Common Security and Defence Policy

Defence policy of the European Union

This article is about the European Union's (EU) own defence arm. For the EU's relationship with NATO, which TEU Article 42(2) describes as the "main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence", see European Union–NATO relations.

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"CSDP" redirects here. For other uses, see CSDP (disambiguation).

Common Security and Defence Policy
(European Defence Union)

Arms of the Military Staff (EUMS), which includes the EU's permanent operational headquarters, MPCC

Founded| 1999 (as the European Security and Defence Policy)
Current form| 2009 (Treaty of Lisbon)
Headquarters| Military (MPCC) and Civilian (CPCC) Planning and Conduct Capabilities, Kortenberg building, Brussels, Belgium
Website| eeas.europa.eu
Leadership
High Representative| Josep Borrell
Director General of the Military Staff| LTG Esa Pulkkinen
Chairman of the Military Committee| GEN Robert Brieger
Personnel
Active personnel| 1,410,626 (2016)[1]
Reserve personnel| 2,330,803
Expenditure
Budget| €223.4 billion ($249.3 billion) (2018)[2]
Percent of GDP| 1.5% (2020)[3]
Related articles
History| History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The Common Security and Defence Policy (CSDP) is the European Union's (EU) course of action in the fields of defence and crisis management, and a main component of the EU's Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP).

The CSDP involves the deployment of military or civilian missions to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with secondments from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure – headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, and sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU) in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm[4][5][6][b] – comprises:

* the European Commission's Defence Industry Directorate-General
* the External Action Service's (EEAS) Crisis Management and Planning Directorate (CMPD) and permanent Operation Headquarters (OHQs) for command and control (C2) at the military/civilian strategic level, i.e. the MPCC and CPCC.
* a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
* four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)

The EU command and control structures are much smaller than the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Command Structure (NCS), which has been established for territorial defence. It has been agreed that NATO's Allied Command Operations (ACO) may be used for the conduct of the EU's missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, is the EU's first permanent military OHQ. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects.

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the High Representative, adopted by the Foreign Affairs Council, generally requiring unanimity, to be then implemented by the High Representative.

This article is part of a series on

Politics of the European Union

Member states (27)

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Candidate countries

* Albania
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Georgia
* Moldova
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Serbia
* Ukraine

* * *

Accession negotiations suspended countries

* Turkey

* * *

Applicant countries

* Kosovo

* * *

* Special territories
* Belgium–Germany relations
* France–Germany relations
* Germany–Netherlands relations
* EU 3
* Withdrawal from the European Union

* * *

Treaties and Declarations

* Schuman Declaration (1950)
* Treaty of Paris (1951)
* Europe Declaration (1951)
* Spaak Report (1956)
* Treaty of Rome (1957)
* Euratom Treaty (1957)
* Merger Treaty (1965)
* Solemn Declaration (1983)
* Single European Act (1986)
* Maastricht Treaty (1992)
* Treaty of Amsterdam (1997)
* Treaty of Nice (2001)
* Berlin Declaration (2007)
* Treaty of Lisbon (2007)
* Article 7
* Article 50

* * *

Opt-outs

* * *

Treaties of accession

1972, 1979, 1985, 1994, 2003, 2005, 2011

* * *

Treaties of succession

1984, 2020

* * *

Other treaties

* Schengen Agreement (1985)
* European Economic Area Agreement (1992)

* * *

Abandoned treaties and agreements

* European Constitution (2004)
* UK membership renegotiation (2015–2016)

Executive institutions

European Council

* President: Michel (ALDE)
* Parties
* List of meetings

* * *

European Commission

* Von der Leyen Commission
* President: Von der Leyen (EPP)
* Vice Presidents
* College of Commissioners
* Civil Service
* Secretary-General:  Juhansone

Legislative institutions

* Legislative procedure

* * *

Council of the EU

Presidency

Belgium

(January–June 2024)

* * *

Configurations

* GAC
* FAC
* ECOFIN
* Eurogroup
* AGRIFISH
* EPSCO
* COMPET
* TTE
* ENVI
* JHA
* EYC

* * *

* Voting
* Secretariat
* Secretary-General: Thérèse Blanchet
* Directorates-general
* COREPER

* * *

European Parliament
(Members)

* President: Metsola
* Largest groups
* EPP (Manfred Weber)
* S&D (Iratxe García)
* Member of the European Parliament
* 9th session (2019–2024)
* Bureau
* Vice Presidents
* Quaestor
* Conference

* * *

National parliaments

Judicial institutions

Court of Justice of the EU

* European Court of Justice
* Members
* Advocates General
* Rulings
* General Court

Auditory institutions

European Court of Auditors

* European Court of Auditors

* * *

Other auditory bodies

* Internal Audit Service of the Commission
* Committee on Budgetary Control of the Parliament
* Economic and Financial Affairs configuration of the Council
* Anti-Fraud Office
* Public Prosecutor's Office

European Central Bank

* President Lagarde
* ESCB
* EMU
* Euro banknotes
* Euro coins

Other bodies

European Investment Bank Group

* Investment Bank
* Investment Fund
* EIB Institute

* * *

European Stability Mechanism

* European Stability Mechanism

* * *

European University Institute

* European University Institute

* * *

Unified Patent Court

* Unified Patent Court

* * *

Agencies, decentralised independent bodies and joint undertakings

* Decentralised agencies of the EU
* Single market agencies
* CFSP agencies
* AFSC agencies
* ESFS European Supervisory Authorities
* SRM bodies
* Executive agencies of the EU
* Euratom agencies
* Decentralised independent bodies of the EU
* European Institute of Innovation and Technology
* European Public Prosecutor's Office
* Corporate bodies of the EU
* European Data Protection Board
* Authority for European Political Parties and European Political Foundations
* Joint undertakings
* of the EU
* of the Euratom

* * *

Other independent bodies

* European Data Protection Supervisor
* European Ombudsman

* * *

Advisory bodies

* European Committee of the Regions
* European Economic and Social Committee
* Political and Security Committee
* European Union Military Committee
* EU/ESA Space Council

* * *

Inter-institutional bodies

* Publications Office of the European Union
* European External Action Service
* European Personnel Selection Office
* Anti-Fraud Office
* European Administrative School

Euratom

Euratom members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Associated states

* Switzerland
* United Kingdom

* * *

* Nuclear power in the European Union

Euratom since 1 January 2021

Economic and Monetary Union

Eurozone members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain

* * *

Eurogroup

* President
* Paschal Donohoe

* * *

Other currencies in use

* Bulgarian lev
* Czech koruna
* Danish krone
* Hungarian forint
* Polish złoty
* Romanian leu
* Swedish krona

* * *

* ERM II
* Enlargement of the eurozone

* * *

Non Euro countries relationship to Euro

* Bulgaria
* Czechia
* Denmark
* Hungary
* Poland
* Sweden
* Romania

Eurozone since 2015

Schengen Area

* Austria
* Belgium
* Croatia
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

* Iceland
* Liechtenstein
* Norway
* Switzerland

* * *

* Prüm Convention
* Schengen Information System
* Visa Information System
* Visa policy of the Schengen Area

