsô
* Senaya
* Syriac Malayalam
* Syriac (Liturgical)

See also|

* Assyrian people
* Assyrian genocide
* Assyrian nationalism
* Assyrian homeland
* Assyrian independence movement
* Proposals for Assyrian autonomy in Iraq
* Assyrian diaspora
* Terms for Syriac Christians
* Arameans
* Phoenicianism
* Malankara–Persian ecclesiastical relations
* Syriac sacral music

* * Defunct with schism of 1552
* Christianity portal

* v
* t
* e

Patriarchs of the Church of the East

1st–4th centuries|

* Thomas the Apostle
* Addai (37–65)
* Aggai (66–87)
* Mari I (88–120)
* Abris (121–137)
* Abraham I (159–171)
* Yaqob I (172–190)
* Ahadabui (202–220)
* Shahlufa (220–240)
* Papa bar Aggai (c. 280–329)
* Shemon bar Sabbae (329–341)
* Shahdost (341–342)
* Barba'shmin (343–346)
* Tomarsa (363–371)
* Qayyoma (377–399)
* Isaac (399–410)

5th–8th centuries|

* Ahha (410–414)
* Yahballaha I (415–420)
* Mana (420)
* Farbokht (421)
* Dadisho (421–456)
* Babowai (457–484)
* Acacius (485–496)
* Babai (497–502/503)
* Shila (503–523)
* Elisha (524–537)
* Narsai (524–537)
* Paul (539)
* Aba I (540–552)
* Joseph (552–567)
* Ezekiel (570–581)
* Ishoyahb I (582–595)
* Sabrisho I (596–604)
* Gregory (605–608)
* Ishoyahb II (628–645)
* Maremmeh (646–649)
* Ishoyahb III (649–659)
* Giwargis I (661–680)
* Yohannan I (680–683)
* Hnanisho I (686–698)
* Yohannan the Leper (691–693)†
* Sliba-zkha (714–728)
* Pethion (731–740)
* Aba II (741–751)
* Surin (753)†
* Yaqob II (753/754–773/775)
* Hnanisho II (773/775–780)
* Timothy I (780–823)

9th–12th centuries|

* Isho Bar Nun (823–828)
* Giwargis II (828–831)
* Sabrisho II (831–835)
* Abraham II (837–850)
* Theodosius (853–858)
* Sargis (860–872)
* Israel of Kashkar (877) (Not consecrated)
* Enosh (877–884)
* Yohannan II (884–892)
* Yohannan III (893–899)
* Yohannan IV (900–905)
* Abraham III (906–937)
* Emmanuel I (937–960)
* Israel (961)
* Abdisho I (963–986)
* Mari II (987–999)
* Yohannan V (1000–1011)
* Yohannan VI (1012–1020)
* Ishoyahb IV (1020–1025)
* Eliya I (1028–1049)
* Yohannan VII (1049–1057)
* Sabrisho III (1064–1072)
* Abdisho II (1074–1090)
* Makkikha I (1092–1110)
* Eliya II (1111–1132)
* Bar Sawma (1134–1136)
* Abdisho III (1139–1148)
* Ishoyahb V (1149–1175)
* Eliya III (1176–1190)
* Yahballaha II (1190–1222)

13th–16th centuries|

* Sabrisho IV (1222–1224)
* Sabrisho V (1226–1256)
* Makkikha II (1257–1265)
* Denha I (1265–1281)
* Yahballaha III (1281–1317)
* Timothy II (1318–1332)
* Denha II (1336/1337–1381/1382)
* Shemon II (c. 1385–c. 1405)
* Eliya IV (c. 1405–c. 1425)
* Shemon III (c. 1425–c. 1450)
* Shemon IV (c. 1450–1497)
* Shemon V (1497–1502)
* Eliya V (1502–1503/1504)
* Shemon VI (1504–1538)
* Shemon VII Ishoyahb (1538/1539–1558)

