Common Security and Defence Policy

Defence policy of the European Union

This article is about the European Union's (EU) own defence arm. For the EU's relationship with NATO, which TEU Article 42(2) describes as the "main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence", see European Union–NATO relations.

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"CSDP" redirects here. For other uses, see CSDP (disambiguation).

Common Security and Defence Policy
(European Defence Union)

Arms of the Military Staff (EUMS), which includes the EU's permanent operation headquarters, MPCC

Founded| 1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy)
Current form| 2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
Headquarters| Military (MPCC) and Civilian (CPCC) Planning and Conduct Capabilities, Kortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium
Website| eeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Representative| Kaja Kallas
Director General of the Military Staff| LTG Michiel van der Laan
Chairman of the Military Committee| GEN Robert Brieger
Personnel
Active personnel| 1,410,626 (2016)[1]
Reserve personnel| 2,330,803
Expenditure
Budget| €223.4 billion ($249.3 billion) (2018)[2]
Percent of GDP| 1.5% (2020)[3]
Related articles
History| History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm[4][5][6][b] – comprises:

* the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
* the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
* a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
* four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA).

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence.[7] It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the European Defence Fund (EDF, established in 2017) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

This article is part of a series on

Politics of the European Union

Member states (27)

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Cyprus
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Ireland
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Candidate countries

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Georgia
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Serbia
* Ukraine

* * *

Countries with suspended accession negotiations

* Turkey

* * *

Applicant countries

* Kosovo

* * *

States not on the agenda

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Iceland
* Kazakhstan
* Norway
* Russia
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom

* * *

Microstates and the European Union

* Andorra
* Liechtenstein
* Monaco
* San Marino
* Vatican City

* * *

* Special territories
* EU 3 (EU founding states)
* Enlargement of the European Union
* Withdrawal from the European Union

* * *

Treaties and Declarations

* Schuman Declaration (1950)
* Treaty of Paris (1951)
* Europe Declaration (1951)
* Spaak Report (1956)
* Treaty of Rome (1957)
* Euratom Treaty (1957)
* Merger Treaty (1965)
* Solemn Declaration (1983)
* Single European Act (1986)
* Maastricht Treaty (1992)
* Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
* Treaty of Nice (2001)
* Berlin Declaration (2007)
* Treaty of Lisbon (2007)
* Article 7
* Article 50

* * *

Opt-outs

* * *

Treaties of accession

1972, 1979, 1985, 1994, 2003, 2005, 2011

* * *

Treaties of withdrawal

1984, 2020

* * *

Other treaties

* Schengen Agreement (1985)
* European Economic Area Agreement (1992)

* * *

Abandoned treaties and agreements

* European Constitution (2004)
* UK membership renegotiation (2015–2016)

Executive institutions

European Council

* President: Costa (PES)
* Parties
* List of meetings

* * *

European Commission

* Von der Leyen Commission
* President: Von der Leyen (EPP)
* Vice Presidents
* College of Commissioners
* Civil Service
* Secretary-General:  Juhansone

Legislative institutions

* Legislative procedure

* * *

Council of the EU

Presidency

Denmark

(July–December 2025)

* * *

Configurations

* GAC
* FAC
* ECOFIN
* Eurogroup
* AGRIFISH
* EPSCO
* COMPET
* TTE
* ENVI
* JHA
* EYC

* * *

* Voting
* Secretariat
* Secretary-General: Thérèse Blanchet
* Directorates-general
* Council preparatory bodies
* COREPER
* Council Working Parties

* * *

European Parliament
(Members)

* President: Metsola
* Largest groups
* EPP (Manfred Weber)
* S&D (Iratxe García)
* Member of the European Parliament
* 10th session (2024–2029)
* Bureau
* Vice Presidents
* Quaestor
* Conference

* * *

National parliaments

Judicial institutions

Court of Justice of the EU

* European Court of Justice
* Members
* Advocates General
* Rulings
* General Court

Auditory institutions

European Court of Auditors

* European Court of Auditors

* * *

Other auditory bodies

* Internal Audit Service of the Commission
* Committee on Budgetary Control of the Parliament
* Economic and Financial Affairs configuration of the Council
* Anti-Fraud Office
* Public Prosecutor's Office

European Central Bank

* President Lagarde
* ESCB
* EMU
* Euro banknotes
* Euro coins

Other bodies

European Investment Bank Group

* Investment Bank
* Investment Fund
* EIB Institute

* * *

European Stability Mechanism

* European Stability Mechanism

* * *

European University Institute

* European University Institute

* * *

Unified Patent Court

* Unified Patent Court

* * *

Agencies, decentralised independent bodies and joint undertakings

* Decentralised agencies of the EU
* Single market agencies
* CFSP agencies
* AFSC agencies
* ESFS European Supervisory Authorities
* SRM bodies
* Executive agencies of the EU
* Euratom agencies
* Decentralised independent bodies of the EU
* European Institute of Innovation and Technology
* European Public Prosecutor's Office
* Corporate bodies of the EU
* European Data Protection Board
* Authority for European Political Parties and European Political Foundations
* Joint undertakings
* of the EU
* of the Euratom