* * *

Non-Schengen area EU member states

* Bulgaria
* Cyprus
* Ireland (Opt-out)
* Romania

Schengen Area from January 2023

European Economic Area

EEA members

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia (provisional member)
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

Non-EU members

* Iceland
* Liechtenstein
* Norway

* * *

Topics

* EEA Joint Committee
* EEA National Identity cards
* Microstates and the European Union

European Economic Area

Elections

* 1979, 1984, 1989, 1994
1999, 2004, 2009, 2014
* 2019 (last election)
* European political parties
* Constituencies

* * *

Elections in EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

* Referendums relating to the EU

Law

* Acquis
* Primacy (ECJ Case 6/64)
* Subsidiarity
* Regulation
* Directive
* Decision
* Recommendation
* Fundamental Rights

Policies and issues

* Budget
* Customs Union
* Free Trade Agreements
* European Single Market
* Area of FS&J
* Policies
* Agricultural
* Energy
* Fisheries
* Regional
* Citizenship
* Passports of the European Union
* Identity
* Pro-Europeanism
* Euroscepticism
* European banking union
* European Banking Supervision
* Single Resolution Mechanism
* Capital Markets Union
* European System of Financial Supervision
* Integration
* Supranationalism
* European Federation
* Multi-speed Europe
* Enhanced cooperation

Foreign relations

High Representative

* Josep Borrell

* * *

* Ext. Action Service
* Foreign Policy
* Defence Policy

* * *

Foreign relations of EU member states

* Austria
* Belgium
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Ireland
* Italy
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Netherlands
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden

* * *

* Argentina–European Union relations
* Armenia–European Union relations
* Australia–European Union relations
* Brazil–European Union relations
* Canada–European Union relations
* China–European Union relations
* European Union–NATO relations
* Georgia–European Union relations
* Iceland–European Union relations
* Kazakhstan–European Union relations
* Japan–European Union relations
* Mexico–European Union relations
* Moldova–European Union relations
* Norway–European Union relations
* Russia–European Union relations
* Switzerland–European Union relations
* Turkey–European Union relations
* Ukraine–European Union relations
* United Kingdom–European Union relations (History)
* Post-Brexit United Kingdom relations with the European Union
* Brexit
* United States–European Union relations

* * *

* Common Travel Area (Ireland)
* Microstates and the European Union
* European Union and the United Nations
* European Union Association Agreement

* * *

* G7
* G20

Defunct bodies

* European Communities (1958–1993)

European Coal and Steel Community
European Economic Community
* European Community
* Western European Union
* Convention on the Future of Europe

European Union portal

* Other countries

* v
* t
* e

## History[edit]

This section may be very hard to understand. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please help clarify it. (March 2024)

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Main article: History of the Common Security and Defence Policy

The commands of Western Union service branches were situated in the Palace of Fontainebleau from 1948 until they were transformed into NATO's Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe in 1951.

Organigramme for the European Defence Community (EDC), which – if ratified – would have created a unified defence arm for the later to be established European Political Community (EPC). This force would represent an autonomous European pillar within NATO, under the authority of the Supreme Commander.

The post-war period saw several short-lived or ill-fated initiatives for European defence integration intended to protect against potential Soviet or German aggression: The Western Union (WU, also referred to as the Brussels Treaty Organisation, BTO) and the proposed European Defence Community (EDC) were respectively cannibalised by the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) and rejected by the French Parliament. The largely dormant Western European Union (WEU) succeeded the WU's remainder in 1955.

In 1970 the European Political Cooperation (EPC) brought about the European Communities' (EC) initial foreign policy coordination. Opposition to the addition of security and defence matters to the EPC led to the reactivation of the WEU in 1984 by its member states, which were also EC member states.

European defence integration gained momentum soon after the end of the Cold War, partly as a result of the EC's failure to prevent the Yugoslav Wars. In 1992, the WEU was given new tasks, and the following year the Treaty of Maastricht founded the EU and replaced the EPC with the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP) pillar. In 1996 NATO agreed to let the WEU develop a so-called European Security and Defence Identity (ESDI).[7] The 1998 St. Malo declaration signalled that the traditionally hesitant United Kingdom was prepared to provide the EU with autonomous defence structures.[8] This facilitated the transformation of the ESDI into the European Security and Defence Policy (ESDP) in 1999, when it was transferred to the EU. In 2003 the EU deployed its first CSDP missions, and adopted the European Security Strategy identifying common threats and objectives. In 2009, the Treaty of Lisbon introduced the present name, CSDP, while establishing the EEAS, the mutual defence clause and enabling a subset of member states to pursue defence integration within PESCO. In 2011 the WEU, whose tasks had been transferred to the EU, was dissolved. In 2016 a new security strategy was introduced, which along with the Russian annexation of Crimea, the British withdrawal from the EU and the election of Trump as US president have given the CSDP a new impetus.

Since the end of World War II, sovereign European countries have entered into treaties and thereby co-operated and harmonised policies (or pooled sovereignty) in an increasing number of areas, in the European integration project or the construction of Europe (French: la construction européenne). The following timeline outlines the legal inception of the European Union (EU)—the principal framework for this unification. The EU inherited many of its present responsibilities from the European Communities (EC), which were founded in the 1950s in the spirit of the Schuman Declaration.

Legend:
S: signing
F: entry into force
T: termination
E: expiry
de facto supersession
Rel. w/ EC/EU framework:
de facto inside
outside |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  European Union (EU) | [Cont.]

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

European Communities (EC) | (Pillar I) |
| European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom)  |  | [Cont.]
|  /  /  /  European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) |  |  |

(Distr. of competences)

|  |  | European Economic Community (EEC) |  |
|  |  |  |  |  | Schengen Rules | European Community (EC)
'TREVI' | Justice and Home Affairs (JHA, pillar II) |
|  / North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) | [Cont.] | Police and Judicial Co-operation in Criminal Matters (PJCC, pillar II)

Anglo-French alliance | [Defence arm handed to NATO] | European Political Co-operation (EPC) |  | Common Foreign and Security Policy
(CFSP, pillar III)
Western Union (WU)  |  /  Western European Union (WEU)  | [Tasks defined following the WEU's 1984 reactivation handed to the EU]
|  |
[Social, cultural tasks handed to CoE] | [Cont.] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |

* v
* t
* e

|  |  |  Council of Europe (CoE)

Entente Cordiale
S: 8 April 1904

Dunkirk Treaty[i]
S: 4 March 1947
F: 8 September 1947
E: 8 September 1997

Brussels Treaty[i]
S: 17 March 1948
F: 25 August 1948
T: 30 June 2011

London and Washington treaties[i]
S: 5 May/4 April 1949
F: 3 August/24 August 1949

Paris treaties: ECSC and EDC[ii]
S: 18 April 1951/27 May 1952
F: 23 July 1952/—
E: 23 July 2002/—

Protocol Modifying and
Completing the Brussels Treaty[i]
S: 23 October 1954
F: 6 May 1955

