Civil Rights Act of 1964

Landmark U.S. civil rights and labor law

This article is about the 1964 Civil Rights Act. For other American laws called the Civil Rights Acts, see Civil Rights Act.

Civil Rights Act of 1964

Long title| An Act to enforce the constitutional right to vote, to confer jurisdiction upon the district courts of the United States of America to provide injunctive relief against discrimination in public accommodations, to authorize the Attorney General to institute suits to protect constitutional rights in public facilities and public education, to extend the Commission on Civil Rights, to prevent discrimination in federally assisted programs, to establish a Commission on Equal Employment Opportunity, and for other purposes.
Enacted by| the 88th United States Congress
Effective| July 2, 1964; 61 years ago (1964-07-02)
Citations
Public law| 88-352
Statutes at Large| 78 Stat. 241
Codification
Acts amended|

* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Civil Rights Act of 1960

Titles amended| Title 42: Public Health and Welfare
Legislative history

* Introduced in the House as H.R. 7152 by Emanuel Celler (D–NY) on June 20, 1963
* Committee consideration by House Judiciary Committee
* Passed the House on February 10, 1964[1] (290–130)
* Passed the Senate on June 19, 1964[2] (73–27) with amendment
* House agreed to Senate amendment on July 2, 1964[3] (289–126)
* Signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson on July 2, 1964

Major amendments

* Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972
* Pregnancy Discrimination Act
* Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987
* Civil Rights Act of 1991
* No Child Left Behind Act
* Lilly Ledbetter Fair Pay Act of 2009

United States Supreme Court cases

See § United States Supreme Court cases

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement in Washington D.C.

National movement

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Prayer Pilgrimage
* Strom Thurmond filibuster
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* 1st Youth March
* 2nd Youth March
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Baldwin–Kennedy meeting
* President Kennedy's civil rights address
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* 24th U.S. Constitutional Amendment
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign

District of Columbia

* District of Columbia v. John R. Thompson Co.
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* 23rd U.S. Constitutional Amendment

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Pub. L. 88–352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted July 2, 1964) is a landmark civil rights and labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex,[a] and national origin.[4] It prohibits unequal application of voter registration requirements, racial segregation in schools and public accommodations, and employment discrimination. The act "remains one of the most significant legislative achievements in American history".[5]

Initially, powers given to enforce the act were weak, but these were supplemented during later years. Congress asserted its authority to legislate under several different parts of the United States Constitution, principally its enumerated power to regulate interstate commerce under the Commerce Clause of Article I, Section 8, its duty to guarantee all citizens equal protection of the laws under the 14th Amendment, and its duty to protect voting rights under the 15th Amendment.

The legislation was proposed by President John F. Kennedy in June 1963, but it was opposed by filibuster in the Senate. After Kennedy was assassinated on November 22, 1963, President Lyndon B. Johnson pushed the bill forward. The United States House of Representatives passed the bill on February 10, 1964, and after a 72-day filibuster, it passed the United States Senate on June 19, 1964. The final vote was 290–130 in the House of Representatives and 73–27 in the Senate.[6] After the House agreed to a subsequent Senate amendment, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was signed into law by President Johnson at the White House on July 2, 1964.

## Background

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### Reconstruction and New Deal era

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In the 1883 landmark Civil Rights Cases, the United States Supreme Court had ruled that Congress did not have the power to prohibit discrimination in the private sector, thus stripping the Civil Rights Act of 1875 of much of its ability to protect civil rights.[7]

In the late 19th and early 20th century, the legal justification for voiding the Civil Rights Act of 1875 was part of a larger trend by the United States Supreme Court majorities to invalidate most government regulations of the private sector, except when dealing with laws designed to protect traditional public morality.

In the 1930s, during the New Deal, the majority of the Supreme Court justices gradually shifted their legal theory to allow for greater government regulation of the private sector under the Commerce Clause, thus paving the way for the federal government to enact civil rights laws prohibiting both public and private sector discrimination on the basis of the commerce clause.

Influenced in part by the "Black Cabinet" advisors and the March on Washington Movement, just before the U.S. entered World War II, President Franklin Roosevelt issued Executive Order 8802, the first federal anti-discrimination order, and established the Fair Employment Practices Committee.[8] Roosevelt's successor, President Harry Truman, appointed the President's Committee on Civil Rights, proposed the 20th century's first comprehensive Civil Rights Act, and issued Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981, providing for fair employment and desegregation throughout the federal government and the armed forces.[9]

### Civil Rights Act of 1957

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The Civil Rights Act of 1957, signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on September 9, 1957, was the first federal civil rights legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1875 to become law. After the Supreme Court ruled school segregation unconstitutional in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education, Southern Democrats began a campaign of "massive resistance" against desegregation, and even the few moderate white leaders shifted to openly racist positions.[10][11] Partly in an effort to defuse calls for more far-reaching reforms, Eisenhower proposed a civil rights bill to increase the protection of voting rights for African Americans.[12]

Despite having a limited impact on African-American voter participation, at a time when black voter registration ranged from 0% (in 11 counties) to less than 5% (in 97 counties) despite being majority-Black counties,[13] the Civil Rights Act of 1957 did establish the United States Commission on Civil Rights and the United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division. By 1960, black voting had increased by only 3%,[14] and Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which eliminated certain loopholes left by the 1957 Act.

### Activism

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Global media additionally played a major influential role across both the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, in allowing for the eventual passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. As the negative global attention that televised instances of Civil rights resistance received such as the 1957 Little Rock Crisis, challenging the 1954 Brown vs Board of Education ruling by the United States Supreme Court ruling which outlawed public school segregation, and the attack on the 1963 Birmingham campaign protestors, put major pressure on the executive branch of government to enact sweeping legislative reform.[15]

### 1963 Kennedy civil rights bill

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U.S. President John F. Kennedy addresses the nation on civil rights on June 11, 1963

In winning the 1960 United States presidential election, Kennedy took 70% of the African American vote.[16] But due to his narrow victory and Democrats' narrow majorities in Congress, he was wary to push hard for civil rights legislation for fear of losing southern support.[16] Moreover, according to the Miller Center, he wanted to wait until his second term to send Congress a civil rights bill.[17] But with elevated racial tensions and a wave of African-American protests in the spring of 1963, such as the Birmingham campaign, Kennedy realized he had to act on civil rights.[18][19]

Kennedy first proposed the 1964 bill in his Report to the American People on Civil Rights on June 11, 1963.[20] He sought legislation "giving all Americans the right to be served in facilities which are open to the public – hotels, restaurants, theaters, retail stores, and similar establishments" – as well as "greater protection for the right to vote". In late July, Walter Reuther, president of the United Auto Workers, warned that if Congress failed to pass Kennedy's civil rights bill, the country would face another civil war.[21]

Emulating the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which had been struck down by the Supreme Court in 1883, Kennedy's civil rights bill included provisions to ban discrimination in public accommodations and enable the U.S. Attorney General to join lawsuits against state governments that operated segregated school systems, among other provisions. But it did not include a number of provisions civil rights leaders deemed essential, including protection against police brutality, ending discrimination in private employment, and granting the Justice Department power to initiate desegregation or job discrimination lawsuits.[22]

## Legislative history

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### House of Representatives

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On June 11, 1963, President Kennedy met with Republican leaders to discuss the legislation before his television address to the nation that evening. Two days later, Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield both voiced support for the president's bill, except for provisions guaranteeing equal access to places of public accommodations. This led to several Republican Representatives drafting a compromise bill to be considered. On June 19, the president sent his bill to Congress as it was originally written, saying legislative action was "imperative".[23][24] The president's bill went first to the House of Representatives, where it was referred to the Judiciary Committee, chaired by New York Democrat Emanuel Celler. After a series of hearings on the bill, Celler's committee strengthened the act, adding provisions to ban racial discrimination in employment, providing greater protection to black voters, eliminating segregation in all publicly owned facilities (not just schools), and strengthening the anti-segregation clauses regarding public facilities such as lunch counters. They also added authorization for the Attorney General to file lawsuits to protect individuals against the deprivation of any rights secured by the Constitution or U.S. law. In essence, this was the controversial "Title III" that had been removed from the 1957 Act and 1960 Act. Civil rights organizations pressed hard for this provision because it could be used to protect peaceful protesters and black voters from police brutality and suppression of free speech rights.[22]

### Lobbying efforts

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Following the March on Washington on August 28, 1963, civil rights leaders met with President Kennedy and Vice President Johnson to discuss civil rights legislation.

Lobbying support for the Civil Rights Act was coordinated by the Leadership Conference on Civil Rights, a coalition of 70 liberal and labor organizations. The principal lobbyists for the Leadership Conference were civil rights lawyer Joseph L. Rauh Jr. and Clarence Mitchell Jr. of the NAACP.[25]

After the March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, on August 28, 1963, the organizers visited Kennedy to discuss the civil rights bill.[26] Roy Wilkins, A. Philip Randolph, and Walter Reuther attempted to persuade him to support a provision establishing a Fair Employment Practices Commission that would ban discriminatory practices by all federal agencies, unions, and private companies.[26]

Kennedy called the congressional leaders to the White House in late October 1963 to line up the necessary votes in the House for passage.[27] The bill was reported out of the Judiciary Committee in November 1963 and referred to the Rules Committee, whose chairman, Howard W. Smith, a Democrat and staunch segregationist from Virginia, indicated his intention to keep the bill bottled up indefinitely.

### Johnson's appeal to Congress

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The assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy on November 22, 1963, changed the political situation. Kennedy's successor as president, Lyndon B. Johnson, made use of his experience in legislative politics, along with the bully pulpit he wielded as president, in support of the bill. In his first address to a joint session of Congress on November 27, 1963, Johnson told the legislators, "No memorial oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy's memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long."[28]

Judiciary Committee chairman Celler filed a petition to discharge the bill from the Rules Committee;[22] it required the support of a majority of House members to move the bill to the floor. Initially, Celler had a difficult time acquiring the signatures necessary, with many Representatives who supported the civil rights bill itself remaining cautious about violating normal House procedure with the rare use of a discharge petition. By the time of the 1963 winter recess, 50 signatures were still needed.

After the return of Congress from its winter recess, however, it was apparent that public opinion in the North favored the bill and that the petition would acquire the necessary signatures. To avert the humiliation of a successful discharge petition, Chairman Smith relented and allowed the bill to pass through the Rules Committee.[22]

### Passage in the Senate

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Activists Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X at the United States Capitol on March 26, 1964, listening to the Senate debate on the bill. The two met for only one minute.[29] U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson signs the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among the guests behind him is Martin Luther King Jr.

Johnson, who wanted the bill passed as soon as possible, ensured that it would be quickly considered by the Senate.