* * *

Other independent bodies

* European Data Protection Supervisor
* European Ombudsman

* * *

Advisory bodies

* European Committee of the Regions
* European Economic and Social Committee
* Political and Security Committee
* European Union Military Committee
* EU/ESA Space Council

* * *

Inter-institutional bodies

* Publications Office of the European Union
* European External Action Service
* European Personnel Selection Office
* Anti-Fraud Office
* European Administrative School

Euratom

Euratom members

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Cyprus
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Ireland
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Associated states

*  Switzerland
*  United Kingdom

* * *

* Nuclear power in the European Union

Euratom since 1 January 2021

Economic and Monetary Union

Eurozone members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain

* * *

Eurogroup

* President
* Paschal Donohoe

* * *

Other currencies in use

* Bulgarian lev
* Czech koruna
* Danish krone
* Hungarian forint
* Polish złoty
* Romanian leu
* Swedish krona

* * *

* ERM II
* Enlargement of the eurozone

* * *

Non Euro countries relationship to Euro

* Bulgaria
* Czechia
* Denmark
* Hungary
* Poland
* Sweden
* Romania

Eurozone since 2015

Schengen Area

*  Austria
*  Belgium
*  Bulgaria
*  Croatia
*  Czech Republic
*  Denmark
*  Estonia
*  Finland
*  France
*  Germany
*  Greece
*  Hungary
*  Italy
*  Latvia
*  Lithuania
*  Luxembourg
*  Malta
*  Netherlands
*  Poland
*  Portugal
*  Romania
*  Slovakia
*  Slovenia
*  Spain
*  Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

*  Iceland
*  Liechtenstein
*  Norway
*  Switzerland

* * *

Non-Schengen area EU member states

*  Cyprus
*  Ireland (Opt-out)

* * *

* ETIAS
* Prüm Convention
* Schengen Information System
* Visa Information System
* Visa policy of the Schengen Area

Schengen Area from January 2023

European Economic Area

EEA members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

*  Iceland
*  Liechtenstein
*  Norway

* * *

Topics

* EEA Joint Committee
* EEA National Identity cards
* Microstates and the European Union

European Economic Area

Elections

* Elections to the European Parliament
* European parties
* European foundations
* Political groups of the European Parliament
* Spitzenkandidat
* Constituencies
* Apportionment
* Referendums related to the EU

* * *

European elections

* 1979
* 1984
* 1989
* 1994
* 1999
* 2004
* 2009
* 2014
* 2019
* 2024 (latest election)

* * *

Elections in EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

Law

* Acquis
* Conferral
* Primacy (ECJ Case 6/64)
* Subsidiarity
* Regulation
* Democratic legitimacy
* Directive
* Decision
* Recommendation
* Fundamental Rights

Policies and issues

* Budget
* Customs Union
* Free Trade Agreements
* European Single Market
* Area of FS&J
* Policies
* Agricultural
* Energy
* Fisheries
* Regional
* Citizenship
* Passports of the European Union
* Identity
* Pro-Europeanism
* Euroscepticism
* European banking union
* European Banking Supervision
* Single Resolution Mechanism
* Capital Markets Union
* European System of Financial Supervision
* Institutional seats of the European Union
* Integration
* Supranationalism
* European Federation
* Multi-speed Europe
* Enhanced cooperation

Foreign relations

High Representative

* Kaja Kallas

* * *

* Ext. Action Service
* Foreign Policy
* Defence Policy

* * *

Foreign relations of EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

* Argentina–European Union relations
* Armenia–European Union relations
* Australia–European Union relations
* Brazil–European Union relations
* Canada–European Union relations
* China–European Union relations
* European Union–NATO relations
* Georgia–European Union relations
* Iceland–European Union relations
* Iran–European Union relations
* Israel–European Union relations
* Japan–European Union relations
* Kazakhstan–European Union relations
* Mexico–European Union relations
* Moldova–European Union relations
* Norway–European Union relations
* Russia–European Union relations
* Switzerland–European Union relations
* Turkey–European Union relations
* Ukraine–European Union relations
* United Kingdom–European Union relations (History)
* Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
* Brexit
* United States–European Union relations

* * *

* Common Travel Area (Ireland)
* Microstates and the European Union
* European Union and the United Nations
* European Union Association Agreement
* European Neighbourhood Policy
* Eastern Partnership
* Euronest Parliamentary Assembly

* * *

* G7
* G20

Defunct bodies

* European Communities (1958–1993)

European Coal and Steel Community
European Economic Community
* European Community
* Western European Union
* Convention on the Future of Europe

European Union portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

## History

[edit]

This section may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the section. There is a discussion about this on Incomprehensible table. (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

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Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.

Organizational chart for the European Defence Community (EDC), which – if ratified – would create a unified European defence force. This force would represent an autonomous European pillar within NATO, under the authority of the Supreme Commander.

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[8] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[9] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Donald Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.[10]

### Deployments

[edit]

Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union

Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.[citation needed][clarification needed]

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the Republic of Macedonia (now North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the Republic of Macedonia, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.[11]

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[12] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[13]

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[14] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[15]

## Structure

[edit]

Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Kaja Kallas, comprises:

* the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
* relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
* a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
* four agencies, including the European Defence Agency (EDA).