Rome treaties: EEC and EAEC
S: 25 March 1957
F: 1 January 1958

WEU-CoE agreement[i]
S: 21 October 1959
F: 1 January 1960

Brussels (Merger) Treaty[iii]
S: 8 April 1965
F: 1 July 1967

Davignon report
S: 27 October 1970

European Council conclusions
S: 2 December 1975

Single European Act (SEA)
S: 17/28 February 1986
F: 1 July 1987

Schengen Treaty and Convention
S: 14 June 1985/19 June 1990
F: 26 March 1995

Maastricht Treaty[iv][v]
S: 7 February 1992
F: 1 November 1993

Amsterdam Treaty
S: 2 October 1997
F: 1 May 1999

Nice Treaty
S: 26 February 2001
F: 1 February 2003

Lisbon Treaty[vi]
S: 13 December 2007
F: 1 December 2009

1. ^ a b c d e Although not EU treaties per se, these treaties affected the development of the EU defence arm, a main part of the CFSP. The Franco-British alliance established by the Dunkirk Treaty was de facto superseded by WU. The CFSP pillar was bolstered by some of the security structures that had been established within the remit of the 1955 Modified Brussels Treaty (MBT). The Brussels Treaty was terminated in 2011, consequently dissolving the WEU, as the mutual defence clause that the Lisbon Treaty provided for EU was considered to render the WEU superfluous. The EU thus de facto superseded the WEU.
2. ^ Plans to establish a European Political Community (EPC) were shelved following the French failure to ratify the Treaty establishing the European Defence Community (EDC). The EPC would have combined the ECSC and the EDC.
3. ^ The European Communities obtained common institutions and a shared legal personality (i.e. ability to e.g. sign treaties in their own right).
4. ^ The treaties of Maastricht and Rome form the EU's legal basis, and are also referred to as the Treaty on European Union (TEU) and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), respectively. They are amended by secondary treaties.
5. ^ Between the EU's founding in 1993 and consolidation in 2009, the union consisted of three pillars, the first of which were the European Communities. The other two pillars consisted of additional areas of cooperation that had been added to the EU's remit.
6. ^ The consolidation meant that the EU inherited the European Communities' legal personality and that the pillar system was abolished, resulting in the EU framework as such covering all policy areas. Executive/legislative power in each area was instead determined by a distribution of competencies between EU institutions and member states. This distribution, as well as treaty provisions for policy areas in which unanimity is required and qualified majority voting is possible, reflects the depth of EU integration as well as the EU's partly supranational and partly intergovernmental nature.

### Deployments[edit]

Main article: List of military and civilian missions of the European Union

Since 2002, the European Union has intervened abroad thirty-five times in three different continents.

The first deployment of European troops under the ESDP, following the 1999 declaration of intent, was in March 2003 in the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM, today: North Macedonia). Operation Concordia used NATO assets and was considered a success and replaced by a smaller police mission, EUPOL Proxima, later that year. Since then, there have been other small police, justice and monitoring missions. As well as in the FYROM, the EU has maintained its deployment of peacekeepers in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of Operation Althea.[9]

Between May and September 2003 EU troops were deployed to the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) during "Operation Artemis" under a mandate given by UN Security Council Resolution 1484 which aimed to prevent further atrocities and violence in the Ituri Conflict and put the DRC's peace process back on track. This laid out the "framework nation" system to be used in future deployments. The EU returned to the DRC during July–November 2006 with EUFOR RD Congo, which supported the UN mission there during the country's elections.

Geographically, EU missions outside the Balkans and the DRC have taken place in Georgia, Indonesia, Sudan, Palestine, and Ukraine–Moldova. There is also a judicial mission in Iraq (EUJUST Lex). On 28 January 2008, the EU deployed its largest and most multi-national mission to Africa, EUFOR Tchad/RCA.[10] The UN-mandated mission involves troops from 25 EU states (19 in the field) deployed in areas of eastern Chad and the north-eastern Central African Republic in order to improve security in those regions. EUFOR Tchad/RCA reached full operation capability in mid-September 2008, and handed over security duties to the UN (MINURCAT mission) in mid-March 2009.[11]

The EU launched its first maritime CSDP operation on 12 December 2008 (Operation Atalanta). The concept of the European Union Naval Force (EU NAVFOR) was created on the back of this operation, which is still successfully combatting piracy off the coast of Somalia almost a decade later. A second such intervention was launched in 2015 to tackle migration problems in the southern Mediterranean (EUNAVFOR Med), working under the name Operation SOPHIA.

Most of the CSDP missions deployed so far are mandated to support security sector reforms (SSR) in host-states. One of the core principles of CSDP support to SSR is local ownership. The EU Council defines ownership as "the appropriation by the local authorities of the commonly agreed objectives and principles".[12] Despite EU's strong rhetorical attachment to the local ownership principle, research shows that CSDP missions continue to be an externally driven, top-down and supply-driven endeavour, resulting often in the low degree of local participation.[13]

## Structure[edit]

Main article: Structure of the Common Security and Defence Policy

High Representative Josep Borrell

The CSDP involves military or civilian missions being deployed to preserve peace, prevent conflict and strengthen international security in accordance with the principles of the United Nations Charter. Military missions are carried out by EU forces established with contributions from the member states' armed forces. The CSDP also entails collective self-defence amongst member states[a] as well as a Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO) in which 26 of the 27 national armed forces pursue structural integration. The CSDP structure, headed by the Union's High Representative (HR/VP), Josep Borrell, comprises:

* the Defence Industry Directorate-General of the European Commission
* relevant sections of the External Action Service (EEAS) — including the Military Staff (EUMS) with its so-called Military Planning and Conduct Capability (MPCC)
* a number of Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) preparatory bodies – such as the Military Committee (EUMC)
* four agencies, including the Defence Agency (EDA)

While the EU has a command and control (C2) structure, it has no standing permanent military structure along the lines of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's (NATO) Allied Command Operations (ACO), although it has been agreed that ACO resources may be used for the conduct of the EU's CSDP missions. The MPCC, established in 2017 and to be strengthened in 2020, does however represent the EU's first step in developing a permanent military headquarters. In parallel, the newly established European Defence Fund (EDF) marks the first time the EU budget is used to finance multinational defence projects. The CSDP structure is sometimes referred to as the European Defence Union (EDU), especially in relation to its prospective development as the EU's defence arm.[4][5][6][c]

Decisions relating to the CSDP are proposed by the HR/VP, adopted by the FAC, generally requiring unanimity, and then implemented by the HR/VP.  The EU command and control (C2) structure is directed by political bodies composed of member states' representatives, and generally requires unanimous decisions. As of April 2019:[14]

Liaison: Advice and recommendations Support and monitoring Preparatory work

* v
* t
* e

Political strategic level:[5]

ISS| | | | | | | EUCO Pres. (EUCO)| | | | Chain of command

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | Coordination/support
SatCen| | | CIVCOM| | | HR/VP (FAC)

| | | | | | | | | | | |
INTCEN| | | HR/VP (PMG)| | | HR/VP (PSC)[6]| |

CEUMC (EUMC)
| |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
CMPD| | | | | | | | | | | |

DGEUMS[3] (EUMS)
| | | | | | | | |
Military/civilian strategic level:| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | |
| | | |

Dir MPCC[3] (MPCC)| | JSCC| | Civ OpCdr CPCC[1]

Operational level:| | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | MFCdr[4] (MFHQ)| | | | | | HoM[1]
| | | |
Tactical level:| | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
CC[2] Land| | CC[2] Air| | CC[2] Mar| | Other CCs[2]
| |
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Forces| | Forces| | Forces| | Forces
| |

1 In the event of a CSDP Civilian Mission also being in the field, the relations with the Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability (CPCC) and its Civilian Operation Commander (Civ OpCdr), as well as the subordinate Head of Mission (HoM), are coordinated as shown.