Eliya line
(1558–1830)|

* Eliya VI (1558–1591)
* Eliya VII (1591–1617)
* Eliya VIII (1617–1660)
* Eliya IX (1660–1700)
* Eliya X (1700–1722)
* Eliya XI (1722–1778)
* Eliya XII (1778–1804)
* Yohannan VIII Hormizd (1780–1830)§

Shimun line
(1553–1861)|

* Shimun VIII Yohannan Sulaqa (1553–1555)
* Abdisho IV Maron (1555–1570)
* Yahballaha IV (1577–1580)
* Shimun IX Dinkha (1580–1600)
* Shimun X Eliyah (1600–1638)
* Shimun XI Eshuyow (1638–1656)
* Shimun XII Yoalaha (1656–1662)
* Shimun XIII Dinkha (1662–1700)
* Shimun XIV Shlemon (1700–1740)
* Shimun XV Maqdassi Mikhail (1740–1780)
* Shimun XVI Yohannan (1780–1820)
* Shimun XVII Abraham (1820–1861)

Josephite line
(1681–1828)|

* Joseph I (1681–1696)
* Joseph II (1696–1712)
* Joseph III (1714–1757)
* Joseph IV (1759–1781)
* Joseph V Augustine Hindi (1781–1828)§

19th century to present|

* Shimun XVIII Rubil (1861–1903)
* Shimun XIX Benyamin (1903–1918)
* Shimun XX Paulos (1918–1920)
* Shimun XXIII Eshai (1920–1975)

| Assyrian Church of the East|

* Dinkha IV (1976–2015)
* Gewargis III (2015–2021)
* Awa III (2021–present)

|

Ancient Church of the East|

* Thoma Darmo (1968–1969)
* Addai II Giwargis (1972–2022)
* Yakoob III Danil (2022)
* Gewargis III Younan (2023–present)

† Illegitimate; § Patriarchal administrator
Christianity portal

* v
* t
* e

Dioceses of the Church of the East

Hierarchy divided into the Chaldean Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East after the schism of 1552

Time periods|

* Dioceses of the Church of the East to 1318
* Dioceses of the Church of the East, 1318–1552
* Dioceses of the Church of the East after 1552

Interior metropolitan
provinces to 1318|

* Adiabene
* Beth Garmaï
* Beth Huzaye
* Maishan
* Nisibis
* Patriarchal Province of Seleucia-Ctesiphon

Exterior metropolitan
provinces to 1318|

* Beth Sinaye (China)
* Beth Tuptaye (Tibet)
* Dailam
* Damascus
* Fars
* Herat
* Hulwan
* India
* Islands of the Sea
* Kashgar and Nevaketh
* Katai and Ong
* Merv
* Rai
* Samarqand
* Tangut

dioceses to 1318|

* Abiward and Shahr Piroz
* Adarbaigan
* Al-Bariya
* Al-Kuj
* Al-Qabba
* Al-Rustaq
* Aoustan d'Arzun
* Armenia
* Ardashir Khurrah (Shiraf)
* Arzun
* ʿAïn Sipne
* Badisi and Qadistan
* Balad
* Barhis
* Beth Bgash
* Beth Daraye
* Beth Dasen
* Beth Lapat
* Beth Mazunaye (Oman)
* Beth Moksaye
* Beth Nuhadra
* Beth Rahimaï
* Beth Tabyathe and the Kartawaye
* Beth Waziq
* Beth Zabdaï
* Bih Shabur (Kazrun)
* Dabarin
* Dairin
* Darabgard
* Dasqarta d'Malka
* Delasar
* Dinawar
* Egypt
* Erbil
* Eshnuq
* Gawkaï
* Gubeans
* Gurgan
* Haditha
* Hagar
* Hamadan
* Hamir
* Harran and Callinicus
* Hatta
* Hebton
* Herat
* Hesna d'Kifa
* Hirta
* Hormizd Ardashir
* Hrbath Glal
* Ispahan
* Istakhr
* Jerusalem
* Jews
* Karka d'Beth Slokh
* Karka d'Ledan
* Karka d'Maishan
* Karman
* Kashkar
* Khanijar
* Lashom
* Mahoze d'Arewan
* Mardin
* Marga
* Marmadit
* Masabadan
* Mashkena d'Qurdu
* Mashmahig (Bahrain)
* Maʿaltha and Hnitha
* Merw i-Rud
* Meskene
* Mihraganqadaq
* Mosul
* Muqan
* Nahargur
* Niffar, Nil and al-Nuʿmaniya
* Nihawand
* Nineveh
* Piroz Shabur
* Prath d'Maishan
* Pusang
* Qaimar
* Qarta and Adarma
* Qasr and Nahrawan
* Qish
* Qube d'Arzun
* Radani
* Ram Hormizd
* Ramonin
* Reshʿaïna
* Rima
* Salakh
* Salmas
* Segestan
* Seleucia-Ctesiphon
* Shahpur Khwast
* Shahrgard
* Shahrzur
* Shenna d'Beth Ramman
* Shigar and Beth ʿArabaye
* Shushter
* Soqotra
* Susa
* Taimana
* Tahal
* Tamanon
* Tirhan
* Tus and Abrashahr (Nishapur)
* Urmi
* ʿUkbara
* Yemen and Sanaʿa
* Zabe