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.[4][5][6][c]

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.  The EU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed of member states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:[16]

Liaison:       Advice and recommendations       Support and monitoring       Preparatory work

* v
* t
* e

Political strategic level:[5]

ISS| | | | | | | EUCO Pres. (EUCO)| | | | Chain of command

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Coordination/support
SatCen| | | CIVCOM| | | HR/VP (FAC)

| | | | | | | | | | | |
INTCEN| | | HR/VP (PMG)| | | HR/VP (PSC)[6]| |

CEUMC (EUMC)
| |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
CMPD| | | | | | | | | | | |

DGEUMS[3] (EUMS)
| | | | | | | | |
Military/civilian strategic level:| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | |

Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC)| | JSCC| | Civ OpCdr CPCC[1]

Operational level:| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | MFCdr[4] (MFHQ)| | | | | | HoM[1]
| | | |
Tactical level:| | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
CC[2] Land| | CC[2] Air| | CC[2] Mar| | Other CCs[2]
| |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Forces| | Forces| | Forces| | Forces
| |

1 In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.

2 Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established.

3 The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).

4 Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.

5 The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.

6 Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.

## Strategy

[edit]

Main article: European Union Global Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,[17] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).[18] Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.[19]

## Forces

[edit]

Main article: Defence forces of the European Union

A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.[20]

### National

[edit]

This graph was using the legacy Graph extension, which is no longer supported. It needs to be converted to the new Chart extension.

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National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)[21]

* v
* t
* e

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.[22] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

#### Expenditure and personnel

[edit]

Further information: List of countries by military expenditures

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[2] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.[1]

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".[23]

In May 2025, EU member states agreed to launch a €150bn loans-for-arms fund backed by the bloc’s shared budget. The initiative will allow EU countries to borrow from Brussels and spend on weapons systems and platforms through joint procurement.[24]

Guide to table:

* All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
* The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
* The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.

Member state | Expenditure (€ mn.) | Per capita (€) | % of GDP | Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.) | Active military personnel | Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations | Reserve personnel

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Austria[1] | 2,673 | 301 | 0.74 | 574 | 24,190 | 1,100  | 950,000
Belgium[1] | 5,672 | 349 | 1.1 | 680 | 27,789 | 1,293  | 3,300
Bulgaria[1] | 1,140 | 109 | 1.56 | 118 | 30,218 | 1,168  | 3,000
Croatia[1] | 950 | 149 | 1.5 | 154 | 14,862 | 796  | 18,343
Cyprus[1] | 470 | 409 | 1.83 | 63 | 20,000 | 0  | 75,000
Czech Republic[1] | 3,310 | 184 | 1.46 | 474 | 23,036 | 672  | 3,236
Estonia[1] | 748 | 363 | 2.31 | 158 | 6,178 | 100  | 60,000
Finland[1] | 4,873 | 523 | 2.15 | 919 | 7,515 | 1,738  | 900,000
France[1] | 49,700 | 609 | 1.79 | 10,201 | 208,251 | 17,000  | 38,550
Germany[1] | 57,300 | 489 | 1.53 |  | 177,608 |  | 29,200
Greece[1] | 7,086 | 393 | 3.82 | 504 | 106,624 | 2,432  |
Hungary[1] | 2,200 | 122 | 1.66 | 492 | 23,846 | 1,000  | 20,000
Ireland[1] | 780 | 191 | 0.31 | 103 | 9,500 | 850  | 1,778
Italy[1] | 26,310 | 339 | 1.6 | 1,583 | 181,116 |  | 18,300
Latvia[1] | 758 | 243 | 2.23 | 132 | 5,686 | 75  | 3,000
Lithuania[1] | 1,028 | 256 | 2.13 | 145 | 14,350 |  | 26,000
Luxembourg[1] | 389 | 484 | 0.56 | 30 | 824 | 57  |
Malta[1] | 54 | 122 | 0.51 | 8 | 1,808 | 30  |
Netherlands[1] | 12,900 | 507 | 1.5 | 2,144 | 40,196 | 1,500  | 5,046
Poland[1] | 11,940 | 226 | 2.2 | 1,918 | 106,500 | 60  | 75,400
Portugal[1] | 3,975 | 235 | 1.6 | 142 | 32,726 | 1,698  |
Romania[1] | 5,590 | 185 | 2.0 | 277 | 69,542 | 2,961  | 50,000
Slovakia[1] | 1,520 | 183 | 1.75 | 198 | 13,152 | 846  |
Slovenia[1] | 548 | 204 | 1.04 | 72 | 6,342 | 707  | 1,000
Spain[1] | 15,660 | 231 | 1.2 | 1,891 | 120,812 | 7,410  | 15,150
Sweden[1] | 5,620 | 460 | 1.1 | 1,973 | 14,500 | 750  | 34,500
EU[1] | 222,194 | 365 | 1.50 |  | 1,287,171 |  | 2,330,803

#### Naval forces

[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

|

Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011, twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.[25]

Guide to table:

* Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
* The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
* Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
* The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
* Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
* The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
* The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
* Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.