2 Other Component Commanders (CCs) and service branches which may be established.

3 The MPCC is part of the EUMS and Dir MPCC is double-hatted as DGEUMS. Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), either a national OHQ offered by member states or the NATO Command Structure (NCS) would serve this purpose. In the latter instance, Deputy Supreme Allied Commander Europe (DSACEUR), rather than Dir MPCC, would serve as Operation Commander (OpCdr).

4 Unless the MPCC is used as Operation Headquarters (OHQ), the MFCdr would be known as a Force Commander (FCdr), and direct a Force Headquarters (FHQ) rather than a MFHQ. Whereas the MFHQ would act both on the operational and tactical level, the FHQ would act purely on the operational level.

5 The political strategic level is not part of the C2 structure per se, but represents the political bodies, with associated support facilities, that determine the missions' general direction. The Council determines the role of the High Representative (HR/VP), who serves as Vice-President of the European Commission, attends European Council meetings, chairs the Foreign Affairs Council (FAC) and may chair the Political and Security Committee (PSC) in times of crisis. The HR/VP proposes and implements CSDP decisions.

6 Same composition as Committee of Permanent Representatives (COREPER) II, which also prepares for the CSDP-related work of the FAC.

## Strategy[edit]

Main article: European Union Global Strategy

The European Union Global Strategy (EUGS) is the updated doctrine of the EU to improve the effectiveness of the CSDP, including the defence and security of the members states, the protection of civilians, cooperation between the member states' armed forces, management of immigration, crises etc. Adopted on 28 June 2016,[15] it replaces the European Security Strategy of 2003. The EUGS is complemented by a document titled "Implementation Plan on Security and Defense" (IPSD).[16] Deterrence theory is applied to deter aggressors as one of the core mandates of Common Security and Defence Policy, yet lacks credibility due to insufficient resources.[17]

## Forces[edit]

Main article: Defence forces of the European Union

A new Action Plan on military mobility and cyber resilience was released 10 November 2022.[18]

### National[edit]

Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org.

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National armed forces' personnel combined (2016)[19]

* v
* t
* e

The CSDP is implemented using civilian and military contributions from member states' armed forces, which also are obliged to collective self-defence based on Treaty on European Union (TEU).

Five EU states host nuclear weapons: France has its own nuclear programmes, while Belgium, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands host US nuclear weapons as part of NATO's nuclear sharing policy. Combined, the EU possesses 300 warheads, and hosts between 90 and 130 US warheads. Italy hosts 70-90 B61 nuclear bombs, while Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands 10-20 each one.[20] The EU has the third largest arsenal of nuclear weapons, after the United States and Russia.

#### Expenditure and personnel[edit]

Further information: List of countries by military expenditures

The following table presents the military expenditures of the members of the European Union in euros (€). The combined military expenditure of the member states amounted to €223.4 billion in 2018.[2] This represents 1.4% of European Union GDP. European military expenditure includes spending on joint projects such as the Eurofighter Typhoon and joint procurement of equipment. The European Union's combined active military forces in 2016 totaled 1,410,626 personnel.[1]

In a speech in 2012, Swedish General Håkan Syrén criticised the spending levels of European Union countries, saying that in the future those countries' military capability will decrease, creating "critical shortfalls".[21]

Guide to table:

* All figure entries in the table below are provided by the European Defence Agency for the year 2017, except for Germany's personnel figure, which is for 2016. Figures from other sources are not included.
* The "operations & maintenance expenditure" category may in some circumstances also include finances on-top of the nations defence budget.
* The categories "troops prepared for deployed operations" and "troops prepared for deployed and sustained operation" only include land force personnel.

Member state | Expenditure (€ mn.) | Per capita (€) | % of GDP | Operations & maintenance expenditure (€ mn.) | Active military personnel | Land troops prepared for deployed and sustained operations | Reserve personnel

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Austria[1] | 2,673 | 301 | 0.74 | 574 | 24,190 | 1,100  | 950,000
Belgium[1] | 5,672 | 349 | 1.1 | 680 | 27,789 | 1,293  | 3,300
Bulgaria[1] | 1,140 | 109 | 1.56 | 118 | 30,218 | 1,168  | 3,000
Croatia[1] | 950 | 149 | 1.5 | 154 | 14,862 | 796  | 18,343
Cyprus[1] | 470 | 409 | 1.83 | 63 | 20,000 | 0  | 75,000
Czech Republic[1] | 3,310 | 184 | 1.46 | 474 | 23,036 | 672  | 3,236
Estonia[1] | 748 | 363 | 2.31 | 158 | 6,178 | 100  | 60,000
Finland[1] | 4,873 | 523 | 2.15 | 919 | 7,515 | 1,738  | 900,000
France[1] | 49,700 | 609 | 1.79 | 10,201 | 208,251 | 17,000  | 38,550
Germany[1] | 57,300 | 489 | 1.53 |  | 177,608 |  | 29,200
Greece[1] | 7,086 | 393 | 3.82 | 504 | 106,624 | 2,432  |
Hungary[1] | 2,200 | 122 | 1.66 | 492 | 23,846 | 1,000  | 20,000
Ireland[1] | 780 | 191 | 0.31 | 103 | 9,500 | 850  | 1,778
Italy[1] | 26,310 | 339 | 1.6 | 1,583 | 181,116 |  | 18,300
Latvia[1] | 758 | 243 | 2.23 | 132 | 5,686 | 75  | 3,000
Lithuania[1] | 1,028 | 256 | 2.13 | 145 | 14,350 |  | 26,000
Luxembourg[1] | 389 | 484 | 0.56 | 30 | 824 | 57  |
Malta[1] | 54 | 122 | 0.51 | 8 | 1,808 | 30  |
Netherlands[1] | 12,900 | 507 | 1.5 | 2,144 | 40,196 | 1,500  | 5,046
Poland[1] | 11,940 | 226 | 2.2 | 1,918 | 106,500 | 60  | 75,400
Portugal[1] | 3,975 | 235 | 1.6 | 142 | 32,726 | 1,698  |
Romania[1] | 5,590 | 185 | 2.0 | 277 | 69,542 | 2,961  | 50,000
Slovakia[1] | 1,520 | 183 | 1.75 | 198 | 13,152 | 846  |
Slovenia[1] | 548 | 204 | 1.04 | 72 | 6,342 | 707  | 1,000
Spain[1] | 15,660 | 231 | 1.2 | 1,891 | 120,812 | 7,410  | 15,150
Sweden[1] | 5,620 | 460 | 1.1 | 1,973 | 14,500 | 750  | 34,500
EU[1] | 222,194 | 365 | 1.50 |  | 1,287,171 |  | 2,330,803

#### Naval forces[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

|

Charles de Gaulle aircraft carrier is one of the largest commissioned warships in the European Union.