Post-1318 dioceses
(See also:
dioceses from 1318 to 1552
and dioceses after 1552)|

* Ahwaz
* Alqosh
* Amid
* Anzel
* Ardishai
* Atel and Bohtan
* ʿAmadiya
* ʿAqra
* Berwari
* Cyprus
* Erbil (East Syriac diocese)
* Erbil (Chaldean archeparchy)
* Gawar
* Gazarta
* Hakkari
* Jilu
* Kirkuk
* Mardin
* Mosul
* Nisibis
* Salmas
* Seert
* Sehna
* Shemsdin
* Tis
* Tuleki
* Zakho

Christianity portal

* v
* t
* e

Eastern Christianity

Cultural area of Christian traditions that developed since Early Christianity in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, North and East Africa, Asia Minor, South India, and parts of the Far East.

Main
divisions|

| Communions|

* Eastern Orthodox Church
* Oriental Orthodox Churches
* Eastern Catholic Churches
* Assyrian Church of the East
* Ancient Church of the East

|

Independent Churches/Communions|

* Old Believers
* Spiritual Christianity
* True Orthodox churches
* Tolstoyans

Protestantism|

* Eastern Protestantism

Christ Pantocrator (circa 1261) in Hagia Sophia

History|

* Christianization of Armenia
* Christianization of Georgia
* Roman Empire/Byzantine Empire
* Copts
* Proto-orthodoxy
* Ecumenical council
* Heresies
* Nestorianism
* Iconoclasm
* Paulicianism
* Bogomilism
* Church of the East
* China
* Sichuan
* India
* Mongols
* Oriental Orthodox Churches
* Council of Chalcedon
* Saint Thomas Christians/Malankara Church
* Arab Christians
* Antiochian Greek Christians
* Melkite
* Ghassanids
* Christianization of Bulgaria
* Christianization of Kievan Rus'
* Turkic Christians
* Eastern Orthodox Church
* East–West Schism
* Raskol
* Moscow–Constantinople schisms
* 15th–16th centuries schism
* 1996 schism
* 2018 schism

Scriptures|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament
* Deuterocanon
* Septuagint
* Peshitta

Theology|

* Hesychasm
* Icon
* Apophaticism
* Filioque clause
* Miaphysitism
* Dyophysitism
* Nestorianism
* Theosis
* Theoria
* Phronema
* Philokalia
* Praxis
* Theotokos
* Hypostasis
* Ousia
* Essence–energies distinction
* Metousiosis

Worship|

* Sign of the cross
* Divine Liturgy
* Iconography
* Asceticism
* Omophorion

* v
* t
* e

Ecumenical councils

First seven ecumenical councils|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Ephesus (431)
* Chalcedon (451)
* Constantinople II (553)
* Constantinople III (680–681)
* Nicaea II (787)