Member state | Fleet carrier | Amphibious assault ship | Amphibious support ship | Destroyer | Frigate | Corvette | Patrol vessel | Anti-mine ship | Missile sub. | Attack sub. | Total | Tonnage

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Austria |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Belgium[26] |  |  |  |  | 2 |  | 2 | 5 |  |  | 9 | 10,009
Bulgaria |  |  | 1 |  | 4 | 3 | 1 | 10 |  |  | 18 | 15,160
Croatia |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5 | 2 |  |  | 7 | 2,869
Cyprus |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5  |  |  |  | 5  | 0
Czech Republic |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0  | 0
Denmark[27] |  |  |  | 5 | 4 |  | 9 |  |  |  | 18 | 51,235
Estonia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  | 3 | 2,000
Finland |  |  |  |  |  | 4 | 4 | 12 |  |  | 20 | 5,429
France[28] | 1[d] | 3 |  | 13 | 11 |  | 20 | 18 | 4 | 6 | 76 | 319,195
Germany[29] |  |  |  | 3 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 15 |  | 6 | 44 | 82,790
Greece[30] |  |  | 9 |  | 13 |  | 33[31] | 4 |  | 11[31] | 70 | 138,565
Hungary |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Ireland[32] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 8 |  |  |  | 8 | 11,219
Italy[33] | 2[e] | (1)[f] | 3[g] | 4 | 16 | 5 | 11 | 10 |  | 8 | 59 | 303,411
Latvia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5 |  |  | 5 | 3,025
Lithuania[34] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4 | 4 |  |  | 8 | 5,678
Luxembourg |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Malta[35] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  |  |  | 2 | 1,419
Netherlands[36] |  |  | 2 | 4 | 2 |  | 4 | 6 |  | 4 | 22 | 116,308
Poland[37] |  |  | 5 |  | 2 | 1 | 3 | 19 |  | 3 | 28 | 19,724
Portugal[38] |  |  |  |  | 5 | 7 | 7 |  |  | 2 | 23 | 34,686
Romania[39] |  |  |  |  | 3 | 7 | 6 | 5 |  |  | 21 | 23,090
Slovakia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Slovenia[40] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 | 1 |  |  | 2 | 435
Spain[41] | 1[h] | (1)[h] | 2[i] | 5[j] | 6[k] |  | 23 | 6 |  | 3 | 46 | 148,607
Sweden[42] |  |  |  |  |  | 6 |  | 11 |  | 5 | 22 | 14,256
EU | 4 | 4 | 22 | 34 | 75 | 38 | 156 | 136 | 4 | 48 | 514 ~516 | 1,309,110 ~1,309,110

#### Land forces

[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

|

The Leopard 2 main battle tank

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

* The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
* The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
* The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
* The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.

Member state | Main battle tank | Armoured fighting vehicle | Artillery | Attack helicopter | Military logistics vehicle

|
|
|
|
|

Austria | 56 | 364 | 90 |  |
Belgium[43] |  | 521 | 155 | 27 |
Bulgaria[43] | 362 | 681 | 1,035 | 12 |
Croatia[44] | 75 | 283 | 127 | 10 |
Cyprus | 134 | 169 | 234 | 15 | 398
Czech Republic[43] | 123 | 501 | 182 | 24 |
Denmark[43] | 46 | 229 | 56 | 12 |
Estonia[45] |  |  | 74 |  |
Finland | 200 | 1,080 | 722 | 25 |
France[43] | 450 | 6,256 | 349 | 283 | 10,746
Germany[43] | 815 | 1,774 | 401 | 158 |
Greece[43] | 1,622 | 2,187 | 1,920 | 29 |
Hungary[43] | 90 | 634 | 35 | 8 | 471
Ireland[46] |  | 107 | 36 |  |
Italy[43] | 1,176 | 3,145 | 1,446 | 107 | 10,921
Latvia |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[47] |  | 88 | 96 |  |
Luxembourg |  |  |  |  |
Malta |  |  |  |  |
Netherlands[43] | 16 | 634 | 135 | 21 |
Poland[48] | 1,675 | 3,110 | 1,580 | 83 |
Portugal[43] | 220 | 425 | 377 |  |
Romania[43] | 857 | 1,272 | 1,273 | 23 |
Slovakia[43] | 30 | 327 | 68 |  |
Slovenia | 76 | 52 | 63 |  |
Spain[43] | 484 | 1,007 | 811 | 27 |
Sweden | 120 | 978 | 268 |  |
EU[43] | 8,413 | 25,421 | 11,259 | 822 |

#### Air forces

[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

|

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[49]

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[50] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

* The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
* Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and yellow for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
* The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
* Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.

Fighter and ground-attack
Member state | Typhoon | Gripen | Rafale | Mirage 2000 | Tornado | F-35 | F-16 | F/A-18 | Other | Total

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|
|
|

Austria[49] | 15 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 15
Belgium[49] |  |  |  |  |  | (37 ordered) | 51 |  |  | 51
Bulgaria[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | (16 ordered) |  | 12 MiG-29
7 Su-25 | 19
Croatia[49] |  |  | 6 (6 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  | 6 MiG-21 | 12
Cyprus[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Czech Republic[49] |  | 14 |  |  |  | (24 ordered) |  |  | 24 L-159 | 38
Denmark[49] |  |  |  |  |  | 10 (17 ordered) | 41 |  |  | 51
Estonia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Finland[49] |  |  |  |  |  | (64 ordered) |  | 61 |  | 61
France[49] |  |  | 139 (63 ordered) | 93 |  |  |  |  |  | 232
Germany[49] | 129 (35 ordered) |  |  |  | 65 IDS & 21 Tornado ECR | (35 ordered) |  |  |  | 212
Greece[49] |  |  | 19 (5 ordered) | 29 |  | (40 ordered) | 152[51] |  | 17 F-4 | 217[51]
Hungary[49] |  | 14 (4 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 14
Ireland[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Italy[49] | 89 |  |  |  | 33 IDS & 13 Tornado ECR | 30 (60 ordered) |  |  | 12 Harrier II | 177[52]
Latvia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Luxembourg[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Malta[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Netherlands[49] |  |  |  |  |  | 40 (12 ordered) |  |  |  | 40
Poland[49] |  |  |  |  |  | (32 ordered) | 48 |  | 12 T-50 (36 ordered)
28 MiG-29

32 Su-22

| 120
Portugal[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 25 |  |  | 25
Romania[49] |  |  |  |  |  | (32 ordered) | 26 (23 ordered) |  |  | 26
Slovakia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 (12 ordered) |  |  | 2
Slovenia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Spain[49] | 68 (45 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  | 81 | 12 Harrier II | 161
Sweden[49] |  | 94 (70 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 94
EU[49] | 301 (80) | 122 (74) | 164 (74) | 122 | 132 | 80 (353) | 345 (51) | 142 | 162 | 1567

Aerial refueling and transport
Member state | A330 MRTT | KC-130 | KC-767 | A400M | C-130 | CN-235C-295 | C-27J | C-390 | L-410 | Other | Total

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|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Austria[49] |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  | (4 ordered) |  | 8 PC-6 | 11
Belgium[49] |  |  |  | 7 |  |  |  |  |  |  | 7
Bulgaria[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  | 2 | 1 PC-12 | 6
Croatia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Cyprus[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Czech Republic[49] |  |  |  |  |  | 6 |  |  | 6 |  | 12
Denmark[49] |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  |  |  |  | 4
Estonia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 An-28/M28 | 2
Finland[49] |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  |  | 3 Learjet 35

6 PC-12NG

| 12
France[49] | 12 | 2 |  | 24 (26 ordered) | 16 | 27 |  |  |  | 2 KC-135
1 A330
5 DHC-6
25 TBM 700
5 PC-6
10 EMB-121
6 Falcon 10 | 135
Germany[49] |  | 3 |  | 45 (8 ordered) | 3 |  |  |  |  | 2 A321 | 53
Greece[49] |  |  |  |  | 5 |  | 8 |  |  | 2 King Air 350 | 15
Hungary[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 (1 ordered) |  | 2 A319 | 3
Ireland[49] |  |  |  |  |  | 2 (1 ordered) |  |  |  | 4 PC-12NG | 6
Italy[49] |  | 4 | 4 |  | 9 |  | 10 |  |  | 11 P180

3 Dornier 228

| 41
Latvia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 | (3 ordered) | 2 |  | 5
Luxembourg[49] |  |  |  | 1 |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1
Malta[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 BNT-2
3 King Air 200 | 4
Netherlands[49] |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  | (5 ordered) |  |  | 4
Poland[49] |  |  |  |  | 5 | 16 |  |  |  | 37 An-28 | 58
Portugal[49] |  |  |  |  | 4 | 11 |  | 2 (4 ordered) |  | 1 Falcon 900 | 18
Romania[49] |  |  |  |  | 6 |  | 7 |  |  | 1 An-26 | 14
Slovakia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  | 6 |  | 8
Slovenia[49] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 (1 ordered) |  | 1 | 2 PC-6 | 4
Spain[49] | (1 ordered) |  |  | 14 (13 ordered) | 7 | 28 (16 ordered) |  |  |  | 7 C212
6 Citation V
3 King Air 90 | 65
Sweden[49] |  | 1 |  |  | 5 |  |  | (4 ordered) |  | 4 Saab 340 | 10
Shared within EU part of MMF | 8 (5 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 C-17 | 11
EU[49] | 20 (6) | 10 | 4 | 91 (47) | 71 | 93 (17) | 34 (1) | 3 (21) | 17 | 160 | 503

### Multinational

[edit]

#### Established at Union level

[edit]

Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

* The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[53][54] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[55] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[54] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[56]
* The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[57] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[58]
* The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[59] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[60] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[61]

#### Provided through Article 42.3 TEU

[edit]

Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

* The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.[62]
* The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
* The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
* The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.[63]

Aerial:

* The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[64][65] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

* The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,[66] military force[67] that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.[68] The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.

## Participation, relationship with NATO

[edit]

Further information: European Union–NATO relations

Out of the 27 EU member states, 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP,[1] however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area.

Non-European countries

Transcontinental countries

Comparison of the two main Euro-Atlantic defence organisations    |  European Union
(in respect of its defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy) |  NATO

|
|

Mutual defence clause  | Article 42.7 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union:

"If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"

| Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty:

"The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"

| Political strategic organisation
Highest office  | High Representative (HR/VP)  | Secretary General
Principal decision-making body  | Foreign Affairs Council | North Atlantic Council
Liaison body  | European External Action Service | International Staff
Seat  | Kortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium)  |  NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium)
| Military strategic organisation
Supreme commander  |  Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability |  Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Headquarters  |  Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium)  |  Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium)
Chair of chiefs of defence assembly  |  Chairman of the European Union Military Committee |  Chair of the NATO Military Committee
Chiefs of defence assembly  |  European Union Military Committee |  NATO Military Committee
Advisory body  |  European Union Military Staff |  International Military Staff
| Membership | Permanent Structured Cooperation | Membership
Member states of both the EU and NATO
Belgium | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Bulgaria | 2007  | Founder  | 2004
Croatia | 2013  | Founder  | 2009
Czech Republic | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Denmark | 1973  | 2023  | Founder
Estonia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Finland | 1995  | Founder  | 2023
France | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Germany | Founder  | Founder  | 1955
Greece | 1981  | Founder  | 1952
Hungary | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Italy | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Latvia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Lithuania | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Luxembourg | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Netherlands | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Poland | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Portugal | 1986  | Founder  | Founder
Romania | 2007  | Founder  | 2004
Slovakia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Slovenia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Spain | 1986  | Founder  | 1982
Sweden | 1995  | Founder  | 2024
Non-NATO EU member states
Austria | 1995  | Founder  | Partnership for Peace
Cyprus  | 2004  | Founder  | No
Ireland | 1973  | Founder  | Partnership for Peace
Malta | 2004  | No  | Partnership for Peace
Non-EU NATO member states
Albania | Candidate | —  | 2009
Iceland | No  | —  | Founder
Montenegro | Candidate | —  | 2017
North Macedonia | Candidate | —  | 2020
Norway | Defence Agency agreement | —  | Founder
Turkey  | Candidate | —  | 1952
United Kingdom | No  | —  | Founder
European countries outside both the EU and NATO
Andorra  | No  | —  | No
Armenia  | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Azerbaijan  | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Belarus | No  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Candidate | —  | Membership Action Plan
Georgia  | Candidate | —  | Intensified Dialogue
Kazakhstan  | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Kosovo | Applicant / Potential candidate | —  | No
Liechtenstein  | No  | —  | No
Moldova | Candidate | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Monaco  | No  | —  | No
Russia  | No  | —  | Partnership for Peace
San Marino  | No  | —  | No
Serbia | Candidate | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Switzerland | Defence Agency agreement | —  | Partnership for Peace
Ukraine | Candidate | —  | Intensified Dialogue
Vatican City  | No  | —  | No
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership
Canada | —  | —  | Founder
United States | —  | —  | Founder
Members of NATO's Partnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership
Kyrgyzstan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Tajikistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Turkmenistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Uzbekistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[69] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[70] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.

## EUCAP Somalia

[edit]

The EUCAP Somalia[71] is an example of an unarmed, non-executive, civilian Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) Mission. aimed at strengthening maritime security capacities, police sector, as well as promoting the Rule of Law in Somalia.[72] It provides strategic level advice, mentoring and training, on issues ranging from coast guard and police functions to police-prosecution cooperation and the drafting of laws. Initially launched as EUCAP Nestor[73] in 2012, the mission was reconfigured to focus on Somalia, thus renamed by the Council of the European Union, EUCAP Somalia in 2016.

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027.

The most prominent goals of the Mission are to help Somalia to generate well trained police forces in line with the Somali Transition Plan, contribute to secure one of the EU’s vital maritime trade routes, and assist to draft and implement sound legislative frameworks, including accountability systems.

### Background

[edit]

The mission was established in response to the persistent challenges posed by maritime insecurity in the Western Indian Ocean, particularly piracy, illegal fishing, human trafficking, and arms smuggling. These issues severely impacted both the security and economic stability of Somalia and the surrounding region. Somalia’s extensive coastline (the longest in mainland Africa) was unprotected for years due to the collapse of the government in the early 1990s.[74] Piracy flourished in the absence of effective maritime governance, leading to international efforts to assist the country in reclaiming control over its waters. EUCAP Somalia emerged as part of these efforts, complementing other international missions such as Operation Atalanta and EUTM Somalia.

### Mandates

[edit]

#### From 2012 to 2016

[edit]

EUCAP Nestor's mandate is divided into two objectives: strengthening the maritime capacities of the beneficiary countries (excluding Somalia) and training a coastal police force and judges in Somalia, the primary aim being to get the countries in the region to work together to strengthen action at sea. EUCAP Nestor operates in five countries: Djibouti, Kenya, Seychelles, Somalia (Puntland/Somaliland) and Tanzania. This is why it is relatively large in terms of staff numbers, with almost 200 people spread across the different countries. These experts provide legal, strategic and operational advice on maritime safety.[75]

#### From 2016 to 2021

[edit]

When the name was changed in December 2016, so too was the mandate. EUCAP Somalia will drop its regional ambitions and focus solely on Somalia, and more specifically on the Coast Guard, with a view to strengthening ‘Somali maritime law enforcement capabilities’. The mandate is not limited to piracy, but covers any criminal activity or offence committed on the coast or in the sea.[76]

#### From 2021 to 2024

[edit]

In December 2020, the Council of the European Union extended EUCAP's mandate until 31 December 2024. From 2021 onwards, the mission will also be helping Somalia to strengthen its police capabilities, in particular by developing the Federal Darwish police force and reinforcing the INTERPOL National Central Bureau in Mogadishu.[77] The EU's budget for the period 2023-2024 allocated is 81 million €.[78]

Current mandate from 2025 to 2027

In December 2024, the Council of European Union extended the Mission’s mandate to February 2027. EUCAP Somalia is tasked to advise, train, and equip the Somali Police Force and to support the development of a legal framework for Somalia’s internal security architecture. The mission’s work also includes providing monitoring support to regional maritime police forces, including the Somaliland and Puntland Maritime Police Forces, to bolster maritime law enforcement and security. The Mission’s budget for its current mandate is €110 million and total staff of 169 members.

### Three pillars of EUCAP Somalia

[edit]

1. Support the development of Somali Police Forces by enhancing their capabilities through advising, training and equipping Somali Police Forces in line with the Somali Security Sector Development Plan, ensuring the police are better prepared to maintain security and stability across the country.
2. Strengthen Maritime Police Capacities in and around the three main Somali ports (Mogadishu, Berbera and Bossaso) by providing capacity building on coast guard functions.
3. Promote the rule of law by working with Somali authorities to enhance accountability within the police force and across the criminal justice chain. This includes supporting the development of legal frameworks necessary for the effective functioning of law enforcement, and security actors in both land and maritime domains, fostering governance and accountability.

### Achievements

[edit]

Since its reconfiguration in 2016, EUCAP Somalia has made significant strides in enhancing Somalia’s maritime security capabilities. Recent achievements include improving the Somali Police Force's (SPF) command, control, and communication capabilities, as well as enhancing their ability to manage security incidents in Mogadishu. EUCAP has deployed a specialized multinational team to support the SPF's Maritime Police Unit and has played a key role in the development of Somaliland’s Coast Guard, conducting joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA. The mission also trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force, enhancing their capacity to enforce maritime law. Additionally, EUCAP has supported the Somali Attorney General’s Maritime Crimes Unit by providing training in internal procedures and investigations and launching an internship program for young lawyers. Despite the progress, Somalia continues to face challenges in maritime governance due to political instability and resource limitations, but EUCAP remains committed to addressing these issues with Somali authorities and international partners.[79]

Mission's achievements during mandate 2022 - 24

* Increased the Somali Police Force command, control and communication capability.
* Trained Somali Police Force trainers for co-training activities.
* Enabling the establishment of the Maritime Rescue and Coordination Center in Mogadishu to enhance maritime security coordination along the Somali coastline and in regional waters.
* Supported the development of Somaliland Coast Guard, including through joint exercises with EUNAVFOR Operation ATALANTA and the provision of maritime equipment.
* Trained mobile training units for Somaliland Coast Guard and Somaliland Police.
* Trained and equipped the Puntland Maritime Police Force - Maritime Police Unit, enhancing their law enforcement capabilities.
* Supporting the maritime crimes unit of the Somali Attorney General's Office in internal procedures and maritime crimes investigations as well as an internship program for young lawyers in Mogadishu and Puntland.

* European Union portal

## See also

[edit]

* European Union portal

* European Union–NATO relations
* European Union as an emerging superpower
* Security and defense pacts of the European Union
* European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
* Neutral country § European Union
* Strategic Compass for Security and Defence

### Defence-related EU initiatives

[edit]

* Military Mobility
* European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank

### Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental)

[edit]

* Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.[80]
* Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
* European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
* European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
* European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
* European Intervention Initiative
* European Centre of Excellence for Civilian Crisis Management

### Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe

[edit]

* Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
* Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)

### Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations

[edit]

* North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
* Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
2. ^ Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
3. ^ Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
4. ^ Aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
5. ^ Aircraft carrier Cavour; New universal ship of Trieste has the function of aircraft carrier and amphibious assault ship.
6. ^ New universal ship of Trieste has the function of aircraft carrier and amphibious assault ship.
7. ^ San Giorgio-class amphibious transport dock
8. ^ a b Spain withdrew last classic aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias in 2013 (currently in reserve). New universal ship of Juan Carlos I has the function of fleet carrier and amphibious assault ship.
9. ^ Galicia-class landing platform dock
10. ^ F-100 class
11. ^ Santa María class

