Classical language

Old language with established literature or use

For classical languages in India, see Classical languages of India.

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According to the definition by George L. Hart, a classical language is any language with an independent literary tradition and a large body of ancient written literature.[1]

Classical languages are usually extinct languages. Those that are still in use today tend to show highly diglossic characteristics in areas where they are used, as the difference between spoken and written language has widened over time.

## Classical studies

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Main article: Classics

In the context of traditional European classical studies, the "classical languages" refer to Greek and Latin, which were the literary languages of the Mediterranean world in classical antiquity.

Greek was the language of Homer and of classical Athenian, Hellenistic and Byzantine historians, playwrights, and philosophers. It has contributed many words to the vocabulary of English and many other European languages, and has been a standard subject of study in Western educational institutions since the Renaissance. Latinized forms of Ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in other scientific terminology. Koine Greek, which served as a lingua franca in the Eastern Roman Empire, remains in use today as a sacred language in some Eastern Orthodox churches.

Latin became the lingua franca of the early Roman Empire and later of the Western Roman Empire. Despite the decline of the Western Roman Empire, the Latin language continued to flourish in the very different social and economic environment of the Middle Ages, not least because it became the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. In Western and Central Europe and in parts of northern Africa, Latin retained its elevated status as the main vehicle of communication for the learned classes throughout the Middle Ages and subsequently; witness especially the Renaissance and Baroque periods. And well into the 21st century, Latin is still taught in the United States, mostly in elite private schools.[2]

Latin was not supplanted for scientific purposes until the 18th century, and for formal descriptions in zoology as well as botany it survived to the later 20th century. The modern international binomial nomenclature holds to this day: taxonomists assign a Latin or Latinized name as the scientific name of each species.

## Outside of western civilization

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In terms of worldwide cultural importance, Edward Sapir in his 1921 book Language extends the list to include classical Chinese, Arabic, and Sanskrit:

> When we realize that an educated Japanese can hardly frame a single literary sentence without the use of Chinese resources, that to this day Siamese and Burmese and Cambodgian bear the unmistakable imprint of the Sanskrit and Pali that came in with Hindu Buddhism centuries ago, or that whether we argue for or against the teaching of Latin and Greek [in schools,] our argument is sure to be studded with words that have come to us from Rome and Athens, we get some indication of what early Chinese culture and Buddhism, and classical Mediterranean civilization have meant in the world's history. There are just five languages that have had an overwhelming significance as carriers of culture. They are classical Chinese, Sanskrit, Arabic, Greek, and Latin. In comparison with these, even such culturally important languages as Hebrew and French sink into a secondary position.[3]

In this sense, a classical language is a language that has a broad influence over an extended period of time, even after it is no longer a colloquial mother tongue in its original form. If one language uses roots from another language to coin words (in the way that many European languages use Greek and Latin roots to devise new words such as "telephone", etc.), this is an indication that the second language is a classical language.[citation needed]

In comparison, living languages with a large sphere of influence are known as world languages.

## General usage

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The following languages are generally taken to have a "classical" stage. Such a stage is limited in time and is considered "classical" if it comes to be regarded as a literary "golden age" retrospectively.[citation needed] Thus, Classical Greek is the language of 5th to 4th century BC Athens and, as such, only a small subset of the varieties of the Greek language as a whole. A "classical" period usually corresponds to a flowering of literature following an "archaic" period, such as Classical Latin succeeding Old Latin, Classical Sumerian succeeding Archaic Sumerian, Classical Sanskrit succeeding Vedic Sanskrit, Classical Persian succeeding Old Persian. This is partly a matter of terminology, and for example Old Chinese is taken to include rather than precede Classical Chinese. In some cases, such as those of Persian and Tamil, the "classical" stage corresponds to the earliest attested literary variant.[4]