Recognized by the
Catholic Church|

* First seven ecumenical councils
* Constantinople IV (869–870)
* Lateran I (1123)
* Lateran II (1139)
* Lateran III (1179)
* Lateran IV (1215)
* Lyon I (1245)
* Lyon II (1274)
* Vienne (1311–1312)
* Constance (1414–1418)
* Basel-Florence (Basel/Lausanne: 1431–1449;[a] Ferrara/Florence: 1438–1445)
* Lateran V (1512–1517)
* Trent (1545–1563)
* Vatican I (1869–1870)
* Vatican II (1962–1965)

Recognized by the
Eastern Orthodox Church|

* First seven ecumenical councils
* Constantinople IV (879–880)*
* Constantinople V (1341–1351)*

Recognized by the
Oriental Orthodox Church|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Ephesus (431)
* Ephesus II (449)[citation needed]
* Ephesus III (475)[citation needed]

Recognized by the
Church of the East|

* Nicaea I (325)
* Constantinople I (381)
* Seleucia-Ctesiphon (410)[citation needed]
* Synod of Beth Lapat (484)[citation needed]

See also|

* Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical) (50/155–314)
* Great Church (180–451)
* State church of the Roman Empire (380–451)
* Quinisext Council (692)
* Synod of Jassy (1642)
* Synod of Jerusalem (1672)
* Synod of Constantinople (1872)
* Conference of Addis Ababa (1965)
* Pan-Orthodox Council (2016)

* Ecumenical status disputed within the Eastern Orthodox Church.

1. ^ Even though the Council was moved to Ferrara in 1438 and later to Florence, some bishops refused to move and remained in a parallel Council at Basel.

* v
* t
* e

History of Christianity

* Spread
* History of theology
* Historicity of the Bible
* List of martyrs

Timeline|

| Centuries|

* 1st
* 2nd and 3rd
* 4th
* 5th
* 6th
* 7th
* 8th
* 9th
* 10th
* 11th
* 12th
* 13th
* 14th
* 15th
* 16th
* 17th
* 18th
* 19th
* 20th
* 21st

|

Early
Christianity|

| Origins and
Apostolic Age|

* Background
* Chronology of Jesus
* birth
* baptism
* ministry
* crucifixion
* resurrection
* Great Commission
* ascension
* historical Jesus
* Holy Spirit
* Apostles in the New Testament
* Jewish Christianity
* Split
* Paul the Apostle
* Council of Jerusalem
* Gospels
* Acts
* Pauline epistles
* General epistles
* Revelation

|

Ante-Nicene
period|

* Diversity
* Adoptionism
* Arianism
* Docetism
* Donatism
* Gnosticism
* Marcionism
* Montanism
* Canon development
* Persecution
* Apostolic / Church Fathers
* Clement of Rome
* Polycarp
* Ignatius
* Irenaeus
* Justin Martyr
* Tertullian
* Origen
* Great Church
* Early African

Late antiquity|

* Constantine
* Constantinian shift
* Roman state religion
* Monasticism
* Councils
* Nicaea I
* Creed
* Christianity
* Athanasius
* Jerome
* Augustine
* Constantinople I
* Ephesus I
* Chalcedon
* Chalcedonian / Non-Chalcedonian
* Biblical canon

Catholicism
(Timeline)|

* Papacy
* Development of primacy
* Eastern Orthodox opposition
* Peace and Truce of God
* Crusading movement
* Lateran IV
* Art patronage of Julius II
* Leo X
* Counter-Reformation
* Trent
* Art
* Catholic Reformation
* Jesuits
* Xavier
* Thomas More
* Monastery dissolution
* Wars
* Mass rocks and priest holes
* Guadalupe
* Jansenists
* Molinists
* Neo-Scholasticism
* Teresa
* Modernism
* Independent Catholics
* Vatican I and Vatican II
* Ecclesial community

Eastern
Christianity|

* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Oriental Orthodoxy
* Church of the East
* Chrysostom
* Nestorianism
* Icons
* Iconodulism
* Iconoclasm
* Great Schism
* Fall of Constantinople
* Armenia
* Georgia
* Greece
* Egypt
* Syriac
* Serbian
* Ethiopia
* Ottoman Empire
* Russia
* North America