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[edit]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies
* Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies
* Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change' (Cambridge University Press).
* "Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
* Dijkstra, Hylke (2013). Policy-Making in EU Security and Defense: An Institutional Perspective. European Administrative Governance Series (Hardback 240pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-1-137-35786-1.
* Nugent, Neill (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 630pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 9780230000025.
* Howorth, Joylon (2007). Security and Defence Policy in the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 315pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-0-333-63912-2.
* PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)
* Hayes, Ben (2009). "NeoConOpticon: The EU Security-Industrial Complex". Statewatch: Newsletter (Paperback, 84 pp ed.). Transnational Institute/Statewatch. ISSN 1756-851X.
* Giovanni Arcudi & Michael E. Smith (2013). The European Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of problems?, European Security, 22(1): 1–20, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511
* Teresa Eder (2014). Welche Befugnisse hat die Europäische Gendarmerietruppe?, Der Standard, 5 Februar 2014.
* Alexander Mattelaer (2008). The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – The Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA, IES Working Paper 5/2008.
* Benjamin Pohl (2013). The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220
* "The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert", Danish Institute of International Studies.
* U.S Army Strategic Studies Institute (SSI), Operation EUFOR TCHAD/RCA and the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy. Archived 8 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Army War College, October 2010
* Mai'a K. Davis Cross "Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-based Networks are Transforming the European Union." University of Michigan Press, 2011.
* Butler, Graham (2020). "The European Defence Union and Denmark's Defence Opt-out: A Legal Appraisal" (PDF). European Foreign Affairs Review. 25 (1): 117–150\. doi:10.54648/EERR2020008. S2CID 216432180.

## External links

[edit]

English Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Article 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union: Provisions on the Common Security and Defence Policy

* Official website, European External Action Service
* Security and Defence, European External Action Service
* EU cooperation on security and defence, Council of the European Union
* CFSP operational instrument: A proposed CSDP evolution in the Eurocorps and ESDI in NATO

* v
* t
* e

Common Security and Defence Policy of the European Union

Leadership|

* High Representative
* Director General of the Military Staff/Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability
* Director of the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability
* Chairman of the Military Committee
* European Council
* Foreign Affairs Council

Structure|

| External Action Service|

* Command structure on the civilian/military strategic and operational levels (Military Planning and Conduct Capability within the Military Staff, Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability, Joint Support Coordination Cell)
* Intelligence and Situation Centre (Club de Berne)
* Crisis Management and Planning Directorate
* Security & Defence College

|

Agencies|

* Defence Agency
* Institute for Security Studies
* Satellite Centre

Council preparatory bodies|

* Committee of Permanent Representatives
* Political and Security Committee
* Politico-Military Group
* Military Committee
* Committee for Civilian Aspects of Crisis Management

European Commission bodies|

* Directorate-General for Defence Industry and Space

Funding|

* Defence Fund

Policies|

* Security Strategy
* Everything but Arms
* Annual Review

Equipment|

* Galileo navigation system
* Secure Software-defined Radio (PESCO)

Decorations|

* Service medal
* Medal for Extraordinary Meritorious Service
* Monitor mission medal

Related|

* Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO)
* Headline Goal 2010
* Military Erasmus
* Military Mobility (PESCO)
* Intelligence School (PESCO)
* Kortenberg building
* NATO relations (Berlin Plus agreement, Joint Declaration)

* v
* t
* e

European Union articles

History|

| Timeline|

* Ideas of European unity before 1948
* Founders
* 1948–1957
* 1958–1972
* 1973–1993
* 1993–2004
* Since 2004

|

Predecessors|

| Defence policy|

* Western Union (1948–1954)
* Western European Union (1954–2011)

|

European Communities (1967–2009)|

* International Authority for the Ruhr (1949–1951)
* European Coal and Steel Community (1951–2002)

* European Economic Community (1958–1993)
* European Community (1993–2009)

* European Atomic Energy Community (est. 1958)

Central bank|

* European Monetary Cooperation Fund (1973–1994)
* European Monetary Institute (1994–1998)

Financial stability|

* European Financial Stability Facility (2010–2012)
* European Financial Stability Mechanism (2010–2012)

Enlargements|

* 1954
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Withdrawals|

* 1962
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Geography|

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Bodies|

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| Legislature|

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|

Executive|

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Judiciary|

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Central bank|

* European Central Bank
* President
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Supreme audit institution|

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Other
international-law
EU bodies|

* European Atomic Energy Community
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Independent
offices|

* European Ombudsman
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Agencies|

* Agencies of the European Union

Advisory
bodies|

* European Committee of the Regions
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Military
bodies|

* Political and Security Committee
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Politics|

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* Euroscepticism
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* Federalisation
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* Privileged partnership
* Potential superpower status

|

Policies|

* Area of freedom, security and justice
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* VAT Area

Foreign
relations|

* Neighbourhood Policy
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* EU Gateway Programme
* EU Strategy for the South Caucasus
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* Statistics

Culture|

* Douzelage
* House of European History
* 2012 Nobel Peace Prize
* Laissez-passer
* Languages
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* Telephone numbers
* Symbols

Lists|

* Books on the subject
* Directives
* Largest cities by population within city limits
* National parties by affiliation
* Presidents of the institutions
* Terrorist incidents
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* Outline

* Category
* Portal

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF

National|

* Germany
* Czech Republic
* Israel

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[Dir MPCC]: Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability
*[MPCC]: Military Planning and Conduct Capability
*[JSCC]: Joint Support Coordination Cell
*[Civ OpCdr]: Civilian Operations Commander
*[CPCC]: Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability
*[MFCdr]: Mission Force Commander
*[MFHQ]: Mission Force Headquarters
*[HoM]: Head of Mission
*[CC]: Component Commander