Normally, the bill would have been referred to the Senate Judiciary Committee, which was chaired by James O. Eastland, a Democrat from Mississippi, whose firm opposition made it seem impossible that the bill would reach the Senate floor. Senate Majority Leader Mike Mansfield took a novel approach to prevent the Judiciary Committee from keeping the bill in limbo: initially waiving a second reading immediately after the first reading, which would have sent it to the Judiciary Committee, he took the unprecedented step of giving the bill a second reading on February 26, 1964, thereby bypassing the Judiciary Committee, and sending it to the Senate floor for immediate debate.

When the bill came before the full Senate for debate on March 30, 1964, the "Southern Bloc" of 18 southern Democratic Senators and lone Republican John Tower of Texas, led by Richard Russell (D-GA), launched a filibuster to prevent its passage.[30] Russell proclaimed, "We will resist to the bitter end any measure or any movement which would tend to bring about social equality and intermingling and amalgamation of the races in our [Southern] states."[31][32]

Strong opposition to the bill also came from Senator Strom Thurmond, who was still a Democrat at the time: "This so-called Civil Rights Proposals [sic], which the President has sent to Capitol Hill for enactment into law, are unconstitutional, unnecessary, unwise and extend beyond the realm of reason. This is the worst civil-rights package ever presented to the Congress and is reminiscent of the Reconstruction proposals and actions of the radical Republican Congress."[33]

After the filibuster had gone on for 54 days, Senators Mansfield, Hubert Humphrey, Everett Dirksen, and Thomas Kuchel introduced a substitute bill that they hoped would overcome it by combining a sufficient number of Republicans as well as core liberal Democrats. The compromise bill was weaker than the House version as to the government's power in regulating the conduct of private business, but not weak enough to make the House reconsider it.[34]

Senator Robert Byrd ended his filibuster in opposition to the bill on the morning of June 10, 1964, after 14 hours and 13 minutes. Up to then, the measure had occupied the Senate for 60 working days, including six Saturdays. The day before, Humphrey, the bill's manager, concluded that he had the 67 votes required at that time to end the debate and the filibuster. With six wavering senators providing a four-vote victory margin, the final tally stood at 71 to 29. Never before in its entire history had the Senate been able to muster enough votes to defeat a filibuster on a civil rights bill, and only once in the 37 years since 1927 had it agreed to cloture for any measure.[35]

The most dramatic moment during the cloture vote came when Senator Clair Engle (D-CA) was wheeled into the chamber. Suffering from terminal brain cancer, unable to speak, he pointed to his left eye, signifying his affirmative "Aye" vote when his name was called.[36] He died seven weeks later.

### Final passage

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On June 19, the compromise bill passed the Senate by a vote of 73–27, quickly passed through the conference committee, which adopted the Senate version of the bill, then was passed by both houses of Congress and signed into law by Johnson on July 2, 1964.[37]

### Vote totals

[edit]

Senate vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1964

June 19, 1964  | Party  | Total votes
Democratic | Republican
Yea | 46 | 27 | 73
Nay  | 21  | 6  | 27
Result: Passed

Roll call vote[38]

| Senator | Party | State | Vote

|
|
|

George Aiken | R | Vermont | Yea
Gordon Allott | R | Colorado | Yea
Clinton Anderson | D | New Mexico | Yea
Bob Bartlett | D | Alaska | Yea
Birch Bayh | D | Indiana | Yea
J. Glenn Beall | R | Maryland | Yea
Wallace F. Bennett | R | Utah | Yea
Alan Bible | D | Nevada | Yea
J. Caleb Boggs | R | Delaware | Yea
Daniel Brewster | D | Maryland | Yea
Quentin Burdick | D | North Dakota | Yea
Harry F. Byrd | D | Virginia | Nay
Robert Byrd | D | West Virginia | Nay
Howard Cannon | D | Nevada | Yea
Frank Carlson | R | Kansas | Yea
Clifford P. Case | R | New Jersey | Yea
Frank Church | D | Idaho | Yea
Joseph S. Clark Jr. | D | Pennsylvania | Yea
John Sherman Cooper | R | Kentucky | Yea
Norris Cotton | R | New Hampshire | Nay
Carl Curtis | R | Nebraska | Yea
Everett Dirksen | R | Illinois | Yea
Thomas J. Dodd | D | Connecticut | Yea
Peter H. Dominick | R | Colorado | Yea
Paul Douglas | D | Illinois | Yea
James Eastland | D | Mississippi | Nay
J. Howard Edmondson | D | Oklahoma | Yea
Allen J. Ellender | D | Louisiana | Nay
Clair Engle | D | California | Yea
Sam Ervin | D | North Carolina | Nay
Hiram Fong | R | Hawaii | Yea
J. William Fulbright | D | Arkansas | Nay
Barry Goldwater | R | Arizona | Nay
Albert Gore Sr. | D | Tennessee | Nay
Ernest Gruening | D | Alaska | Yea
Philip Hart | D | Michigan | Yea
Vance Hartke | D | Indiana | Yea
Carl Hayden | D | Arizona | Yea
Bourke B. Hickenlooper | R | Iowa | Nay
J. Lister Hill | D | Alabama | Nay
Spessard Holland | D | Florida | Nay
Roman Hruska | R | Nebraska | Yea
Hubert Humphrey | D | Minnesota | Yea
Daniel Inouye | D | Hawaii | Yea
Henry M. Jackson | D | Washington | Yea
Jacob Javits | R | New York | Yea
Olin D. Johnston | D | South Carolina | Nay
Leonard B. Jordan | R | Idaho | Yea
B. Everett Jordan | D | North Carolina | Nay
Kenneth Keating | R | New York | Yea
Ted Kennedy | D | Massachusetts | Yea
Thomas Kuchel | R | California | Yea
Frank Lausche | D | Ohio | Yea
Russell B. Long | D | Louisiana | Nay
Edward V. Long | D | Missouri | Yea
Warren Magnuson | D | Washington | Yea
Mike Mansfield | D | Montana | Yea
Eugene McCarthy | D | Minnesota | Yea
John L. McClellan | D | Arkansas | Nay
Gale W. McGee | D | Wyoming | Yea
George McGovern | D | South Dakota | Yea
Thomas J. McIntyre | D | New Hampshire | Yea
Patrick V. McNamara | D | Michigan | Yea
Edwin L. Mechem | R | New Mexico | Nay
Lee Metcalf | D | Montana | Yea
Jack Miller | R | Iowa | Yea
Mike Monroney | D | Oklahoma | Yea
Wayne Morse | D | Oregon | Yea
Thruston Ballard Morton | R | Kentucky | Yea
Frank Moss | D | Utah | Yea
Karl Mundt | R | South Dakota | Yea
Edmund Muskie | D | Maine | Yea
Gaylord Nelson | D | Wisconsin | Yea
Maurine Neuberger | D | Oregon | Yea
John Pastore | D | Rhode Island | Yea
James B. Pearson | R | Kansas | Yea
Claiborne Pell | D | Rhode Island | Yea
Winston L. Prouty | R | Vermont | Yea
William Proxmire | D | Wisconsin | Yea
Jennings Randolph | D | West Virginia | Yea
Abraham Ribicoff | D | Connecticut | Yea
A. Willis Robertson | D | Virginia | Nay
Richard Russell Jr. | D | Georgia | Nay
Leverett Saltonstall | R | Massachusetts | Yea
Hugh Scott | R | Pennsylvania | Yea
Milward Simpson | R | Wyoming | Nay
George Smathers | D | Florida | Nay
Margaret Chase Smith | R | Maine | Yea
John Sparkman | D | Alabama | Nay
John C. Stennis | D | Mississippi | Nay
Stuart Symington | D | Missouri | Yea
Herman Talmadge | D | Georgia | Nay
Strom Thurmond | D | South Carolina | Nay
John Tower | R | Texas | Nay
Herbert S. Walters | D | Tennessee | Nay
John J. Williams | R | Delaware | Yea
Harrison A. Williams | D | New Jersey | Yea
Ralph Yarborough | D | Texas | Yea
Milton Young | R | North Dakota | Yea
Stephen M. Young | D | Ohio | Yea

Totals are in Yea–Nay format:

* Original House version: 290–130 (69–31%)[1]
* Cloture in the Senate: 71–29
* Senate version: 73–27[2]
* Senate version, as voted on by the House: 289–126 (70–30%)[3]

#### By party

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Original House version:[1]

* Democratic Party: 152–96 (61–39%)
* Republican Party: 138–34 (80–20%)

Cloture in the Senate:[39]

* Democratic Party: 44–23 (66–34%)
* Republican Party: 27–6 (82–18%)

Senate version:[2]

* Democratic Party: 46–21 (69–31%)
* Republican Party: 27–6 (82–18%)

Senate version, voted on by the House:[3]

* Democratic Party: 153–91 (63–37%)
* Republican Party: 136–35 (80–20%)

#### By region

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Senate vote on the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Note that "Southern", as used here, only refers to members of Congress from the 11 states that had made up the Confederate States of America in the American Civil War. "Northern" refers to members from the other 39 states, regardless of their geographic location including Southern states like Kentucky.[40]

House of Representatives:[3]

* Northern: 281–32 (90–10%)
* Southern: 8–94 (8–92%)

Senate:[2]

* Northern: 72–6 (92–8%)
* Southern: 1–21 (5–95%) – Ralph Yarborough of Texas was the only Southerner to vote in favor in the Senate

#### By party and region

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"Remarks upon Signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964"

Public statement by Lyndon B. Johnson of July 2, 1964, about the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

* * *

"Remarks upon Signing the Civil Rights Act of 1964"

audio only

* * *

Problems playing these files? See media help.

House of Representatives:[3]

* Southern Democrats: 8–83 (9–91%) – four Representatives from Texas (Jack Brooks, Albert Thomas, J. J. Pickle, and Henry González), two from Tennessee (Richard Fulton and Ross Bass), Claude Pepper of Florida and Charles L. Weltner of Georgia voted in favor
* Southern Republicans: 0–11 (0–100%)
* Northern Democrats: 145–8 (95–5%)
* Northern Republicans: 136–24 (85–15%)

Note that four Representatives voted Present while 13 did not vote.

Senate:[2]

* Southern Democrats: 1–20 (5–95%) – only Ralph Yarborough of Texas voted in favor
* Southern Republicans: 0–1 (0–100%) – John Tower of Texas, the only Southern Republican at the time, voted against
* Northern Democrats: 45–1 (98–2%) – only Robert Byrd of West Virginia voted against
* Northern Republicans: 27–5 (84–16%) – Norris Cotton (NH), Barry Goldwater (AZ), Bourke B. Hickenlooper (IA), Edwin L. Mechem (NM), and Milward Simpson (WY) voted against

### Aspects

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#### Women's rights

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Engrossing copy of H.R. 7152, which added sex to the categories of persons against whom the bill prohibited discrimination, as passed by the House of Representatives[41]

One year earlier, the same Congress had passed the Equal Pay Act of 1963, which prohibited wage differentials based on sex. The prohibition on sex discrimination was added to the Civil Rights Act by Howard W. Smith, a powerful Virginia Democrat who chaired the House Rules Committee and strongly opposed the legislation. Smith's amendment was passed by a teller vote of 168 to 133. Historians debate whether Smith cynically attempted to defeat the bill because he opposed civil rights for Black people and women or attempted to support their rights by broadening the bill to include women.[42][43][44][45] Smith expected that Republicans, who had included equal rights for women in their party's platform since 1944,[46] would probably vote for the amendment. Historians speculate that Smith was trying to embarrass northern Democrats who opposed civil rights for women because labor unions opposed the clause. Representative Carl Elliott of Alabama later said, "Smith didn't give a damn about women's rights", as "he was trying to knock off votes either then or down the line because there was always a hard core of men who didn't favor women's rights",[47] and according to the Congressional Record, laughter greeted Smith when he introduced the amendment.[48]

Smith asserted that he was not joking and sincerely supported the amendment. Along with Representative Martha Griffiths,[49] he was the amendment's chief spokesperson.[48] For 20 years, Smith had sponsored the Equal Rights Amendment (with no linkage to racial issues) in the House because he believed in it. For decades he had been close to the National Woman's Party and its leader Alice Paul, who had been a leading figure in winning the right to vote for women in 1920, co-authored the first Equal Rights Amendment, and had been a chief supporter of equal rights proposals since then. She and other feminists had worked with Smith since 1945 to find a way to include sex as a protected civil rights category, and felt now was the moment.[50] Griffiths argued that the new law would protect black women but not white women, and that that was unfair to white women. Black feminist lawyer Pauli Murray wrote a supportive memorandum at the behest of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women.[51] Griffiths also argued that the laws "protecting" women from unpleasant jobs were actually designed to enable men to monopolize those jobs, and that that was unfair to women who were not allowed to try out for those jobs.[52] The amendment passed with the votes of Republicans and Southern Democrats. The final law passed with the votes of Republicans and Northern Democrats. Thus, as Justice William Rehnquist wrote in Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, "The prohibition against discrimination based on sex was added to Title VII at the last minute on the floor of the House of Representatives [...] the bill quickly passed as amended, and we are left with little legislative history to guide us in interpreting the Act's prohibition against discrimination based on 'sex.'"[53]

#### Desegregation

[edit]

One of the bill's opponents' most damaging arguments was that once passed, the bill would require forced busing to achieve certain racial quotas in schools.[54] The bill's proponents, such as Emanuel Celler and Jacob Javits, said it would not authorize such measures. Leading sponsor Hubert Humphrey wrote two amendments specifically designed to outlaw busing.[54] Humphrey said, "if the bill were to compel it, it would be a violation [of the Constitution], because it would be handling the matter on the basis of race and we would be transporting children because of race."[54] Javits said any government official who sought to use the bill for busing purposes "would be making a fool of himself," but two years later the Department of Health, Education and Welfare said that Southern school districts would be required to meet mathematical ratios of students by busing.[54]

## Aftermath

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### Political repercussions

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See also: Political realignment

U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson speaks to a television camera at the signing of the Civil Rights Act in 1964.

The bill divided both major American political parties and engendered a long-term change in the demographics of the support for each. President Kennedy realized that supporting this bill would risk losing the South's overwhelming support of the Democratic Party. Both Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy and Vice President Johnson had pushed for the introduction of the civil rights legislation. Johnson told Kennedy aide Ted Sorensen that "I know the risks are great and we might lose the South, but those sorts of states may be lost anyway."[55] Senator Richard Russell, Jr. later warned President Johnson that his strong support for the civil rights bill "will not only cost you the South, it will cost you the election".[56] Johnson, however, went on to win the 1964 election by one of the biggest landslides in American history. The South, which had five states swing Republican in 1964, became a stronghold of the Republican Party by the 1990s.[57]

Although majorities in both parties voted for the bill, there were notable exceptions. Though he opposed forced segregation,[58] Republican 1964 presidential candidate, Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona, voted against the bill, remarking, "You can't legislate morality." Goldwater had supported previous attempts to pass civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 as well as the 24th Amendment outlawing the poll tax. He stated that the reason for his opposition to the 1964 bill was Title II, which in his opinion violated individual liberty and states' rights. Democrats and Republicans from the Southern states opposed the bill and led an unsuccessful 60 working day filibuster, including Senators Albert Gore, Sr. (D-TN) and J. William Fulbright (D-AR), as well as Senator Robert Byrd (D-WV), who personally filibustered for 14 hours straight.[59]

### Continued resistance

[edit]

There were white business owners who claimed that Congress did not have the constitutional authority to ban segregation in public accommodations. For example, Moreton Rolleston, the owner of a motel in Atlanta, Georgia, said he should not be forced to serve black travelers, saying, "the fundamental question [...] is whether or not Congress has the power to take away the liberty of an individual to run his business as he sees fit in the selection and choice of his customers".[60] Rolleston claimed that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was a breach of the Fourteenth Amendment and also violated the Fifth and Thirteenth Amendments by depriving him of "liberty and property without due process".[60] In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States (1964), the Supreme Court held that Congress drew its authority from the Constitution's Commerce Clause, rejecting Rolleston's claims.

Resistance to the public accommodation clause continued for years on the ground, especially in the South.[61] When local college students in Orangeburg, South Carolina, attempted to desegregate a bowling alley in 1968, they were violently attacked, leading to rioting and what became known as the "Orangeburg massacre."[62] Resistance by school boards continued into the next decade, with the most significant declines in black-white school segregation only occurring at the end of the 1960s and the start of the 1970s in the aftermath of the Green v. County School Board of New Kent County (1968) court decision.[63]

### Later impact on LGBT rights

[edit]

President Joe Biden speaks at an event celebrating the 60th Anniversary of the Civil Rights Act on 29 July 2024, at the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library and Museum in Austin, Texas.

In June 2020, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in three cases (Bostock v. Clayton County, Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda, and R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission) that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act, which barred employers from discriminating on the basis of sex, precluded employers from discriminating on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.[64] Afterward, USA Today stated that in addition to LGBTQ employment discrimination, "[t]he court's ruling is likely to have a sweeping impact on federal civil rights laws barring sex discrimination in education, health care, housing and financial credit."[65]

## Titles

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English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Civil Rights Act of 1964

### Title I – voting rights

[edit]

First page of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Title I barred unequal application of voter registration requirements. This title did not eliminate literacy tests, which acted as one barrier for black voters, other racial minorities, and poor whites in the South or address economic retaliation, police repression, or physical violence against nonwhite voters. While the Act did require that voting rules and procedures be applied equally to all races, it did not abolish the concept of voter "qualification". It accepted the idea that citizens do not have an automatic right to vote but would have to meet standards beyond citizenship.[66][67][68] The Voting Rights Act of 1965 directly addressed and eliminated most voting qualifications beyond citizenship, eliminating literacy tests.[66]

### Title II – public accommodations

[edit]

Title II outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, or national origin in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce; Title II defined "public accommodations" as establishments that serve the public. It exempted private clubs, without defining the term "private", or other establishments not open to the public.[69]

### Title III – desegregation of public facilities

[edit]

Title III prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion, or national origin.

### Title IV – desegregation of public education

[edit]

Title IV enforced the desegregation of public schools and authorized the U.S. Attorney General to file suits to enforce said act.

### Title V – Commission on Civil Rights

[edit]

Title V expanded the Civil Rights Commission established by the earlier Civil Rights Act of 1957 with additional powers, rules, and procedures.

### Title VI – nondiscrimination in federally assisted programs

[edit]

Title VI prevents discrimination by programs and activities that receive federal funds. If a recipient of federal funds is found in violation of Title VI, that recipient may lose its federal funding.

General

This title declares it to be the policy of the United States that discrimination on the ground of race, color, or national origin shall not occur in connection with programs and activities receiving Federal financial assistance and authorizes and directs the appropriate Federal departments and agencies to take action to carry out this policy. This title is not intended to apply to foreign assistance programs. Section 601 – This section states the general principle that no person in the United States shall be excluded from participation in or otherwise discriminated against on the ground of race, color, or national origin under any program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance.

Section 602 directs each Federal agency administering a program of Federal financial assistance by way of grant, contract, or loan to take action pursuant to rule, regulation, or order of general applicability to effectuate the principle of section 601 in a manner consistent with the achievement of the objectives of the statute authorizing the assistance. In seeking the effect compliance with its requirements imposed under this section, an agency is authorized to terminate or to refuse to grant or to continue assistance under a program to any recipient as to whom there has been an express finding pursuant to a hearing of a failure to comply with the requirements under that program, and it may also employ any other means authorized by law. However, each agency is directed first to seek compliance with its requirements by voluntary means.

Section 603 provides that any agency action taken pursuant to section 602 shall be subject to such judicial review as would be available for similar actions by that agency on other grounds. Where the agency action consists of terminating or refusing to grant or to continue financial assistance because of a finding of a failure of the recipient to comply with the agency's requirements imposed under section 602, and the agency action would not otherwise be subject to judicial review under existing law, judicial review shall nevertheless be available to any person aggrieved as provided in section 10 of the Administrative Procedure Act (5 U.S.C. § 1009). The section also states explicitly that in the latter situation such agency action shall not be deemed committed to unreviewable agency discretion within the meaning of section 10. The purpose of this provision is to obviate the possible argument that although section 603 provides for review in accordance with section 10, section 10 itself has an exception for action "committed to agency discretion," which might otherwise be carried over into section 603. It is not the purpose of this provision of section 603, however, otherwise to alter the scope of judicial review as presently provided in section 10(e) of the Administrative Procedure Act.

2019 Executive Order

The December 11, 2019, executive order on combating antisemitism states: "While Title VI does not cover discrimination based on religion, individuals who face discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin do not lose protection under Title VI for also being a member of a group that shares common religious practices. Discrimination against Jews may give rise to a Title VI violation when the discrimination is based on an individual's race, color, or national origin. It shall be the policy of the executive branch to enforce Title VI against prohibited forms of discrimination rooted in antisemitism as vigorously as against all other forms of discrimination prohibited by Title VI." The order specifies that agencies responsible for Title VI enforcement shall "consider" the (non-legally binding) working definition of antisemitism adopted by the International Holocaust Remembrance Alliance (IHRA) on May 26, 2016, as well as the IHRA list of Contemporary Examples of Anti-Semitism, "to the extent that any examples might be useful as evidence of discriminatory intent".[70]

2025 Executive Order

In April 2025, President Trump issued Executive Order 14281 which orders, "the Attorney General shall initiate appropriate action to repeal or amend the implementing regulations for Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 for all agencies to the extent they contemplate disparate-impact liability".[71]

### Title VII – equal employment opportunity

[edit]

See also: Bennett Amendment, United States labor law, and Employment discrimination law in the United States

Title VII of the Act, codified as Subchapter VI of Chapter 21 of Title 42 of the United States Code, prohibits discrimination by covered employers on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-2[72]). Title VII applies to and covers an employer "who has fifteen (15) or more employees for each working day in each of twenty or more calendar weeks in the current or preceding calendar year" as written in the Definitions section under 42 U.S.C. §2000e(b). Title VII also prohibits discrimination against an individual because of their association with another individual of a particular race, color, religion, sex, or national origin, such as by an interracial marriage.[73] The EEO Title VII has also been supplemented with legislation prohibiting pregnancy, age, and disability discrimination (see Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978, Age Discrimination in Employment Act,[74] Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990).

In very narrowly defined situations, an employer is permitted to discriminate on the basis of a protected trait if the trait is a bona fide occupational qualification (BFOQ) reasonably necessary to the normal operation of that particular business or enterprise. To make a BFOQ defense, an employer must prove three elements: a direct relationship between the trait and the ability to perform the job; the BFOQ's relation to the "essence" or "central mission of the employer's business", and that there is no less restrictive or reasonable alternative (United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc., 499 U.S. 187 (1991), 111 S. Ct. 1196). BFOQ is an extremely narrow exception to the general prohibition of discrimination based on protected traits (Dothard v. Rawlinson, 433 U.S. 321 (1977) 97 S. Ct. 2720). An employer or customer's preference for an individual of a particular religion is not sufficient to establish a BFOQ (Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Kamehameha School – Bishop Estate, 990 F.2d 458 (9th Cir. 1993)).[75]

Title VII allows any employer, labor organization, joint labor-management committee, or employment agency to bypass the "unlawful employment practice" for any person involved with the Communist Party of the United States or of any other organization required to register as a Communist-action or Communist-front organization by final order of the Subversive Activities Control Board pursuant to the Subversive Activities Control Act of 1950.[76]

There are partial and whole exceptions to Title VII for four types of employers:

* Federal government; (the proscriptions against employment discrimination under Title VII are now applicable to certain federal government offices under 42 U.S.C. Section 2000e-16)
* Federally recognized Native American tribes;[77]
* Religious groups performing work connected to the group's activities, including associated education institutions;
* Bona fide nonprofit private membership organizations

The Bennett Amendment is a U.S. labor law provision in Title VII that limits sex discrimination claims regarding pay to the rules in the Equal Pay Act of 1963. It says an employer can "differentiate upon the basis of sex" when it compensates employees "if such differentiation is authorized by" the Equal Pay Act.

The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), as well as certain state fair employment practices agencies (FEPAs), enforce Title VII (see 42 U.S.C. § 2000e-4).[72] The EEOC and state FEPAs investigate, mediate, and may file lawsuits on employees' behalf. Where a state law contradicts federal law, it is overridden.[78] Every state except Arkansas and Mississippi maintains a state FEPA (see EEOC and state FEPA directory ). Title VII also provides that an individual can bring a private lawsuit. They must file a complaint of discrimination with the EEOC within 180 days of learning of the discrimination or they may lose the right to file suit. Title VII applies only to employers who employ 15 or more employees for 20 or more weeks in the current or preceding calendar year (42 U.S.C. § 2000e#b).

2025 Executive Order

In April 2025, President Trump issued Executive Order 14281 which orders, within 45 days, the Attorney General and the Chair of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, "shall assess all pending investigations, civil suits, or positions taken in ongoing matters under every Federal civil rights law within their respective jurisdictions, including Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, that rely on a theory of disparate-impact liability, and shall take appropriate action with respect to such matters consistent with the policy of this order."[71]

#### Administrative precedents

[edit]

In 2012, the EEOC ruled that employment discrimination on the basis of gender identity or transgender status is prohibited under Title VII. The decision held that discrimination on the basis of gender identity qualified as discrimination on the basis of sex whether the discrimination was due to sex stereotyping, discomfort with a transition, or discrimination due to a perceived change in the individual's sex.[79][80] In 2014, the EEOC initiated two lawsuits against private companies for discrimination on the basis of gender identity, with additional litigation under consideration.[81] As of November 2014[update], Commissioner Chai Feldblum is making an active effort to increase awareness of Title VII remedies for individuals discriminated against on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity.[82][83][needs update]

On December 15, 2014, under a memorandum issued by Attorney General Eric Holder, the United States Department of Justice (DOJ) took a position aligned with the EEOC's, namely that the prohibition of sex discrimination under Title VII encompassed the prohibition of discrimination based on gender identity or transgender status. DOJ had already stopped opposing claims of discrimination brought by federal transgender employees.[84] The EEOC in 2015 reissued another non-binding memo, reaffirming its stance that sexual orientation was protected under Title VII.[85]

In October 2017, Attorney General Jeff Sessions withdrew the Holder memorandum.[86] According to a copy of Sessions' directive reviewed by BuzzFeed News, he stated that Title VII should be narrowly interpreted to cover discrimination between "men and women". Sessions stated that as a matter of law, "Title VII does not prohibit discrimination based on gender identity per se."[87] Devin O'Malley, on behalf of the DOJ, said, "the last administration abandoned that fundamental principle [that the Department of Justice cannot expand the law beyond what Congress has provided], which necessitated today's action." Sharon McGowan, a lawyer with Lambda Legal who previously served in the Civil Rights division of DOJ, rejected that argument, saying "[T]his memo is not actually a reflection of the law as it is – it's a reflection of what the DOJ wishes the law were" and "The Justice Department is actually getting back in the business of making anti-transgender law in court."[86] But the EEOC did not change its stance, putting it at odds with the DOJ in certain cases.[85]

### Title VIII – registration and voting statistics

[edit]

Title VIII required compilation of voter-registration and voting data in geographic areas specified by the Commission on Civil Rights.

### Title IX – intervention and removal of cases

[edit]

For the prohibition of sex discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities, see Title IX of the Education Amendments Act of 1972.

Title IX made it easier to move civil rights cases from U.S. state courts to federal court. This was of crucial importance to civil rights activists[who?] who contended that they could not get fair trials in state courts.[citation needed]

### Title X – Community Relations Service

[edit]

Title X established the Community Relations Service, tasked with assisting in community disputes involving claims of discrimination. It was originally an agency of the Department of Commerce, and later moved to the Department of Justice.

### Title XI – miscellaneous

[edit]

Title XI gives a defendant accused of certain categories of criminal contempt in a matter arising under title II, III, IV, V, VI, or VII of the Act the right to a jury trial. If convicted, the defendant can be fined an amount not to exceed $1,000 or imprisoned for not more than six months.

## Major amendments

[edit]

### Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972

[edit]

Main article: Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972

Between 1965 and 1972, Title VII lacked any strong enforcement provisions. Instead, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission was authorized only to investigate external claims of discrimination. The EEOC could then refer cases to the Justice Department for litigation if reasonable cause was found. The EEOC documented the nature and magnitude of discriminatory employment practices, the first study of this kind done.

In 1972, Congress passed the Equal Employment Opportunity Act.[88] The Act amended Title VII and gave EEOC authority to initiate its own enforcement litigation. The EEOC now played a major role in guiding judicial interpretations of civil rights legislation.[89]

## United States Supreme Court cases

[edit]

### Title II case law

[edit]

#### Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States (1964)

[edit]

Main article: Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States

After the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was passed, the Supreme Court upheld the law's application to the private sector, on the grounds that Congress has the power to regulate commerce between the States. The landmark case Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States established the law's constitutionality, but did not settle all the legal questions surrounding it.

#### Katzenbach v. McClung (1964)

[edit]

Main article: Katzenbach v. McClung

#### United States v. Johnson (1968)

[edit]

Main article: United States v. Johnson (1968)

#### Newman v. Piggie Park Enterprises, Inc. (1968)

[edit]

Main article: Newman v. Piggie Park Enterprises, Inc.

#### Daniel v. Paul (1969)

[edit]

#### McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green (1973)

[edit]

Main article: McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green

### Title VI case law

[edit]

#### Lau v. Nichols (1974)

[edit]

Main article: Lau v. Nichols

In the 1974 case Lau v. Nichols, the Supreme Court ruled that the San Francisco school district was violating non-English speaking students' rights under the 1964 act by placing them in regular classes rather than providing some sort of accommodation for them.[90]

#### Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke (1978)

[edit]

Main article: Regents of the Univ. of Cal. v. Bakke

#### Alexander v. Sandoval (2001)

[edit]

Main article: Alexander v. Sandoval

#### Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023)

[edit]

Main article: Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard

### Title VII case law

[edit]

#### Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)

[edit]

Main article: Griggs v. Duke Power Co.

#### Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp. (1971)

[edit]

Main article: Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp.

In Phillips v. Martin Marietta Corp., a 1971 Supreme Court case about the Act's gender provisions, the Court ruled that a company could not discriminate against a potential female employee because she had a preschool-age child unless it did the same with potential male employees.[45] A federal court overruled an Ohio state law that barred women from obtaining jobs that required the ability to lift 25 pounds and required women but not men to take lunch breaks.[45] In Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations, the Supreme Court decided that printing separate job listings for men and women is illegal, ending that practice at the country's newspapers. The United States Civil Service Commission ended the practice of designating federal jobs "women only" or "men only."[45]

#### Washington v. Davis (1976)

[edit]

Main article: Washington v. Davis

#### TWA v. Hardison (1977)

[edit]

Main article: TWA v. Hardison

A landmark United States Supreme Court case on religion and business, holding that employers may fire employees who refuse to work on the seventh-day in observation of a biblical sabbath.

#### Dothard v. Rawlinson (1977)

[edit]

Main article: Dothard v. Rawlinson

#### Christiansburg Garment Co. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1978)

[edit]

Main article: Christiansburg Garment Co. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

#### Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson (1986)

[edit]

Main article: Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson

Meritor Savings Bank v. Vinson, 477 U.S. 57 (1986) determined that sexual harassment is considered discrimination based on sex.[91]

#### Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (1989)

[edit]

Main article: Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins

Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins, 490 U.S. 228 (1989) established that discrimination related to non-conformity of gender stereotypical behavior is unallowable under Title VII.

#### Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio (1989)

[edit]

Main article: Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio

#### United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc. (1991)

[edit]

Main article: United Automobile Workers v. Johnson Controls, Inc.

#### Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services (1998)

[edit]

Main article: Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc.

Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services, Inc., 523 U.S. 75 (1998) further ruled that same-sex harassment is discrimination under Title VII.

#### Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White (2006)

[edit]

Main article: Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White

On June 22, 2006, in Burlington Northern & Santa Fe Railway Co. v. White, the Supreme Court held that White's reassignment to from forklift operator to less desirable duties as a track laborer as well as her suspension without pay after complaining about workplace sexual harassment constituted retaliatory discrimination.[92] This was a landmark case because it clarified that Title VII's retaliation provision is not confined to harmful acts occurring at the workplace or are related to employment.[93] Title VII's anti-discrimination provision prevents actions including a hire, a discharge, a change in compensation, conditions, privileges, opportunities, or status of employment.[94] However, Title VII's retaliation provision contains no such limiting language.[95] The definition of retaliation against a complainant of sexual harassment was changed to encompass any unfavorable job decision or treatment that might deter a "reasonable worker" from filing a discrimination claim or from supporting one.[95]

#### Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. (2007)

[edit]

Main article: Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co.

#### Ricci v. DeStefano (2009)

[edit]

Main article: Ricci v. DeStefano

#### University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center v. Nassar (2013)

[edit]

Main article: University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center v. Nassar

#### Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores (2015)

[edit]

Main article: Equal Employment Opportunity Commission v. Abercrombie & Fitch Stores

#### Green v. Brennan (2016)

[edit]

Main article: Green v. Brennan

#### Bostock v. Clayton County (2020) and Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda (2020)

[edit]

Main articles: Bostock v. Clayton County and Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda

On June 15, 2020, in Bostock v. Clayton County, the Supreme Court ruled 6–3 that Title VII protections against workplace discrimination on the basis of sex apply to discrimination against LGBT individuals.[96] In the opinion, Justice Neil Gorsuch wrote that a business that discriminates against homosexual or transgender individuals is discriminating "for traits or actions it would not have questioned in members of a different sex." Thus discrimination against homosexual and transgender employees is a form of sex discrimination, which is forbidden under Title VII.[97]

Bostock was consolidated with Altitude Express, Inc. v. Zarda.[98] Before the Supreme Court's intervention, there was a split in the circuit courts, including these two cases[99][100] as well as Evans v. Georgia Regional Hospital in the Eleventh Circuit.[101]

#### R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (2020)

[edit]

Main article: R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission

R.G. & G.R. Harris Funeral Homes Inc. v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission determined that Title VII covers gender identity, including transgender status.[99][98]

#### Groff v. DeJoy (2023)

[edit]

Main article: Groff v. DeJoy

## Influence

[edit]

### Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

[edit]

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 – which has been called "the most important piece of federal legislation since the Civil Rights Act of 1964"– was influenced both by the structure and substance of the previous Civil Rights Act of 1964. The act was arguably of equal importance, and "draws substantially from the structure of that landmark legislation [Civil Rights Act of 1964]". The Americans with Disabilities Act paralleled its landmark predecessor structurally, drawing upon many of the same titles and statutes. For example, "Title I of the ADA, which bans employment discrimination by private employers on the basis of disability, parallels Title VII of the Act". Similarly, Title III of the Americans with Disabilities Act, "which proscribes discrimination on the basis of disability in public accommodations, tracks Title II of the 1964 Act while expanding upon the list of public accommodations covered." The Americans with Disabilities Act extended "the principle of nondiscrimination to people with disabilities",[102] an idea unsought in the United States before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

## See also

[edit]

* Affirmative action in the United States
* Angelita C. et al. v. California Department of Pesticide Regulation
* Bennett Amendment
* Bourke B. Hickenlooper
* Civil Rights Movement
* Post–civil rights era in African-American history
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* The Negro Motorist Green Book

### Other civil rights legislation

[edit]

* Civil Rights Act of 1866
* Civil Rights Act of 1871
* Civil Rights Act of 1991
* Employment Non-Discrimination Act
* Equality Act of 2015 (not passed)
* Enforcement Act of 1870
* First Enforcement Act of 1871
* Second Enforcement Act of 1871
* Voting Rights Act of 1965

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Three Supreme Court rulings in June 2020 interpreted that employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity is a form of discrimination on the basis of sex and is therefore also outlawed by the Civil Rights Act. See Bostock v. Clayton County, and also see below for more details.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "H.R. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
2. ^ a b c d e "HR. 7152. Passage". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
3. ^ a b c d e "H.R. 7152. Civil Rights Act of 1964. Adoption of a Resolution (H. RES. 789) Providing for House Approval of the Bill As Amended by the Senate". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on September 10, 2019. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
4. ^ "Transcript of Civil Rights Act (1964)" Archived April 18, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved July 28, 2012.
5. ^ "U.S. Senate: Landmark Legislation: The Civil Rights Act of 1964". www.senate.gov. Archived from the original on April 16, 2019. Retrieved February 27, 2021.
6. ^ "HR. 7152. Passage. Senate Vote #409 – Jun 19, 1964". GovTrack.us. Archived from the original on December 6, 2020. Retrieved November 30, 2013.
7. ^ Supreme Court of the United States (1883). "U.S. Reports: Civil Rights Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883)". U.S. Reports. Library of Congress. Retrieved September 13, 2024. "1\. The 1st and 2d sections of the Civil Rights Act passed March 1st, 1875, are unconstitutional enactments as applied to the several States, not being authorized either by the XIllth or XIVth Amendments of the Constitution. 2. The XIVth Amendment is prohibitory upon the States only, and the legislation authorized to be adopted by Congress for enforcing it is not direct legislation on the matters respecting which the States are prohibited from making or enforcing certain laws, or doing certain acts, but is corrective legislation, such as may be necessary or proper for counteracting and redressing the effect of such laws or acts. 3. The XIIIth Amendment relates only to slavery and involuntary servitude (which it abolishes) ; and although, by its reflex action, it establishes universal freedom in the United States, and Congress may probably pass laws directly enforcing its provisions; yet such legislative power extends only to the subject of slavery and its incidents; and the denial of equal accommodations in inns, public conveyances and places of public amusement (which is forbidden by the sections in question), imposes no badge of slavery or involuntary servitude upon the party, but at most, infringes rights which are protected from State aggression by the XIVth Amendment. 4. Whether the accommodations and privileges sought to be protected by the 1st and 2d sections of the Civil Rights Act, are, or are not, rights constitutionally demandable; and if they are, in what form they are to be protected, is not now decided. 5. Nor is it decided whether the law as it stands is operative in the Territories and District of Columbia : the decision only relating to its validity as applied to the States. 6. Nor is it decided whether Congress, under the commercial power, may or may not pass a law securing to all persons equal accommodations on lines of public conveyance between two or more States."
8. ^ "FDR on racial discrimination, 1942". www.gilderlehrman.org. Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History. Retrieved April 11, 2021.
9. ^ Johnson, Jennifer; Hussey, Michael (May 19, 2014). "Executive Orders 9980 and 9981: Ending segregation in the Armed Forces and the Federal workforce – Pieces of History". National Archives. Retrieved April 11, 2021.
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12. ^ Pach, Chester J.; Richardson, Elmo (1991). The Presidency of Dwight D. Eisenhower (Revised ed.). University Press of Kansas. pp. 145–146\. ISBN 978-0-7006-0437-1.
13. ^ Marshall, Burke (1962). "Speeches and interviews: Federal Protection of Negro Voting Rights". Law and Contemporary Problems. Duke University School of Law. Retrieved September 13, 2024. "Despite these long-standing guarantees, the United States Commission on Civil Rights has found that racial denials of the right to vote occur in sections of eight states. In five of those states Negroes constitute more than a quarter of the adult population, but very few of these Negroes are registered to vote. For example, in Mississippi only five per cent are registered; in Alabama only fourteen per cent are registered; in South Carolina, sixteen per cent are registered; in Georgia, twenty-six per cent are registered; and in Louisiana, twenty-nine per cent are registered. Registration among adult whites invariably exceeds fifty per cent in the same areas, and Negroes are in the majority in ninety-one per cent of the counties where Negroes are in the majority. In ninety-seven counties fewer than three per cent of the adult Negroes are on the rolls. Indeed, in thirteen counties with sizable Negro populations the Negro voter rolls are significantly below the statewide percentage of eligible Negroes registered and in fifteen Negroes approaches the white voter percentage."
14. ^ James A. Miller, "An inside look at Eisenhower's civil rights record" Archived 2012-01-07 at the Wayback Machine The Boston Globe at boston.com, 21 November 2007, accessed 28 October 2011
15. ^ Dudziak, Mary (June 2004). "Brown as a Cold War Case". The Journal of American History. 91 (1): 32–42\. doi:10.2307/3659611. JSTOR 3659611.
16. ^ a b "Civil Rights Movement (The Election of 1960)". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. Archived from the original on December 14, 2018. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
17. ^ "The Civil Rights Act of 1964". Miller Center. December 27, 2016. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
18. ^ "The Kennedys and the Civil Rights Movement (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved July 3, 2022.
19. ^ "American Experience.Eyes on the Prize.Transcript". PBS. March 26, 2017. Archived from the original on March 26, 2017. Retrieved July 3, 2022.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
20. ^ "Radio and television address on civil rights". John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum. June 11, 1963. Archived from the original on September 30, 2018. Retrieved November 23, 2013.
21. ^ Gold, Susan Dudley (2011). The Civil Rights Act of 1964. Marshall Cavendish. pp. 64, 129. ISBN 978-1-60870-040-0. Archived from the original on January 1, 2021. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
22. ^ a b c d "Civil Rights Movement History 1964 Jan.–Jun.: Civil Rights Bill Passes in the House (Feb)". Civil Rights Movement Archive. Archived from the original on May 21, 2020. Retrieved May 31, 2020.
23. ^ Loevy, Robert D. (1997), The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law that Ended Racial Segregation, State University of New York Press, p. 171. ISBN 0-7914-3362-5
24. ^ Golway, Terry and Krantz, Les (2010), JFK: Day by Day, Running Press, p. 284. ISBN 978-0-7624-3742-9
25. ^ "History of The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights & The Leadership Conference Education Fund – The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights". Archived from the original on June 29, 2017. Retrieved June 30, 2017.
26. ^ a b Wilkins, Roy; Mitchell, Clarence; King, Martin Luther Jr; Lewis, John; Humphrey, Hubert; Parks, Gordon; Ellison, Ralph; Rustin, Bayard; Warren, Earl (October 10, 2014). "Civil Rights Era (1950–1963) – The Civil Rights Act of 1964: A Long Struggle for Freedom". Library of Congress. Archived from the original on January 9, 2020. Retrieved May 14, 2020.
27. ^ Reeves, Richard (1993), President Kennedy: Profile of Power, pp. 628–631
28. ^ "1963 Year In Review: Transition to Johnson". UPI. Archived from the original on April 29, 2020.
29. ^ Cone, James H. (1991). Martin & Malcolm & America: A Dream or a Nightmare. Orbis Books. p. 2. ISBN 0-88344-721-5.
30. ^ "A Case History: The 1964 Civil Rights Act". The Dirksen Congressional Center. Archived from the original on July 29, 2020. Retrieved July 21, 2016.
31. ^ Napolitano, Andrew P. (2009). Dred Scott's Revenge: A Legal History of Race and Freedom in America. Thomas Nelson. p. 188\. ISBN 978-1595552655. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
32. ^ Remnick, Noah (June 28, 2014). "The Civil Rights Act: What JFK, LBJ, Martin Luther King and Malcolm X had to say". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on February 24, 2016. Retrieved July 7, 2022.
33. ^ 1963 Year In Review – Part 1 – Civil Rights Bill Archived May 2, 2010, at the Wayback Machine United Press International, 1963
34. ^ Civil Rights Act – Battle in the Senate Archived December 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine ~ Civil Rights Movement Archive
35. ^ Civil Rights Filibuster Ended Archived December 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine – United States Senate
36. ^ Hunter, Marjorie (June 11, 1964). "Packed Senate Galleries Tense; 10-Minute Vote Makes History". New York Times. Retrieved September 13, 2024. "Seconds before his name was called, Senator Clair Engle, of California, was pushed into the chamber in a wheel chair. He was smiling slightly. 'Mr. Engle', the clerk called. There was a long silence. Senator Engle, recuperating from two brain operations, tried to speak. He could not. Finally, he raised his left arm, as though trying to point toward his eyes. He nodded his head, signaling that he was voting 'aye'. He was wheeled out of the chamber minutes later and taken by ambulance back to his home here. It was Senator Engle's first appearance on the Senate floor since April 13."
37. ^ Dallek, Robert (2004). Lyndon B. Johnson: Portrait of a President. p. 169.
38. ^ "HR. 7152. PASSAGE". Govtrack. Retrieved April 27, 2024.
39. ^ Jeong, Gyung-Ho; Miller, Gary J.; Sened, Itai (March 14, 2009). Closing The Deal: Negotiating Civil Rights Legislation. 67th Annual Conference of the Midwest Political Science Association. p. 29\. Archived from the original on July 29, 2016. Retrieved July 29, 2016.
40. ^ "Were Republicans Really..?". The Guardian. August 28, 2013. Archived from the original on December 23, 2020. Retrieved September 16, 2016.
41. ^ U.S. House of Representatives. Office of the Clerk of the House (September 25, 1964). Excerpt of the Engrossing Copy of H.R. 7152, the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Showing Amendments. Series: General Records, 1789–2015. Archived from the original on September 25, 2017. Retrieved September 25, 2017 – via US National Archives Research Catalog.
42. ^ Freeman, Jo. "How 'Sex' Got Into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy," Law and Inequality: A Journal of Theory and Practice, Vol. 9, No. 2, March 1991, pp. 163–184. online version Archived April 23, 2006, at the Wayback Machine
43. ^ Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008), Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century, pp. 187–188
44. ^ Gittinger, Ted and Fisher, Allen, LBJ Champions the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Part 2 Archived August 31, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, Prologue Magazine, The National Archives, Summer 2004, Vol. 36, No. 2 ("Certainly Smith hoped that such a divisive issue would torpedo the civil rights bill, if not in the House, then in the Senate.")
45. ^ a b c d Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. Basic Books. pp. 245–246, 249. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
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49. ^ Olson, Lynne (2001), Freedom's Daughters: The Unsung Heroines of the Civil Rights Movement, p. 360
50. ^ Rosenberg, Rosalind (2008), Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century, p. 187 notes that Smith had been working for years with two Virginia feminists on the issue.
51. ^ Freeman, Jo (March 1991). "How 'Sex' Got into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy". Law and Inequality. 9 (2): 163–184\. Archived from the original on April 23, 2006. Retrieved April 23, 2006.
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69. ^ "Civil Rights Act of 1964 Title II". Wake Forest University. Archived from the original on April 10, 2015. Retrieved June 15, 2013.
70. ^ "Executive Order on Combating Anti-Semitism". whitehouse.gov. Archived from the original on January 25, 2021. Retrieved March 1, 2021 – via National Archives.
71. ^ a b Executive Order 14281 – Restoring Equality of Opportunity and Meritocracy:
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72. ^ a b "Civil Rights Act of 1964 – CRA – Title VII – Equal Employment Opportunities – 42 US Code Chapter 21". finduslaw. Archived from the original on October 21, 2010. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
73. ^ Parr v. Woodmen of the World Life Insurance Company, 791 F.2d 888 (11th Cir. 1986).
74. ^ "Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967". Finduslaw.com. Archived from the original on December 8, 2011. Retrieved June 6, 2010.
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77. ^ Fields, C. K., & Cheeseman, H. R., Contemporary Employment Law (New York: Wolters Kluwer, 2017), p. 197 Archived March 30, 2019, at the Wayback Machine
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80. ^ Quinones, Sam (April 25, 2012). "EEOC rules job protections also apply to transgender people". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on December 20, 2014. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
81. ^ Rosenberg, Mica (September 9, 2014). "U.S. government lawsuits target transgender discrimination in workplace". Reuters. Archived from the original on March 7, 2016. Retrieved November 4, 2014.
82. ^ "What You Should Know about EEOC and the Enforcement Protections for LGBT Workers". Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Archived from the original on November 8, 2014. Retrieved November 8, 2014.
83. ^ Feldblum, Chai [@chaifeldblum] (November 6, 2014). "ICYMI – EEOC helping LGBT people get protection from discrimination under sex discrimination laws" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
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86. ^ a b Holden, Dominic (October 5, 2017). "Jeff Sessions Just Reversed A Policy That Protects Transgender Workers From Discrimination". BuzzFeed News. Archived from the original on October 5, 2017. Retrieved October 5, 2017.
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90. ^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. Basic Books. p. 270. ISBN 978-0465041954.
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102. ^ Dinerstein, Robert D. (Summer 2004). "The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: Progeny of the Civil Rights Act of 1964". Human Rights. 31 (3). American Bar Association: 10–11\. ISSN 0046-8185. JSTOR 27880436.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Branch, Taylor (1998), Pillar of Fire: America in the King Years 1963–65, New York: Simon & Schuster.
* Freeman, Jo. "How 'Sex' Got Into Title VII: Persistent Opportunism as a Maker of Public Policy" Law and Inequality: A Journal of Theory and Practice, Vol. 9, No. 2, March 1991, pp. 163–184. online version
* Golway, Terry (2010). JFK: Day by Day: A Chronicle of the 1,036 Days of John F. Kennedy's Presidency. Running Press. ISBN 9780762437429.
* Harrison, Cynthia (1988), On Account of Sex: The Politics of Women's Issues 1945–1968, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
* Jeong, Gyung-Ho, Gary J. Miller, and Itai Sened, "Closing the Deal: Negotiating Civil Rights Legislation", American Political Science Review, 103 (Nov. 2009)
* Loevy, Robert D. ed. (1997), The Civil Rights Act of 1964: The Passage of the Law That Ended Racial Segregation, Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
* Risen, Clay. The Bill of the Century: The Epic Battle for the Civil Rights Act (2014) online

## Further reading

[edit]

* Brauer, Carl M., "Women Activists, Southern Conservatives, and the Prohibition of Sexual Discrimination in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act", 49 Journal of Southern History, February 1983.
* Burstein, Paul (1985), Discrimination, Jobs and Politics: The Struggle for Equal Employment Opportunity in the United States since the New Deal, Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* Finley, Keith M. (2008), Delaying the Dream: Southern Senators and the Fight Against Civil Rights, 1938–1965, Baton Rouge: LSU Press.
* Graham, Hugh (1990), The Civil Rights Era: Origins and Development of National Policy, 1960–1972, New York: Oxford University Press.
* Gregory, Raymond F. (2014). The Civil Rights Act and the Battle to End Workplace Discrimination. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
* Loevy, Robert D. (1990), To End All Segregation: The Politics of the Passage of The Civil Rights Act of 1964, Lanham, MD: University Press of America.
* Loevy, Robert D. "The Presidency and Domestic Policy: The Civil Rights Act of 1964," in David C. Kozak and Kenneth N. Ciboski, ed., The American Presidency (Chicago: Nelson Hall, 1985), pp. 411–419. online version
* Mann, Robert (1996). The Walls of Jericho: Lyndon Johnson, Hubert Humphrey, Richard Russell, and the Struggle for Civil Rights.
* Pedriana, Nicholas, and Stryker, Robin. "The Strength of a Weak Agency: Enforcement of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act and the Expansion of State Capacity, 1965–1971," American Journal of Sociology, Nov 2004, Vol. 110 Issue 3, pp 709–760
* Revolution in Civil Rights. Congressional Quarterly Service. 1967. OCLC 894988538.
* Rodriguez, Daniel B. and Weingast, Barry R. "The Positive Political Theory of Legislative History: New Perspectives on the 1964 Civil Rights Act and Its Interpretation", University of Pennsylvania Law Review, Vol. 151. (2003) online
* Rothstein, Mark A., Andria S. Knapp & Lance Liebman (1987). Employment Law: Cases and Materials. Foundation Press.
* Warren, Dan R. (2008), If It Takes All Summer: Martin Luther King, the KKK, and States' Rights in St. Augustine, 1964, Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.
* Whalen, Charles and Whalen, Barbara (1985), The Longest Debate: A Legislative History of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Cabin John, MD: Seven Locks Press.
* Woods, Randall B. (2006), LBJ: Architect of American Ambition, New York: Free Press, ch 22.
* Zimmer, Michael J., Charles A. Sullivan & Richard F. Richards, Cases and Materials on Employment Discrimination, Little, Brown and Company (1982).

## External links

[edit]

Civil Rights Act of 1964 at Wikipedia's sister projects

* Media from Commons
* Texts from Wikisource
* Data from Wikidata

* Civil Rights Act of 1964 as amended (PDF/details) in the GPO Statute Compilations collection
* Civil Rights Act of 1964 as enacted (details) in the US Statutes at Large
* Narrative: The Civil Rights Act of 1964 Archived February 17, 2020, at the Wayback Machine – Provided by The Dirksen Center
* Civil Rights Act of 1964 – Provided by the Civil Rights Digital Library
* 110 Congressional Record (Bound) – Volume 110, Part 2 (January 30, 1964 to February 10, 1964), Congressional Record House February 10 vote roll call pp. 2804–2805
* 110 Congressional Record (Bound) – Volume 110, Part 11 (June 17, 1964 to June 26, 1964), Congressional Record Senate June 19 vote roll call p. 14511
* 110 Congressional Record (Bound) – Volume 110, Part 12 (June 29, 1964 to July 21, 1964), Congressional Record House July 2 amendment vote roll call p. 15897

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Sweatt v. Painter
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

* v
* t
* e

John F. Kennedy

* 35th President of the United States (1961–1963)
* U.S. Senator from Massachusetts (1953–1960)
* U.S. Representative for MA–11 (1947–1953)

Presidency
(timeline)|

* Transition
* Inauguration
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations
* Presidential pardons
* Presidential limousine
* Presidential yacht
* Resolute desk
* Situation Room

| Foreign policy|

* Alliance for Progress
* Arms Control and Disarmament Agency
* Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
* Flexible response
* Kennedy Doctrine
* Peace Corps
* Trade Expansion Act
* Migration and Refugee Assistance Act
* USAID
* Vietnam War
* Cuba: Bay of Pigs Invasion
* Cuban Project
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* ExComm
* Soviet Union: Berlin Crisis
* Moscow–Washington hotline
* Vienna summit

|

New Frontier|

* Communications Satellite Act
* Community Mental Health Act
* Equal Pay Act
* Executive Order 11110
* Federal affirmative action
* Federal housing segregation ban
* Fifty-mile hikes
* Food for Peace
* Pilot Food Stamp Program
* Presidential Medal of Freedom
* Space policy
* Status of Women (Presidential Commission)
* University of Alabama integration
* Voter Education Project
* All-Channel Receiver Act
* Oil Pollution Act of 1961
* Revenue Act of 1962
* Consolidated Farm and Rural Development Act of 1961
* Wetlands Loan Act

Presidential
speeches|

* Inaugural address
* American University speech
* "We choose to go to the Moon"
* Report to the American People on Civil Rights
* "Ich bin ein Berliner"
* "A rising tide lifts all boats"
* Remarks at Amherst College on the Arts
* State of the Union Address
* 1961
* 1962
* 1963

Elections|

* U.S. House of Representatives elections: 1946
* 1948
* 1950
* U.S. Senate elections in Massachusetts: 1952
* 1958
* 1960 presidential primaries
* 1960 presidential campaign
* Democratic National Conventions: 1956
* 1960
* U.S. presidential election 1960
* debates

Personal life|

* Birthplace and childhood home
* Kennedy Compound
* Hickory Hill
* La Querida
* Wexford
* Navy service: PT-109
* Biuku Gasa and Eroni Kumana
* Arthur Evans
* PT-59
* Castle Hot Springs
* Hammersmith Farm
* Coretta Scott King phone call
* "Happy Birthday, Mr. President"
* John F. Kennedy document hoax

Books|

* Why England Slept (1940)
* Profiles in Courage (1956)
* A Nation of Immigrants (1958)

Death|

* Assassination
* timeline
* media coverage
* reactions
* in popular culture
* State funeral
* Riderless horse
* attending dignitaries
* Gravesite and Eternal Flame

Legacy|

* Bibliography
* John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum
* Profile in Courage Award
* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Apollo 11 Moon landing
* Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
* Kennedy Space Center
* Kennedy Round
* U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development
* VISTA
* Cultural depictions
* films
* Kennedy half dollar
* U.S. postage stamps
* U.S. five cent stamp
* Lincoln–Kennedy coincidences
* Operation Sail

Memorials,
namesakes|

* Harvard Kennedy School
* Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts
* John F. Kennedy Federal Building (Boston)
* John F. Kennedy International Airport
* Boston statue
* Brooklyn bust
* Dallas memorial
* Hyannis memorial
* London bust
* Nashua bust
* Portland memorial
* Runnymede memorial
* John F. Kennedy Arboretum
* John F. Kennedy Memorial Bridge
* John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School
* John F. Kennedy University (defunct)
* John F. Kennedy Stadium
* Kennedy Expressway
* Mount Kennedy
* MV John F. Kennedy
* USS John F. Kennedy (CV-67)
* USS John F. Kennedy (CVN-79)
* Yad Kennedy
* Love Park

Family|

* Jacqueline Bouvier (wife)
* Caroline Kennedy (daughter)
* John F. Kennedy Jr. (son)
* Patrick Bouvier Kennedy (son)
* Rose Schlossberg (granddaughter)
* Tatiana Schlossberg (granddaughter)
* Jack Schlossberg (grandson)
* Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. (father)
* Rose Fitzgerald (mother)
* Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. (brother)
* Rosemary Kennedy (sister)
* Kathleen Cavendish, Marchioness of Hartington (sister)
* Eunice Kennedy Shriver (sister)
* Patricia Kennedy Lawford (sister)
* Robert F. Kennedy (brother)
* Jean Kennedy Smith (sister)
* Ted Kennedy (brother)
* P. J. Kennedy (grandfather)
* John F. Fitzgerald (grandfather)
* Pushinka (dog)
* Billie and Debbie (hamsters)
* Sardar (horse)

* ← Dwight D. Eisenhower
* Lyndon B. Johnson →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Lyndon B. Johnson

* 36th President of the United States (1963–1969)
* 37th Vice President of the United States (1961–1963)
* U.S. Senator from Texas (1949–1961)
* U.S. Representative for TX-10 (1937–1949)

Presidency|

* Timeline
* Inaugurations
* first
* second
* Let Us Continue
* Great Society (Model Cities Program)
* Architectural Barriers Act
* Child Nutrition Act
* Clean Air Act
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Coinage Act of 1965
* Department of Housing and Urban Development
* Department of Transportation
* Economic Opportunity Act of 1964
* Head Start Program
* Job Corps
* Elementary and Secondary Education Act
* Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Fair Housing Act
* Truth in Lending Act
* Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1968
* Food Stamp Act of 1964
* Glassboro Summit
* Gun Control Act of 1968
* Higher Education Act of 1965
* Upward Bound
* TRIO
* Teacher Corps
* Housing and Urban Development Act of 1968
* Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965
* Johnson Doctrine
* Dominican Republic occupation
* Medicare
* Medicaid
* Meritorious Service Medal
* National Endowment for the Arts
* National Endowment for the Humanities
* Executive Order 11246
* Executive Order 11375
* Older Americans Act
* Operation CHAOS
* Outer Space Treaty
* Public Broadcasting Act of 1967
* Foreign policy
* Vietnam War
* Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
* "Credibility gap"
* VISTA
* 24th Amendment
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* War on poverty
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Cannabis policy
* White House preservation
* State of the Union Address
* 1964
* 1965
* 1966
* 1967
* 1968
* 1969
* Cabinet
* Judicial appointments
* Supreme Court
* Thurgood Marshall Supreme Court nomination
* controversies
* Johnson desk
* Presidential transition of Richard Nixon
* Executive Orders
* Presidential Proclamations

Life|

* Early years and career
* Operation Texas
* Texas Broadcasting Company
* Johnson Amendment
* Box 13 scandal
* Bashir Ahmad
* Charles E. Marsh
* Alice Marsh

Legacy and
memorials|

* Bibliography
* Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum
* Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland
* Lyndon B. Johnson National Historical Park
* Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
* Lyndon Baines Johnson Day
* Lyndon B. Johnson School of Public Affairs
* Memorial Grove on the Potomac
* U.S. Postage stamp
* USS Lyndon B. Johnson
* Black Jack (state funeral riderless horse)

Elections|

* United States House of Representatives
* 1937 (special)
* 1938
* 1940
* 1942
* 1944
* 1946
* United States Senate
* 1941 (special)
* 1948
* 1954
* 1960
* Democratic Party presidential primaries
* 1960
* 1964
* campaign
* 1968
* withdrawal
* Democratic National Conventions
* 1956
* 1960
* 1964
* Presidential elections
* 1960
* transition
* 1964

Public image|

* Lyndon B. Johnson in popular culture
* Daisy advertisement
* Johnson cult
* The Years of Lyndon Johnson
* Master of the Senate
* LBJ (1991 television film)
* Path to War (2002 film)
* All the Way (play, film)
* Selma (2014 film)
* LBJ (2017 film)

Family|

* Claudia "Lady Bird" Taylor Johnson (wife)
* Lynda Bird Johnson Robb (daughter)
* Luci Baines Johnson (daughter)
* Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. (father)
* Sam Houston Johnson (brother)
* Samuel Ealy Johnson Sr. (grandfather)
* Joseph Wilson Baines (grandfather)
* George Washington Baines (great-grandfather)
* Chuck Robb (son-in-law)

* ← John F. Kennedy
* Richard Nixon →

* ← Richard Nixon
* Hubert Humphrey →

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Alice Paul

Initiated and
co-strategized|

* 1913 Woman Suffrage Procession
* Congressional Union for Woman Suffrage
* The Suffragist
* National Woman's Party
* Silent Sentinels
* Night of Terror
* Equal Rights Amendment
* Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964

Main
associates|

* Alva Belmont
* Lucy Burns
* Crystal Eastman
* Inez Haynes Irwin
* Dora Lewis
* Inez Milholland
* Doris Stevens
* Mabel Vernon

Life|

* Paulsdale
* Women's Social and Political Union

Legacy|

* Belmont–Paul Women's Equality National Monument
* 2012 ten-dollar coin
* United States ten-dollar bill (proposed)
* Jailed for Freedom (1920 book)
* Iron Jawed Angels (2004 film)
* Suffs (2022 musical)

Related|

* Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution
* Women's suffrage in the United States
* Women's suffrage

* v
* t
* e

Affirmative action in the United States

Supreme Court and
lower court decisions|

| Education|

* DeFunis v. Odegaard (1974)
* Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978)
* United States v. Fordice (1992)
* Hopwood v. Texas (5th Cir. 1996)
* Texas v. Lesage (1999)
* Gratz v. Bollinger (2003)
* Grutter v. Bollinger (2003)
* Doe v. Kamehameha Schools/Bernice Pauahi Bishop Estate (9th Cir. 2006)
* Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 (2007)
* Fisher v. University of Texas I (2013)
* Schuette v. Coalition to Defend Affirmative Action (2014)
* Fisher v. University of Texas II (2016)
* Coalition for TJ v. Fairfax County School Board (4th Cir. 2023)
* Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023)

|

Employment|

* Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (1971)
* Morton v. Mancari (1974)
* Schlesinger v. Ballard (1975)
* Hazelwood School District v. United States (1977)
* United Steelworkers v. Weber (1979)
* Firefighters v. Stotts (1984)
* Wygant v. Jackson Board of Education (1986)
* Sheet Metal Workers v. EEOC (1986)
* Firefighters v. City of Cleveland (1986)
* United States v. Paradise (1987)
* Johnson v. Transportation Agency (1987)
* Wards Cove Packing Co. v. Atonio (1989)
* Piscataway School Board v. Taxman (3d Cir. 1996)
* Ricci v. DeStefano (2009)
* Charlton-Perkins v. University of Cincinnati (6th Cir. 2022)