Middle Ages|

* Pelagianism
* Gregory I
* Celtic
* Germanic
* Anglo-Saxon
* Franks
* Gothic
* Scandinavian
* Iceland
* Slavs
* Bohemia
* Bulgaria
* Kievan Rus'
* Moravia
* Poland
* Pomerania
* Investiture
* Anselm
* Abelard
* Bernard
* Bogomils
* Bosnian
* Cathars
* Apostolic Brethren
* Dulcinian
* Crusades
* Waldensians
* Inquisition
* Early Scholasticism
* Christian mysticism
* Dominic
* Francis
* Bonaventure
* Aquinas
* Five Ways
* Wycliffe
* Avignon
* Papal Schism
* Bohemian Reformation
* Hus
* Conciliarism
* Synods

Reformation
and
Protestantism|

* Erasmus
* Eucharist
* Calvinist–Arminian debate
* Arminianism
* Wars
* Resistance theories
* Separation of church and state
* Nicodemites
* Hymnody of continental Europe
* Formal and material principles
* Law and Gospel
* Literature
* Protestant work ethic

| Lutheranism|

* Luther
* Ninety-five Theses
* Diet of Worms
* Theology
* Bible
* Melanchthon
* Book of Concord
* Orthodoxy
* Eucharist
* Art

|

Calvinism|

* Zwingli
* Calvin
* Huguenots
* Presbyterianism
* Scotland
* Knox
* TULIP
* Baptism
* Dort
* Three Forms of Unity
* Westminster
* Orthodoxy
* Metrical psalters

Anglicanism
(Timeline)|

* Henry VIII
* Cranmer
* Elizabethan
* 39 Articles
* Puritans
* Civil War
* Church music
* Book of Common Prayer
* King James Version

Anabaptism|

* Theology
* Radical Reformation
* Grebel
* Swiss Brethren
* Müntzer
* Martyrs' Synod
* Menno Simons
* Smyth
* Martyrs Mirror
* Ausbund

1640–1789|

* Revivalism
* Missionaries
* timeline
* Baptists
* Separation of church and state
* Edicts of toleration
* Congregationalism
* First Great Awakening
* Methodism
* Millerism
* Pietism
* Fostering of early experimental science
* Neo- and Old Lutherans

1789–present|

* Camp meeting
* Holiness movement
* Second Great Awakening
* Restorationists
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Mormonism
* Seventh-day Adventist
* Adventism
* Oxford Movement
* Laestadianism
* Finnish Awakening
* Christian existentialism
* Third Great Awakening
* Azusa Revival
* Gospel music
* Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy
* Pacifism
* Ecumenism
* Five solae
* Jesus movement
* Pentecostalism
* Charismatics
* Liberation theology
* Reformed epistemology
* Fourth Great Awakening
* Evangelical and Mainline Protestants
* Christian right and left
* Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America

* v
* t
* e

Christianity

* Index
* Outline
* Glossary
* Prophets
* People
* Lists of Christians
* By country

Bible
(Scriptures)|

* Canon
* Old Testament
* New Testament

Foundations|

* Church
* Creed
* Gospel
* New Covenant
* Christian tradition
* Worship

History
(timeline)
(spread)|

| Early
Christianity|

* Jesus
* in Christianity
* Chronology
* Nativity
* Baptism
* Ministry
* Sermon on the Mount
* Parables
* Miracles
* Great Commandment
* Crucifixion
* Resurrection
* Great Commission
* Ascension
* Apostles
* Church Fathers
* Apostolic Fathers

|

Great Church|

* Ante-Nicene period
* Late antiquity
* Constantine
* First seven ecumenical councils
* Nicaea I
* Chalcedon
* State church of the Roman Empire
* Christian biblical canon

Middle Ages|

* Monasticism
* Papal States
* East–West Schism
* Investiture Controversy
* Crusades
* Age of Discovery