The combined component strength of the naval forces of member states is some 514 commissioned warships. Of those in service, 4 are fleet carriers. The EU also has 4 amphibious assault ships and 20 amphibious support ships in service. Of the EU's 49 submarines, 10 are nuclear-powered submarines while 39 are conventional attack submarines.

Operation Atalanta (formally European Union Naval Force Somalia) is the first ever (and still ongoing) naval operation of the European Union. It is part of a larger global action by the EU in the Horn of Africa to deal with the Somali crisis. As of January 2011 twenty-three EU nations participate in the operation.

France and Italy have blue-water navies.[22]

Guide to table:

* Ceremonial vessels, research vessels, supply vessels, training vessels, and icebreakers are not included.
* The table only counts warships that are commissioned (or equivalent) and active.
* Surface vessels displacing less than 200 tonnes are not included, regardless of other characteristics.
* The "amphibious support ship" category includes amphibious transport docks and dock landing ships, and tank landing ships.
* Frigates over 6,000 tonnes are classified as destroyers.
* The "patrol vessel" category includes missile boats.
* The "anti-mine ship" category includes mine countermeasures vessels, minesweepers and minehunters.
* Generally, total tonnage of ships is more important than total number of ships, as it gives a better indication of capability.

Member state | Fleet carrier | Amphibious assault ship | Amphibious support ship | Destroyer | Frigate | Corvette | Patrol vessel | Anti-mine ship | Missile sub. | Attack sub. | Total | Tonnage

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Austria |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Belgium[23] |  |  |  |  | 2 |  | 2 | 5 |  |  | 9 | 10,009
Bulgaria |  |  | 1 |  | 4 | 3 | 1 | 10 |  |  | 18 | 15,160
Croatia |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5 | 2 |  |  | 7 | 2,869
Cyprus |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5  |  |  |  | 5  | 0
Czech Republic |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0  | 0
Denmark[24] |  |  |  | 5 | 4 |  | 9 |  |  |  | 18 | 51,235
Estonia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  | 3 | 2,000
Finland |  |  |  |  |  | 4 | 4 | 12 |  |  | 20 | 5,429
France[25] | 1[d] | 3 |  | 13 | 11 |  | 20 | 18 | 4 | 6 | 76 | 319,195
Germany[26] |  |  |  | 3 | 7 | 5 | 8 | 15 |  | 6 | 44 | 82,790
Greece[27] |  |  | 9 |  | 13 |  | 33[28] | 4 |  | 11[28] | 70 | 138,565
Hungary |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Ireland[29] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 8 |  |  |  | 8 | 11,219
Italy[30] | 2[e]+1[f] | (1)[f] | 3[g] | 4 | 16 | 5 | 11 | 10 |  | 8 | 59 | 303,411
Latvia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 5 |  |  | 5 | 3,025
Lithuania[31] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4 | 4 |  |  | 8 | 5,678
Luxembourg |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Malta[32] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  |  |  | 2 | 1,419
Netherlands[33] |  |  | 2 | 4 | 2 |  | 4 | 6 |  | 4 | 22 | 116,308
Poland[34] |  |  | 5 |  | 2 | 1 | 3 | 19 |  | 3 | 28 | 19,724
Portugal[35] |  |  |  |  | 5 | 7 | 7 |  |  | 2 | 23 | 34,686
Romania[36] |  |  |  |  | 3 | 7 | 6 | 5 |  |  | 21 | 23,090
Slovakia |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 0 | 0
Slovenia[37] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 | 1 |  |  | 2 | 435
Spain[38] | 1[h] | (1)[h] | 2[i] | 5[j] | 6[k] |  | 23 | 6 |  | 3 | 46 | 148,607
Sweden[39] |  |  |  |  |  | 6 |  | 11 |  | 5 | 22 | 14,256
EU | 4 | 4 | 22 | 34 | 75 | 38 | 156 | 136 | 4 | 48 | 514 ~516 | 1,309,110 ~1,309,110

#### Land forces[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

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The Leopard 2 main battle tank

Combined, the member states of the European Union maintain large numbers of various land-based military vehicles and weaponry.

Guide to table:

* The table is not exhaustive and primarily includes vehicles and EU-NATO member countries under the Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty (CFE treaty). Unless otherwise specified.
* The CFE treaty only includes vehicles stationed within Europe, vehicles overseas on operations are not counted.
* The "main battle tank" category also includes tank destroyers (such as the Italian B1 Centauro) or any self-propelled armoured fighting vehicle, capable of heavy firepower. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "armoured fighting vehicle" category includes any armoured vehicle primarily designed to transport infantry and equipped with an automatic cannon of at least 20 mm calibre. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "artillery" category includes self-propelled or towed howitzers and mortars of 100 mm calibre and above. Other types of artillery are not included regardless of characteristics. According to the CFE treaty.
* The "attack helicopter" category includes any rotary wing aircraft armed and equipped to engage targets or equipped to perform other military functions (such as the Apache or the Wildcat). According to the CFE treaty.
* The "military logistics vehicle" category includes logistics trucks of 4-tonne, 8-tonne, 14-tonne or larger, purposely designed for military tasking. Not under CFE treaty.

Member state | Main battle tank | Armoured fighting vehicle | Artillery | Attack helicopter | Military logistics vehicle

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Austria | 56 | 364 | 90 |  |
Belgium[40] |  | 521 | 155 | 27 |
Bulgaria[40] | 362 | 681 | 1,035 | 12 |
Croatia[41] | 75 | 283 | 127 | 10 |
Cyprus | 134 | 169 | 234 | 15 | 398
Czech Republic[40] | 123 | 501 | 182 | 24 |
Denmark[40] | 46 | 229 | 56 | 12 |
Estonia[42] |  |  | 74 |  |
Finland | 200 | 1,080 | 722 | 25 |
France[40] | 450 | 6,256 | 349 | 283 | 10,746
Germany[40] | 815 | 1,774 | 401 | 158 |
Greece[40] | 1,622 | 2,187 | 1,920 | 29 |
Hungary[40] | 90 | 634 | 35 | 8 | 471 |
Ireland[43] |  | 107 | 36 |  |
Italy[40] | 1,176 | 3,145 | 1,446 | 107 | 10,921
Latvia |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[44] |  | 88 | 96 |  |
Luxembourg |  |  |  |  |
Malta |  |  |  |  |
Netherlands[40] | 16 | 634 | 135 | 21 |
Poland[45] | 1,675 | 3,110 | 1,580 | 83 |
Portugal[40] | 220 | 425 | 377 |  |
Romania[40] | 857 | 1,272 | 1,273 | 23 |
Slovakia[40] | 30 | 327 | 68 |  |
Slovenia | 76 | 52 | 63 |  |
Spain[40] | 484 | 1,007 | 811 | 27 |
Sweden | 120 | 978 | 268 |  |
EU[40] | 8,413 | 25,421 | 11,259 | 822 |

#### Air forces[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2018)

|

The air forces of EU member states operate a wide range of military systems and hardware. This is primarily due to the independent requirements of each member state and also the national defence industries of some member states. However such programmes like the Eurofighter Typhoon and Eurocopter Tiger have seen many European nations design, build and operate a single weapons platform. 60% of overall combat fleet was developed and manufactured by member states, 32% are US-origin, but some of these were assembled in Europe, while remaining 8% are soviet-made aircraft. As of 2014, it is estimated that the European Union had around 2,000 serviceable combat aircraft (fighter aircraft and ground-attack aircraft).[46]

The EUs air-lift capabilities are evolving with the future introduction of the Airbus A400M (another example of EU defence cooperation). The A400M is a tactical airlifter with strategic capabilities.[47] Around 140 are initially expected to be operated by 5 member states (Luxembourg, France, Germany, Spain and Belgium).

Guide to tables:

* The tables are sourced from figures provided by Flight International for the year 2020.
* Aircraft are grouped into three main types (indicated by colours): red for combat aircraft, green for aerial refueling aircraft, and grey for strategic and tactical transport aircraft.
* The two "other" columns include additional aircraft according to their type sorted by colour (i.e. the "other" category in red includes combat aircraft, while the "other" category in grey includes both aerial refueling and transport aircraft). This was done because it was not feasible allocate every aircraft type its own column.
* Other aircraft such as trainers, helicopters, UAVs and reconnaissance or surveillance aircraft are not included in the below tables or figures.

Fighter and ground-attack
Member state | Typhoon | Rafale | Mirage 2000 | Gripen | F-16 | F/A-18 | F-35 | Tornado | MiG-29 | Other | Total

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Austria[46] | 15 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 15
Belgium[46] |  |  |  |  | 52 |  | (34 ordered) |  |  |  | 52
Bulgaria[46] |  |  |  |  | (10 ordered) |  |  |  | 11 | 6 Su-25 | 17
Croatia[46] |  | (12 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 12 MiG-21 | 12
Cyprus[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Czech Republic[46] |  |  |  | 12 |  |  | (24 ordered) |  |  | 16 L-159 | 28
Denmark[46] |  |  |  |  | 33 |  | 4 (23 ordered) |  |  |  | 33
Estonia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Finland[46] |  |  |  |  |  | 62 | (64 ordered) |  |  |  | 62
France[46] |  | 135 (134 ordered) | 97 |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 232
Germany[46] | 134 (38) |  |  |  |  |  | (35 ordered) | 81 |  | 30 Tornado ECR | 245
Greece[46] |  | 6 (18[48]) | 42 |  | 153[49] |  |  |  |  | 33 F-4 | 234[49]
Hungary[46] |  |  |  | 14 |  |  |  |  |  |  | 14
Ireland[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Italy[46] | 94 |  |  |  |  |  | 30 (108 ordered) | 71 |  | 58 AMX, 15 Harrier II, 13 Tornado ECR | 281[50]
Latvia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Luxembourg[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Malta[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Netherlands[46] |  |  |  |  | 29 |  | 26 (26 ordered) |  |  |  | 55
Poland[46] |  |  |  |  | 48 |  | (32 ordered) |  | 23 | 32 Su-22 | 103
Portugal[46] |  |  |  |  | 25 |  |  |  |  |  | 25
Romania[46] |  |  |  |  | 17 |  |  |  |  | 16 MiG-21 | 33
Slovakia[46] |  |  |  |  | (12 ordered) |  |  |  | 10 |  | 10
Slovenia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Spain[46] | 68 (20 ordered) |  |  |  |  | 84 |  |  |  | 12 Harrier II | 164
Sweden[46] |  |  |  | 94 (70 ordered) |  |  |  |  |  |  | 94
EU[46] | 311 | 141 | 139 | 120 | 357 | 146 | 60 (346) | 152 | 44 | 243 | 1,713

Aerial refueling and transport
Member state | A330 MRTT | A310 MRTT | KC-135/707 | C-17 | C-130 | C-160 | C-27J | CN-235/C-295 | An-26 | A400M | Other | Total

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Austria[46] |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  |  |  |  | 8 PC-6 | 11
Belgium[46] |  |  |  |  | 9 |  |  |  |  | 7 | 3 ERJ-135/145 | 19
Bulgaria[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  | 1 |  | 1 L-410 & 1 PC-12 | 5
Croatia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Cyprus[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 BN-2 | 1
Czech Republic[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  | 4 L-410 | 8
Denmark[46] |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4
Estonia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 An-28/M28 | 2
Finland[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  | 3 Learjet 35 & 6 PC-12NG | 12
France[46] | 2 |  | 14 |  | 16 | 15 |  | 27 |  | 15 | 3 A340 | 92
Germany[46] |  | 4 |  |  |  | 42 |  |  |  | 31 | 2 A319 | 76
Greece[46] |  |  |  |  | 13 |  | 8 |  |  |  |  | 21
Hungary[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  | 4
Ireland[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  |  | 1 BNT-2 CC2/B | 3
Italy[46] |  |  |  |  | 16 |  | 12 |  |  |  | 4 KC-767
3 KC-130J
3 A319 | 38
Latvia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |
Lithuania[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3 |  |  |  | 1 | 4
Luxembourg[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 |  | 1
Malta[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 BNT-2 CC2/B
2 King Air 200 | 4
Netherlands[46] |  |  |  |  | 4 |  |  |  |  |  | 2 (K)DC-10 | 6
Poland[46] |  |  |  |  | 5 |  |  | 16 |  |  |  | 20
Portugal[46] |  |  |  |  | 6 |  |  | 7 |  |  |  | 13
Romania[46] |  |  |  |  | 2 |  | 7 |  | 2 |  |  | 11
Slovakia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  | 2 |  |  |  | 5 Let L-410 Turbolet | 7
Slovenia[46] |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 1 Let L-410 Turbolet
2 Pilatus PC-6 Porter
1 Dassault Falcon 2000 | 4
Spain[46] |  |  | 2 |  | 7 |  |  | 21 |  | 6 | 5 KC-130H
2 A310 | 37
Sweden[46] |  |  |  |  | 7 |  |  |  |  |  | 1 KC-130H | 8
Shared within EU | 3 (6) part of MMF |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | 3
EU[46] | 5 | 4 | 16 | 0 | 83 | 107 | 30 | 81 | 16 | 60 | 41 | 391

### Multinational[edit]

#### Established at Union level[edit]

Irish Army personnel from the Nordic Battle Group at an exercise in 2010

The Helsinki Headline Goal Catalogue is a listing of rapid reaction forces composed of 60,000 troops managed by the European Union, but under control of the countries who deliver troops for it.

Forces introduced at Union level include:

* The battle groups (BG) adhere to the CSDP, and are based on contributions from a coalition of member states. Each of the eighteen Battlegroups consists of a battalion-sized force (1,500 troops) reinforced with combat support elements.[51][52] The groups rotate actively, so that two are ready for deployment at all times. The forces are under the direct control of the Council of the European Union. The Battlegroups reached full operational capacity on 1 January 2007, although, as of January 2013 they are yet to see any military action.[53] They are based on existing ad hoc missions that the European Union (EU) has undertaken and has been described by some as a new "standing army" for Europe.[52] The troops and equipment are drawn from the EU member states under a "lead nation". In 2004, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan welcomed the plans and emphasised the value and importance of the Battlegroups in helping the UN deal with troublespots.[54]
* The Medical Command (EMC) is a planned medical command centre in support of EU missions, formed as part of the Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO).[55] The EMC will provide the EU with a permanent medical capability to support operations abroad, including medical resources and a rapidly deployable medical task force. The EMC will also provide medical evacuation facilities, triage and resuscitation, treatment and holding of patients until they can be returned to duty, and emergency dental treatment. It will also contribute to harmonising medical standards, certification and legal (civil) framework conditions.[56]
* The Force Crisis Response Operation Core (EUFOR CROC) is a flagship defence project under development as part of Permanent Structured Cooperation (PESCO). EURFOR CROC will contribute to the creation of a "full spectrum force package" to speed up provision of military forces and the EU's crisis management capabilities.[57] Rather than creating a standing force, the project involves creating a concrete catalogue of military force elements that would speed up the establishment of a force when the EU decides to launch an operation. It is land-focused and aims to generate a force of 60,000 troops from the contributing states alone. While it does not establish any form of "European army", it foresees an deployable, interoperable force under a single command.[58] Germany is the lead country for the project, but the French are heavily involved and it is tied to President Emmanuel Macron's proposal to create a standing intervention force. The French see it as an example of what PESCO is about.[59]

#### Provided through Article 42.3 TEU[edit]

Personnel of the European Corps in Strasbourg, France, during a change of command ceremony in 2013

This section presents an incomplete list of forces and bodies established intergovernmentally amongst a subset of member states. These organisations will deploy forces based on the collective agreement of their member states. They are typically technically listed as being able to be deployed under the auspices of NATO, the United Nations, the European Union (EU) through Article 42.3 of TEU, the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe, or any other international entity.

However, with the exception of the Eurocorps, very few have actually been deployed for any real military operation, and none under the CSDP at any point in its history.

Land Forces:

* The Eurocorps is an army corps of approximately 1,000 soldiers stationed in Strasbourg, France. Based in the French city of Strasbourg, the corps is the nucleus of the Franco-German Brigade.[60]
* The I. German/Dutch Corps is a multinational formation consisting of units from the Dutch and German armies. Due to its role as a NATO High Readiness Forces Headquarters, soldiers from other NATO member states, the United States, Denmark, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom amongst others, are also stationed at Münster.
* The Multinational Corps Northeast, a Danish-German-Polish multinational corps
* The European Gendarmerie Force, an intervention force with militarised police functions which specializes in crisis management.[61]

Aerial:

* The European Air Transport Command exercises operational control of the majority of the aerial refueling capabilities and military transport fleets of its participating nations. Located at Eindhoven Airbase in the Netherlands, the command also bears a limited responsibility for exercises, aircrew training and the harmonisation of relevant national air transport regulations.[62][63] The command was established in 2010 to provide a more efficient management of the participating nations' assets and resources in this field.

Naval:

* The European Maritime Force (EUROMARFOR or EMF) is a non-standing,[64] military force[65] that may carry out naval, air and amphibious operations, with an activation time of 5 days after an order is received.[66] The force was formed in 1995 to fulfill missions defined in the Petersberg Declaration, such as sea control, humanitarian missions, peacekeeping operations, crisis response operations, and peace enforcement.

## Participation, relationship with NATO[edit]

Further information: European Union–NATO relations

Out of the 27 EU member states, 23 are also members of NATO. Another four NATO members are EU applicants—Albania, Montenegro, North Macedonia and Turkey. Two others—Iceland and Norway—have opted to remain outside of the EU, however participate in the EU's single market. The memberships of the EU and NATO are distinct, and some EU member states are traditionally neutral on defence issues. Several EU member states were formerly members of the Warsaw Pact. Denmark had an opt-out from the CSDP,[1] however voted in a referendum in 2022 to begin to participate in the policy area.

Non-European countries

Transcontinental countries

Comparison of the two main Euro-Atlantic defence organisations  |  European Union
(in respect of its defence arm, the Common Security and Defence Policy) |  NATO

|
|

Mutual defence clause  | Article 42.7 of the consolidated version of the Treaty on European Union:

"If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States. [...]"

| Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty:

"The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or more of them [on their territory] shall be considered an attack against them all and consequently they agree that, if such an armed attack occurs, each of them, in exercise of the right of individual or collective self-defence recognised by Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, will assist the Party or Parties so attacked by taking forthwith, individually and in concert with the other Parties, such action as it deems necessary, including the use of armed force, to restore and maintain the security of the North Atlantic area. [...]"

| Political strategic organisation
Highest office  | High Representative (HR/VP)  | Secretary General
Principal decision-making body  | Foreign Affairs Council | North Atlantic Council
Liaison body  | European External Action Service | International Staff
Seat  | Kortenberg building (Brussels, Belgium)  |  NATO headquarters (Brussels, Belgium)
| Military strategic organisation
Supreme commander  |  Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability |  Supreme Allied Commander Europe
Headquarters  |  Military Planning and Conduct Capability (Brussels, Belgium)  |  Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe (Mons, Belgium)
Chair of chiefs of defence assembly  |  Chairman of the European Union Military Committee |  Chair of the NATO Military Committee
Chiefs of defence assembly  |  European Union Military Committee |  NATO Military Committee
Advisory body  |  European Union Military Staff |  International Military Staff
| Membership | Permanent Structured Cooperation | Membership
Member states of both the EU and NATO
Belgium | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Bulgaria | 2007  | Founder  | 2004
Croatia | 2013  | Founder  | 2009
Czech Republic | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Denmark | 1973  | 2023  | Founder
Estonia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Finland | 1995  | Founder  | 2023
France | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Germany | Founder  | Founder  | 1955
Greece | 1981  | Founder  | 1952
Hungary | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Italy | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Latvia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Lithuania | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Luxembourg | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Netherlands | Founder  | Founder  | Founder
Poland | 2004  | Founder  | 1999
Portugal | 1986  | Founder  | Founder
Romania | 2007  | Founder  | 2004
Slovakia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Slovenia | 2004  | Founder  | 2004
Spain | 1986  | Founder  | 1982
Sweden | 1995  | Founder  | 2024
Non-NATO EU member states
Austria | 1995  | Founder  | Partnership for Peace
Cyprus | 2004  | Founder  | No
Ireland | 1973  | Founder  | Partnership for Peace
Malta | 2004  | No  | Partnership for Peace
Non-EU NATO member states
Albania | Candidate | —  | 2009
Iceland | No  | —  | Founder
Montenegro | Candidate | —  | 2017
North Macedonia | Candidate | —  | 2020
Norway | Defence Agency agreement | —  | Founder
Turkey | Candidate | —  | 1952
United Kingdom | No  | —  | Founder
European countries outside both the EU and NATO
Andorra | No  | —  | No
Armenia | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Azerbaijan | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Belarus | No  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Bosnia and Herzegovina | Candidate | —  | Membership Action Plan
Georgia | Applicant / Potential candidate | —  | Intensified Dialogue
Kazakhstan | No  | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Kosovo | Applicant / Potential candidate | —  | No
Liechtenstein | No  | —  | No
Moldova | Candidate | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Monaco | No  | —  | No
Russia | No  | —  | Partnership for Peace
San Marino | No  | —  | No
Serbia | Candidate | —  | Individual Partnership Action Plan
Switzerland | Defence Agency agreement | —  | Partnership for Peace
Ukraine | Candidate | —  | Intensified Dialogue
Vatican City | No  | —  | No
NATO member states located in North America, which are therefore ineligible for EU membership
Canada | —  | —  | Founder
United States | —  | —  | Founder
Members of NATO's Partnership for Peace located outside Europe, which are therefore neither eligible for EU nor NATO membership
Kyrgyzstan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Tajikistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Turkmenistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace
Uzbekistan | —  | —  | Partnership for Peace

The Berlin Plus agreement is the short title of a comprehensive package of agreements made between NATO and the EU on 16 December 2002.[67] These agreements were based on conclusions of NATO's 1999 Washington summit, sometimes referred to as the CJTF mechanism,[68] and allowed the EU to draw on some of NATO's military assets in its own peacekeeping operations.

Chart presented in 2012 by then Director General of the Military Staff Lt. gen. Ton van Osch, asserting that the utility of the combined civilian and military components of the EU policy could be considered more effective than NATO for a limited level of conflict.

## See also[edit]

* European Union portal

* European Union–NATO relations
* European Union as an emerging superpower
* European countries by military expenditure as a percentage of government expenditure
* Neutral country § European Union

Other defence-related EU initiatives:

* Military Mobility
* European Centre of Excellence for Countering Hybrid Threats (Hybrid CoE), an EU-supported intergovernmental think-tank

Other Pan-European defence organisations (intergovernmental):

* Finabel, an organisation, controlled by the army chiefs of staff of its participating nations, that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the armies.[69]
* Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation (OCCAR), an organisation that facilitates and manages collaborative armament programmes through their lifecycle between its participating nations.
* European Air Group (EAG), an organisation that promotes cooperation and interoperability between the air forces of its participating nations.
* European Organisation of Military Associations and Trade Unions (EUROMIL)
* European Personnel Recovery Centre (EPRC), an organisation that contributes to the development and harmonisation of policies and standards related to personnel recovery.
* European Intervention Initiative
* European Centre of Excellence for Civilian Crisis Management

Regional, integorvernmental defence organisations in Europe:

* Nordic Defence Cooperation (NORDEFCO)
* Central European Defence Cooperation (CEDC)

Atlanticist intergovernmental defence organisations:

* North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)
* Movement Coordination Centre Europe (MCCE), an organisation aiming to coordinate the use of airlift, sealift and land movement assets owned or leased by participating nations.

## Notes[edit]

1. ^ a b The responsibility of collective self-defence within the CSDP is based on Article 42.7 of TEU, which states that this responsibility does not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain member states, referring to policies of neutrality. See Neutral country§European Union for discussion on this subject.According to the Article 42.7 "If a Member State is the victim of armed aggression on its territory, the other Member States shall have towards it an obligation of aid and assistance by all the means in their power, in accordance with Article 51 of the United Nations Charter. This shall not prejudice the specific character of the security and defence policy of certain Member States." Article 42.2 furthermore specifies that NATO shall be the main forum for the implementation of collective self-defence for EU member states that are also NATO members.
2. ^ Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
3. ^ Akin to the EU's banking union, economic and monetary union and customs union.
4. ^ Aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle
5. ^ Aircraft carrier Cavour and aircraft carrier Giuseppe Garibaldi
6. ^ a b New universal ship of Trieste has the function of aircraft carrier and amphibious assault ship.
7. ^ San Giorgio-class amphibious transport dock
8. ^ a b Spain withdrew last classic aircraft carrier Príncipe de Asturias in 2013 (currently in reserve). New universal ship of Juan Carlos I has the function of fleet carrier and amphibious assault ship.
9. ^ Galicia-class landing platform dock
10. ^ F-100 class
11. ^ Santa María class

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## Further reading[edit]

* Book – What ambitions for European defence in 2020?, European Union Institute for Security Studies
* Book – European Security and Defence Policy: The first 10 years (1999–2009), European Union Institute for Security Studies
* Book - Smith, Michael E. (2017). 'Europe's Common Security and Defence Policy: Capacity-Building, Experiential Learning, and Institutional Change' (Cambridge University Press).
* "Guide to the ESDP" nov.2008 edition Exhaustive guide on ESDP's missions, institutions and operations, written and edited by the Permanent representation of France to the European Union.
* Dijkstra, Hylke (2013). Policy-Making in EU Security and Defense: An Institutional Perspective. European Administrative Governance Series (Hardback 240pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, Basingstoke. ISBN 978-1-137-35786-1.
* Nugent, Neill (2006). The Government and Politics of the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 630pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 9780230000025.
* Howorth, Joylon (2007). Security and Defence Policy in the European Union. The European Union Series (Paperback 315pp ed.). Palgrave Macmillan, New York. ISBN 978-0-333-63912-2.
* PhD Thesis on Civilian ESDP - EU Civilian crisis management (University of Geneva, 2008, 441 p. in French)
* Hayes, Ben (2009). "NeoConOpticon: The EU Security-Industrial Complex". Statewatch: Newsletter (Paperback, 84 pp ed.). Transnational Institute/Statewatch. ISSN 1756-851X.
* Giovanni Arcudi & Michael E. Smith (2013). The European Gendarmerie Force: a solution in search of problems?, European Security, 22(1): 1–20, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.747511
* Teresa Eder (2014). Welche Befugnisse hat die Europäische Gendarmerietruppe?, Der Standard, 5 Februar 2014.
* Alexander Mattelaer (2008). The Strategic Planning of EU Military Operations – The Case of EUFOR Tchad/RCA, IES Working Paper 5/2008.
* Benjamin Pohl (2013). The logic underpinning EU crisis management operations, European Security, 22(3): 307–325, DOI:10.1080/09662839.2012.726220
* "The Russo-Georgian War and Beyond: towards a European Great Power Concert", Danish Institute of International Studies.
* U.S Army Strategic Studies Institute (SSI), Operation EUFOR TCHAD/RCA and the EU's Common Security and Defense Policy. Archived 8 April 2018 at the Wayback Machine, U.S. Army War College, October 2010
* Mai'a K. Davis Cross "Security Integration in Europe: How Knowledge-based Networks are Transforming the European Union." University of Michigan Press, 2011.
* Butler, Graham (2020). "The European Defence Union and Denmark's Defence Opt-out: A Legal Appraisal" (PDF). European Foreign Affairs Review. 25 (1): 117–150. doi:10.54648/EERR2020008. S2CID 216432180.

## External links[edit]

Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Article 42–46 of the Treaty on European Union: Provisions on the Common Security and Defence Policy

* Official website, European External Action Service
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*[v]: View this template
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*[Dir MPCC]: Director of the Military Planning and Conduct Capability
*[MPCC]: Military Planning and Conduct Capability
*[JSCC]: Joint Support Coordination Cell
*[Civ OpCdr]: Civilian Operations Commander
*[CPCC]: Civilian Planning and Conduct Capability
*[MFCdr]: Mission Force Commander
*[MFHQ]: Mission Force Headquarters
*[HoM]: Head of Mission
*[CC]: Component Commander