Grants,
Contracting,
and Set-Asides|

* Kahn v. Shevin (1974)
* Califano v. Webster (1977)
* Fullilove v. Klutznick (1980)
* City of Richmond v. J.A. Croson Co. (1989)
* Metro Broadcasting, Inc. v. FCC (1990)
* Lamprecht v. FCC (D.C. Cir. 1992)
* Northeastern Fla. Chapter, Associated Gen. Contractors of America v. City of Jacksonville (1993)
* Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Peña (1995)
* Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Slater (2000)
* Adarand Constructors, Inc. v. Mineta (2001)
* Vitolo v. Guzman (6th Cir. 2021)

Federal legislation
and edicts|

* Section 1981 of the Civil Rights Act of 1866
* Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment (1868)
* Executive Order 10925 (1961)
* Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Executive Order 11246 (1965)

State initiatives|

* Proposition 209 (CA, 1996)
* Initiative 200 (WA, 1998)
* Proposal 2 (MI, 2006)
* Amendment 46 (CO, 2008, failed)
* Initiative 424 (NE, 2008)
* Proposition 107 (AZ, 2010)
* State Question 759 (OK, 2012)
* Referendum 88 (WA, 2019, failed)
* Proposition 16 (CA, 2020, failed)

People|

* Peter Arcidiacono
* Edward Blum
* Carl Cohen
* Ward Connerly
* Arthur Fletcher
* Richard Kahlenberg
* Richard Sander
* Stuart Taylor Jr.
* Abigail Thermstrom
* Stephan Thermstrom
* Ron Unz

* v
* t
* e

Voting rights in the United States

Constitutional
provisions|

* Article I
* House Electors Qualifications Clause
* Congressional Elections Clause
* 1st Amendment
* 14th Amendment
* Equal Protection Clause
* Privileges or Immunities Clause
* 15th Amendment
* 17th Amendment
* 19th Amendment
* 23rd Amendment
* 24th Amendment
* 26th Amendment

Federal laws
and agencies|

* U.S. Department of Justice
* Enforcement Acts
* Enforcement Act of 1870
* Second Enforcement Act
* Ku Klux Klan Act
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* U.S. Commission on Civil Rights
* U.S. Department of Justice Civil Rights Division
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Title I of the Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* amendments
* covered jurisdictions
* Voting Accessibility for the Elderly and Handicapped Act
* Uniformed and Overseas Citizens Absentee Voting Act
* Federal Voting Assistance Program
* Military and Overseas Voter Empowerment Act
* National Voter Registration Act of 1993
* Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of 1996
* Help America Vote Act of 2002
* Election Assistance Commission

State laws|

| Voter access|

* Absentee ballot
* Early voting
* Initiatives and referendums
* Postal voting
* Provisional ballot
* Recall election
* Voter registration in the U.S.
* Voting in space

|

Vote denial|

* Electoral fraud
* Grandfather clause
* Literacy test
* Poll tax
* Voter caging
* Voter ID laws
* Voter suppression

Vote dilution|

* First-past-the-post voting
* Gerrymandering
* Multiple non-transferable vote
* One man, one vote

By group|

* Men
* Women
* Felons
* Foreigners
* Transgender people
* Young adults
* African Americans
* Native Americans

| Residents of non-states|

* American Samoa
* District of Columbia
* Guam
* Northern Mariana Islands
* Puerto Rico
* United States Virgin Islands

|

History|

* Timeline
* Disfranchisement after the Reconstruction era
* Timeline of women's suffrage
* Suffrage Hikes
* Woman Suffrage Procession
* Silent Sentinels
* U.S. suffragists
* Publications
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Women's poll tax repeal movement
* History of direct democracy

Related|

* Ballot access
* Campaign finance
* Citizenship
* Native Americans
* Democratic backsliding in the United States
* Disfranchisement
* Election
* Election law
* Elections in the U.S.
* Electoral College
* Electoral reform
* Electoral system
* Ranked-choice voting in the U.S.
* National Voting Rights Museum
* Redistricting
* Secret ballot
* Suffrage
* Voter registration
* Voting

* v
* t
* e

African Americans

History|

* Timeline
* Abolitionism
* African American founding fathers
* Afrocentrism
* American Civil War
* Atlantic slave trade
* Black Codes
* Black cowboys
* Black genocide
* Black Lives Matter
* Brown v. Board of Education (1954)
* Children of the plantation
* Civil Rights Acts
* 1964
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* 1968
* Civil rights movement 1865–1896
* Civil right movement 1896–1954
* Civil rights movement 1954–1968
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle (1956)
* Sit-in movement
* Freedom Riders
* Birmingham movement
* March on Washington
* Freedom Summer
* Selma to Montgomery marches
* Chicago Freedom Movement
* Post–civil rights era
* Cornerstone Speech
* COVID-19 impact
* Dred Scott v. Sandford (1857)
* Free Negro
* Free people of color
* George Floyd protests
* Great Migration
* Second
* New
* Exodusters
* Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009 / Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching
* Military history
* Million Man March
* Nadir of American race relations
* The Negro Motorist Green Book
* Partus sequitur ventrem
* Plantations
* Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)
* Reconstruction Amendments
* Reconstruction era
* Redlining
* Separate but equal
* Silent Parade
* Slavery
* Treatment of slaves
* Tulsa race massacre
* Underground Railroad
* Women's suffrage movement

Culture|

* Afrofuturism
* Art
* Black mecca
* Businesses
* Dance
* Family structure
* Film
* Folktales
* Hair
* Harlem Renaissance
* New Negro
* Hoodoo
* Juneteenth
* Kwanzaa
* LGBTQ community
* Literature
* Music
* Musical theater
* Names
* Negro National Anthem
* Neighborhoods
* Newspapers
* Soul food
* Stereotypes
* Middle class
* Upper class

Notable people|

* Ralph Abernathy
* Maya Angelou
* Crispus Attucks
* James Baldwin
* James Bevel
* Julian Bond
* Amelia Boynton
* James Bradley
* Carol Moseley Braun
* Edward Brooke
* Blanche Bruce
* Ralph Bunche
* George Washington Carver
* Shirley Chisholm
* Claudette Colvin
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Medgar Evers
* James Farmer
* Henry Highland Garnet
* Marcus Garvey
* Fred Gray
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Kamala Harris
* Jimi Hendrix
* Jesse Jackson
* Ketanji Brown Jackson
* Michael Jackson
* Harriet Jacobs
* Barbara Jordan
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Huddie Ledbetter
* John Lewis
* Joseph Lowery
* Malcolm X
* Thurgood Marshall
* Toni Morrison
* Bob Moses
* Diane Nash
* Barack Obama
* Michelle Obama
* Rosa Parks
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Colin Powell
* Gabriel Prosser
* Joseph Rainey
* A. Philip Randolph
* Hiram Revels
* Paul Robeson
* Al Sharpton
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Clarence Thomas
* Emmett Till
* Sojourner Truth
* Harriet Tubman
* Nat Turner
* Denmark Vesey
* C. T. Vivian
* David Walker
* Booker T. Washington
* Ida B. Wells
* Roy Wilkins
* Oprah Winfrey
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young

Education, science
and technology|

* Black studies
* Black schools
* Historically black colleges and universities
* Inventors and scientists
* Museums
* Women
* in computer science
* in medicine
* in STEM fields

Religion|

* African-American Jews
* Islam
* American Society of Muslims
* Nation of Islam
* Black church
* Azusa Street Revival
* Black Hebrew Israelites
* Black theology
* Doctrine of Father Divine

Political movements|

* Anarchism
* Back-to-Africa movement
* Black power
* Movement
* Capitalism
* Conservatism
* Leftism
* Pan-Africanism
* Populism
* Raised fist
* Self-determination
* Nationalism
* Socialism

Civic and economic
groups

* Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)
* Black Panther Party
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)
* Nashville Student Movement
* National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)
* National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)
* National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)
* National Urban League (NUL)
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* Thurgood Marshall College Fund
* United Negro College Fund (UNCF)
* Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)

Sports|

* Negro league baseball
* Baseball color line
* Black players in professional American football
* Black NFL quarterbacks
* Black players in ice hockey
* Muhammad Ali
* Arthur Ashe
* Jack Johnson
* Joe Louis
* Jesse Owens
* Jackie Robinson
* Serena Williams

Athletic associations
and conferences

* Central (CIAA)
* Mid-Eastern (MEAC)
* Southern (SIAC)
* Southwestern (SWAC)

Ethnic subdivisions|

* By African descent
* Fula
* Gullah
* Igbo
* Yoruba
* Alabama Creole
* Black Indians
* Black Seminoles
* Cherokee Freedmen
* Choctaw Freedmen
* Creek Freedmen
* Black Southerners
* Blaxicans
* Great Dismal Swamp maroons
* Louisiana Creole
* of color
* Melungeon

Demographics|

* Neighborhoods
* list
* U.S. cities with large populations
* 2000 majorities
* 2010 majorities
* Metropolitan areas
* States and territories

Languages|

* Afro-Seminole Creole
* American Sign
* Black American Sign
* English
* American English
* African-American English
* African-American Vernacular English
* social context
* Gullah
* Louisiana Creole

By state/city|

* Alabama
* Arkansas
* California
* Los Angeles
* San Francisco
* Florida
* Jacksonville
* Tallahassee
* Georgia
* Atlanta
* Hawaii
* Illinois
* Chicago
* Indiana
* Iowa
* Davenport
* Kansas
* Kentucky
* Lexington
* Louisiana
* Maryland
* Baltimore
* Massachusetts
* Boston
* Michigan
* Detroit
* Mississippi
* Nebraska
* Omaha
* New Jersey
* New York
* New York City
* North Carolina
* Ohio
* Cleveland
* Oklahoma
* Oregon
* Pennsylvania
* Philadelphia
* Puerto Rico
* South Carolina
* South Dakota
* Tennessee
* Texas
* Austin
* Dallas–Fort Worth
* Houston
* San Antonio
* Utah
* Virginia
* West Virginia

Diaspora|

* Africa
* Gambia
* Ghana
* Liberia
* Sierra Leone
* America
* Canada
* Dominican Republic
* Haiti
* Mexico
* Trinidad and Tobago
* Israel
* Europe
* France

Lists|

* African Americans
* Activists
* Actors
* Astronauts
* Billionaires
* Journalists
* Jurists
* Mathematicians
* Republicans
* Singers
* Sportspeople
* Spingarn Medal winners
* US cabinet members
* US representatives
* US senators
* Visual artists
* Writers
* African-American firsts
* Mayors
* Sports firsts
* US state firsts
* Historic places
* Index of related articles
* Landmark African-American legislation
* Lynching victims
* Monuments
* Neighborhoods
* Topics related to the African diaspora

* Category
* United States portal

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* FAST

National|

* Germany
* United States
* France
* BnF data
* Israel

Other|

* NARA
* SNAC

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[Pub. L.]: Public Law