Modern era|

* Auto-da-fé
* Protestant Reformation
* Catholic Reformation
* Thirty Years' War
* Enlightenment
* French Revolution
* Relations with Islam
* Influences

Denominations
(list, members)|

| Western|

* Catholic
* Old Catholic
* Independent Catholic (Palmarian)
* Protestant
* Adventist
* Anabaptist
* Anglican
* Baptist
* Charismatic
* Evangelical
* Holiness
* Lutheran
* Methodist
* Pentecostal
* Quakers
* Reformed
* Western Rite Orthodoxy

|

Eastern|

* Eastern Orthodox
* Church
* Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)
* Church of the East (Nestorian)
* Eastern Catholic

Restorationist|

* Jehovah's Witnesses
* Latter Day Saint movement
* Iglesia ni Cristo

Theology|

* Ablution
* Angel
* Born again
* Christology
* Divine apathy
* Ecclesiology
* Four marks
* Body of Christ
* One true church
* People of God
* Canon law
* Faith
* Fall of man
* Forbidden fruit
* Garden of Eden
* Final Judgement
* God
* Trinity
* Father
* Son
* Holy Spirit
* Good works
* Heaven
* Hell
* Holy water
* Hygiene
* Kingdom of God
* Liturgy
* Catholic
* Eastern Catholic
* Eastern Orthodox
* Protestant
* Love
* of Christ
* of God
* Mariology
* Theotokos
* Mission
* Monasticism
* Mortification
* Catholic
* Of the flesh
* New Covenant
* Nicene Creed
* Old Covenant
* Views
* Original sin
* Penance
* Prayer
* Repentance
* Sacraments
* Baptism
* Eucharist
* Marriage
* Confirmation
* Penance
* Anointing of the Sick
* Holy orders
* Saints
* Salvation
* Satan
* Sin
* Eternal sin
* Mortal sin
* Sins that cry to Heaven for Vengeance
* Seven deadly sins
* Venial sin
* Tradition
* Values
* Vice
* Works of mercy
* Worship

Philosophy|

* Natural law
* Ethics
* Science
* Evolution
* Politics
* Social mortgage
* Universal destination of goods
* Views on poverty and wealth
* Option for the poor
* Worldview

Other
features|

| Culture|

* Alcohol
* Architecture
* Architecture of cathedrals and great churches
* Art
* Jesus
* Mary
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* God the Father
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* Evangelism
* Catechesis
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* Flag
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* Literature
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* Music
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* Requiem
* Mythology
* Pilgrimage
* Popular piety
* Redemptive suffering
* Role in civilization
* Self-flagellation
* Sign of the cross
* Symbolism

|

Movements|

* Crusading movement
* Anarchism
* Charismatic
* Democracy
* Evangelism
* Mission
* Environmentalism
* Existentialism
* Fundamentalism
* Liberation
* Left/Right
* Mysticism
* Pacifism
* Prosperity
* Supremacy
* Terrorism
* Traditionalist Catholicism

Cooperation|

* Christendom
* Ecumenism
* Charta Oecumenica
* World Council of Churches
* World Evangelical Alliance
* Nondenominationalism

Related|

* ... and Islam
* ... and other religions
* ... and violence
* ... as an ethnicity
* Anti-Christian sentiment
* Christian universalism
* Criticism
* Jesus
* Cultural Christians
* Good and evil
* Great Apostasy
* Martyrs
* Miracle
* Nominal Christian
* Persecution
* Religious views on love
* Role of Christianity in civilization
* Christianization
* Cultural Christians
* Spread
* Unlimited atonement
* Views on homosexuality

* Christianity portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Assyrian people

Ethno-linguistic group(s) indigenous to the Middle East; also known as Syriac-Arameans or Chaldeans

Identity|

* Assyrian continuity
* Terms for Syriac Christians

Assyrian flag

Aramean-Syriac flag

Chaldean flag

Syriac
Christianity|

| West Syriac Rite|

* Syriac Orthodox Church (518–)
* Syriac Catholic Church (1662–)
* Assyrian Evangelical Church (1870–)
* Assyrian Pentecostal Church (1940–)

|

East Syriac Rite|

* Chaldean Catholic Church (1552–)
* Assyrian Church of the East (1692–)
* Ancient Church of the East (1968–)