### Antiquity

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* Classical Sumerian (literary language of Sumer, c. 26th to 23rd centuries BC) Sumerograms were used in Cuneiform writing even for non-Sumerian texts until the writing system went out of use around the first century AD
* Middle Egyptian (literary language of Ancient Egypt from c. the 20th century BC to the 4th century AD)
* Old Babylonian (the Akkadian language from c. 20th to 16th centuries BC, the imitated standard for later literary works)
* Middle Assyrian (the Akkadian language from c. 16th to 13th centuries BC)
* Vedic Sanskrit (the form of Sanskrit before Classical standardization was used in Vedic texts from c. 15th to 5th centuries BC)
* Classical Hebrew (the language of the Tanakh, in particular of the prophetic books of c. the 7th and 6th centuries BC)
* Old Persian (court language of the Achaemenid Empire, 6th to 4th centuries BC)
* Classical Chinese (based on the literary language, Yayan, used in the capital Luoyang of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty from c. the 5th century BC)
* Classical Greek (Attic dialect of the 5th century BC)
* Classical Sanskrit (described by Pāṇini's Ashtadhyayi of the 4th century BC)[5][6]
* Maharashtri Prakrit (a Prakrit language, was the official language of the Satavahana dynasty c. 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD)
* Classical Tamil (Sangam literature c. 3rd century BC to 3rd century AD, defined by Tolkāppiyam)[7]
* Classical Pali (Buddhist Canon used this language from 2nd centuries BC)
* Classical Latin (literary language of the 1st century BC)
* Classical Mandaic (literary Aramaic of Mandaeism, 1st century AD)
* Classical Syriac (literary Aramaic of Syriac Christianity, 3rd to 5th centuries)
* Middle Persian (court language of the Sassanid Empire, 3rd to 7th centuries)
* Classical Coptic (language of Egypt and the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, 3rd to 13th centuries, liturgical language to the present day)

### Middle Ages

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* Geʽez, language of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church; the Garima Gospels are dated from the 5th century to the 10th century by various scholars.
* Classical Armenian, the oldest attested form of Armenian from the 5th century and literary language until the 18th century
* Classical Arabic, based on the language of the Qur'an, 7th century to present; liturgical language of Islam
* Old Bengali, the earliest forms of the Bengali Language, emerged during the Kingdom of Gauda, 7th to 12th centuries.[8]
* Classical Kannada, court language of Rashtrakuta empire; earliest available literary work is the Kavirājamārga of AD 850.[9]
* Old Saxon, language of Saxon Christian literature, 9th to 12th centuries
* Old English, language of Beowulf and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle with many divergent written dialects, but partially standardized in West Saxon form
* Old French, language of chivalric romance, 8th to 14th centuries
* Old Georgian, language of Georgia, 5th to 11th centuries
* Old East Slavic, language of the Kievan Rus', 9th to 13th centuries
* New Persian, language of classical Persian literature, 9th to present
* Old Nubian, language of Nubia, 9th or 10th to 15th centuries
* Old Javanese, language of Old Javanese literature, used primarily during Hindu-Buddhist Javanese kingdom era from 10th to 15th centuries[10][11]
* Old Church Slavonic, language of the First Bulgarian Empire during its Golden Age, 10th century earliest manuscript is Freising manuscripts
* Classical Tibetan, religious and literary language of Tibet, 10th century to present
* Classical Assamese, 10th century CE[12][13]
* Classical Japanese, language of Heian period literature, 10th to 12th centuries
* Middle Korean, language of Goryeo and Joseon, 10th to 16th centuries
* Old Occitan, language of the troubadours, 11th to 14th centuries
* Middle High German, language of Medieval German literature, 11th to 14th centuries
* Old Serbian, language of Serbia before its conquest by the Ottoman Empire, 11th to 14th centuries
* Classical Telugu: the earliest available literary work is the Telugu Mahabharata, AD 1067.
* Classical Malayalam: the earliest extant prose work is the Ramacharitam, 12th century.[14]
* Classical Odia, language of Odia literature, 12th to 18th centuries
* Old Norse, language of the Viking Age, from the 12th century
* Middle Bulgarian, language of the Second Bulgarian Empire, 12th to 15th centuries
* Middle Low German, language of the Hanseatic League, 12th to 17th centuries
* Old Uyghur, Turkic language spoken in Qocho from the 9th–14th centuries and in Gansu
* Classical Icelandic, the language of the Icelandic sagas, 13th century
* Classical Catalan, language of literature in the Crown of Aragon, 13th to 14th centuries
* Classical Manding, language of the Mali Empire, 13th to 16th centuries
* Old Ruthenian, one language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 13th to 16th centuries
* Old Anatolian Turkish, 11th to 15th centuries
* Classical Ge'ez, language of Golden Age of Ge'ez literature, 13th to 16th centuries
* Classical Irish or Classical Gaelic, language of the 13th to 18th centuries Scottish and Irish Gaelic literature
* Classical Wolof, language of the Wolof Empire, 13th to 19th centuries
* Middle English, language of The Canterbury Tales, 14th to 15th centuries, with many divergent written dialects, but partially standardized on London speech
* Middle French, language of the French Renaissance, 14th to 17th centuries
* Classical Hungarian, language of Hungarian literature, 14th to 15th centuries
* Classical Songhai, lingua franca of the Songhai Empire, 14th to 16th centuries
* Early New High German, language of the Holy Roman Empire, the German Renaissance, and the Protestant Reformation, 14th to 17th centuries
* Classical Malay, language of Maritime Southeast Asia, 14th to 18th centuries
* Chagatai, classical Turkic language of Central Asia and the Volga, 14th to early 20th centuries
* Angkorian Old Khmer, language of the Khmer Empire, from 14th century
* Rekhta, poetic language of Delhi and the Northern/Central Indian subcontinent, 13th-18th century, became standardized as Urdu in the 19th century.

### Amerindian languages

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* Classical Maya (the language of the mature Maya civilization, 3rd to 9th centuries)
* Classical Nahuatl (lingua franca of 16th-century central Mexico)
* Classical Quechua (lingua franca of the 16th-century Inca Empire)
* Classical Kʼicheʼ (a Mayan language of 16th-century Guatemala)
* Classical Tupi (language of 16th to 18th centuries Brazil)

### Early modern period

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* Awadhi (one of two major literary traditions of Northern India during Mughal rule led to its use by poets, 14th to 18th centuries)
* Braj Bhasha (the second of two major literary traditions in early modern Northern India used by poets, 15th-19th centuries)
* Renaissance Italian (language of the Italian Renaissance, 15th to 16th centuries)
* Late Old Portuguese (language of Portuguese Golden Age, 15th to 16th centuries)
* Early Modern Spanish (language of the Spanish Golden Age, 15th to 17th centuries)
* Classical Azeri (lingua franca of the Caucasus Mountain region and language of Azeri literature, 15th to 18th centuries)
* Old Lithuanian (the other language of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, 16th to 17th centuries)
* Early Modern English (language of the King James Bible, the Book of Common Prayer, and Shakespeare, 16th to 17th centuries)
* Middle Polish (language of the Polish Golden Age, 16th to 18th centuries)
* Classical Ottoman Turkish (language of poetry and administration of the Ottoman Empire, 16th to 19th centuries)
* Manchu language (language of the Manchus who ruled China, 16th–20th centuries)
* Early Modern Dutch (language of the Dutch Golden Age, 17th century)
* Early Modern French (language of France under Louis XIV to Napoleon, 17th to 18th centuries)
* Classical Ladino (language of Sephardic Jewish literature, 17th to 19th centuries)
* Classical Russian (language of the Russian Empire, 18th to 19th centuries)
* Classical Mongolian language (the language of Mongolian literature and translations of Tibetan Buddhist religious texts from 1700–1900)
* Sadhu Bhasha (the modern language Bengali from 1820s to 1940s)
* Classical Yiddish (language of the Yiddish Renaissance, 19th–20th centuries)
* Classical Newari (language of Malla kingdom and lingua franca in India-Tibet trade)

## See also

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Library resources about
Classical language

* * *

* Online books
* Resources in your library
* Resources in other libraries

* Ancient language
* Aureation, an aspect of the influence of a classical language on a later language
* Classical languages of India
* Classicism
* Classics
* Golden age (metaphor)
* Lingua franca
* List of lingua francas
* List of languages by first written accounts
* Literary language
* Sacred language
* Official language
* Standard language
* World language

## References

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1. ^ Hart, George. "Statement on the status of Tamil as a Classical Language". Institute for South Asia Studies, UC Berkeley. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
2. ^ "Accredited Schools". Classical Latin School Association -. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
3. ^ Sapir, Edward (1921). Language: An introduction to the study of speech. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company. p. 164\. ISBN 4-87187-529-6. Retrieved February 17, 2006.
4. ^ Ramanujan, A. K. (1985), Poems of Love and War: From the Eight Anthologies and the Ten Long Poems of Classical Tamil, New York: Columbia University Press. Pp. 329, ISBN 0-231-05107-7Quote (p.ix–x) "Tamil, one of the four classical languages of India, is a Dravidian language ... These poems (Sangam literature, 1st century BC to 3rd century AD) are 'classical,' i.e. early, ancient; they are also 'classics,' i.e. works that have stood the test of time, the founding works of a whole tradition. Not to know them is not to know a unique and major poetic achievement of Indian civilization."
5. ^ Article "Panini" from The Columbia Encyclopedia (Sixth Edition) at Encyclopedia.com
6. ^ Brockington, J. L. (1998). The Sanskrit epics, Part 2. Vol. 12\. BRILL. p. 28\. ISBN 978-90-04-10260-6.
7. ^ Zvelebil, Kamil (1997), The Smile of Murugan: On Tamil Literature of South India: On Tamil Literature of South India, BRILL Academic Publishers. p. 378, ISBN 90-04-03591-5 Quote: "Chart 1 literature: 1. the "Urtext" of the Tolkappiyam, i.e. the first two sections, Eluttatikaram and Collatikaram minus later interpolations, ca. 100 BC 2\. the earliest strata of bardic poetry in the so-called Cankam anthologies, ca. 1 Cent. BC–2 Cent. AD."
8. ^ Das, Amitava; Sanyal, Rajat; Chakraborty, Rajib, eds. (2025). Classical Bangla. Kolkata: Institute of Language Studies and Research (ILSR), Kolkata. p. 386\. ISBN 9788198479358. "The beginning of literary expression in Bengali in the 7th century AD as Caryāpada relates that the language developed over a considerable period before it reached the present status of literary expression in the 7th century. The oral traditions-proverbs, riddles, folks, stories which are the staple of the Bengali culture germinated before the written literature and were handed down from generation to generation. .... Caryāpada, which was composed in the 7th century AD, is the earliest literary expression (discovered so far) in Bengali language. Its composition in the 7th century is proof enough of a thirteen hundred years of ancestry of Bengali language in the written form. .... According to French scholar Sylvain Levi, in 657 A.D. during the period of King Narendra Deb, Matsyendranath who is also known as Mīnanātha according to Näthagitikā, travelled to Nepal. He was the founder and propagator of Nathism and also happens to be the oldest writer in the Bengali language, as has been recognized by many."
9. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, 2008. "Kannada literature" Quote: "The earliest literary work is the Kavirājamārga (c. AD 850), a treatise on poetics based on a Sanskrit model."
10. ^ Cresse, Helen (2001). "Old Javanese Studies: A Review of the Field". Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 1 (157): 3–33\. doi:10.1163/22134379-90003816. Retrieved 23 February 2020.3-33&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info:doi/10.1163/22134379-90003816&rft.aulast=Cresse&rft.aufirst=Helen&rft_id=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/43472268&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Classical+language" class="Z3988">
11. ^ Ogloblin, Alexander K. (2005). "Javanese". In K. Alexander Adelaar; Nikolaus Himmelmann (eds.). The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar. London dan New York: Routledge. pp. 590–624\. ISBN 9780700712861.590-624&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9780700712861&rft.aulast=Ogloblin&rft.aufirst=Alexander+K.&rft_id=https://books.google.com/books?id=BAShwSYLbUYC&pg;=PA590&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Classical+language" class="Z3988">
12. ^ "Assamese language | Assamese Dialects, Brahmaputra Valley & Eastern India | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 2024-08-31. Retrieved 2024-10-03. "Assamese literary tradition dates to the 13th century. Prose texts, notably buranjis (historical works), began to appear in the 16th century."
13. ^ Deka, Joy Jyoti; Boro, Akashi Tara (2024-08-31). "Charyapads as the Oldest Written Specimen of Assamese Literature". International Journal of Health Sciences: 7028–7034\. doi:10.53730/ijhs.v6nS1.6513. "Charyapads are considered as the first written specimen of Assamese literature."7028-7034&rft.date=2024-08-31&rft_id=info:doi/10.53730/ijhs.v6nS1.6513&rft.aulast=Deka&rft.aufirst=Joy+Jyoti&rft.au=Boro,+Akashi+Tara&rft_id=https://www.neliti.com/publications/429892/charyapads-as-the-oldest-written-specimen-of-assamese-literature#:~:text=While%20dividing%20this%20era%2C%20Charyapad,written%20specimen%20of%20Assamese%20literature.&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Classical+language" class="Z3988">
14. ^ K. Ramachandran Nair in Ayyappapanicker (1997), p.301

* Flood, Gavin (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-43878-0
* Goswami, Upendra Nath (1970). A study on Kāmrūpī: a dialect of Assamese. Dept. of Historical Antiquarian Studies, Assam.
* Nair, K. Ramachandran (1997). "Malayalam". In Ayyappapanicker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 81-260-0365-0.
* Toulmin, Mathew W S (2006). Reconstructing linguistic history in a dialect continuum: The Kamta, Rajbanshi, and Northern Deshi Bangla subgroup of Indo-Aryan (Ph.D.). The Australian National University.

## Further reading

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* Ashdowne, Richard. 2009. "Accidence and Acronyms: Deploying electronic assessment in support of classical language teaching in a university context." Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 8, no. 2: 201–16.
* Beach, Adam R. 2001. "The creation of a classical language in the eighteenth century: standardizing English, cultural imperialism, and the future of the literary canon." Texas Studies in Literature and Language 43, no. 2: 117+.
* Coulson, Michael. 1976. Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language. Sevenoaks, Kent: Hodder and Stoughton.
* Crooker, Jill M., and Kathleen A. Rabiteau. 2000. "An interwoven fabric: The AP latin examinations, the SAT II: Latin test, and the national "standards for classical language learning." The Classical Outlook 77, no. 4: 148–53.
* Denizot, Camille, and Olga Spevak. 2017. Pragmatic Approaches to Latin and Ancient Greek. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
* Eschbach-Szabo, Viktoria, and Shelley Ching-yu Hsieh. 2005. "Chinese as a classical language of botanical science: Semiotics of transcription." Kodikas/Code. Ars Semeiotica: An International Journal of Semiotics 28, nos. 3–4: 317–43.
* Gruber-Miller, John. 2006. When Dead Tongues Speak: Teaching Beginning Greek and Latin. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* Hymes, Robert. 2006. "Getting the Words Right: Speech, Vernacular Language, and Classical Language in Song Neo-Confucian 'Records of Words'." Journal of Song-Yuan Studies 36: 25–55. https://www.jstor.org/stable/23496297.
* Koutropoulos, Apostolos. 2011. "Modernizing classical language education: communicative language teaching & educational technology integration in classical Greek." Human Architecture: Journal of the Sociology of Self-Knowledge 9, no. 3 (2011): 55–69.
* Tieken, Herman. 2010. "Blaming the Brahmins: Texts lost and found in Tamil literary history." Studies in History 26, no. 2: 227–43.
* Watt, Jonathan M. 2003. "Classical language instruction: A window to cultural diversity." International Journal of Diversity in Organisations, Communities, and Nations 3: 115–24.
* Whitney, William Dwight. 1971. Sanskrit Grammar: Including Both the Classical Language, and the Older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana. 12th issue of the 2nd ed. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

## External links

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* Media related to Classical languages at Wikimedia Commons