Neo-Aramaic
dialects|

* Sureth
* Surayt
* Bohtan
* Hertevin
* Senaya
* Barwar
* Koy Sanjaq
* Bakhdida
* Urmia
* Mlaḥsô
* Syriac script

Culture|

* Assyrian folk-pop music
* Music of Mesopotamia
* Syriac sacral music
* Folk dance
* Cuisine

History
(including
related
contexts)|

| Ancient Assyria|

* Early Assyrian period (2600–2025 BCE)
* Old Assyrian period (2025–1364 BCE)
* Middle Assyrian Empire (1363–912 BCE)
* Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–609 BCE)
* Post-imperial Assyria (609 BCE–240 CE)
* Ancient Mesopotamian religion
* Arameans
* Assyrian tribes

|

Classical
antiquity|

* Seleucid Empire (312–63 BCE)
* Parthian Empire (247 BCE–224 CE)
* Osroene (132 BCE–244 CE)
* Syrian Wars (66 BCE–217 CE)
* Roman Syria (64 BCE–637 CE)
* Adiabene (15–116)
* Roman Assyria (116–118)
* Christianization (1st to 3rd c.)
* Nestorian schism (5th c.)
* Church of the East (410-1552)
* Asoristan (226–651)
* Byzantine–Sasanian Wars (502–628)

Middle ages|

* Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia (630s)
* Muslim conquest of Syria (630s)
* Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258)
* Emirs of Mosul (905–1383)
* Buyid amirate (945–1055)
* Principality of Antioch (1098–1268)
* Ilkhanate (1258–1335)
* Jalayirid Sultanate (1335–1432)
* Qara Qoyunlu (1375–1468)
* Aq Qoyunlu (1453–1501)

Modern era|

* Safavid Empire (1508–55)
* Ottoman Empire (1555–1917)
* Schism of 1552 (16th c.)
* Massacres of Badr Khan (1840s)
* Massacres of Diyarbekir (1895)
* Rise of nationalism (19th c.)
* Adana massacre (1909)
* Assyrian genocide (1914–20)
* Independence movement (1919–)
* Simele massacre (1933)
* Post-Saddam Iraq (2003–)
* Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–)

By country|

| Homeland
Settlements|

* Iraq
* Nineveh Plains
* Qaraqosh
* Alqosh
* Tel Keppe
* Bartella
* Ankawa
* Shaqlawa
* Zakho
* Iran
* Urmia
* Salmas
* Sanandaj
* Syria
* Al-Hasakah Governorate
* Al-Hasakah
* Tell Tamer
* Qamishli
* Khabur
* Turkey
* Hakkari
* Diyarbakır
* Elazığ
* Mardin Province
* Mardin
* Mazıdağı
* Tur Abdin

|

Diaspora|

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Australia
* Belgium
* Canada
* Finland
* France
* Georgia
* Germany
* Greece
* Israel
* Jordan
* Lebanon
* Mexico
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* Palestine
* Russia
* Sweden
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Detroit

Politics|

* Assyrian Democratic Movement
* Athra Alliance
* Assyrian Democratic Organization
* Assyrian Universal Alliance
* Dawronoye
* Syriac Union Party (Syria)
* Syriac Union Party (Lebanon)
* Syriac Military Council
* Sutoro
* World Council of Arameans

* History portal
* Christianity portal

* v
* t
* e

Demographics of Turkey

Topics|

* Turkish people
* Ethnic Kurds
* Minorities
* Languages
* Turkish language
* Religion
* Islam
* Christianity
* Judaism
* Irreligion
* Education
* Health
* Immigration
* Poverty
* Demographics of Istanbul

Census in Turkey|

* 1927
* 1935
* 1965
* 1990
* 2000
* 2010
* 2020

Lists|

* Provinces by population
* Cities and towns by population
* Provinces by life expectancy

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* United States
* Israel

People|

* Trove

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa