Comparison of Asian national space programs

Space capabilities of Asian nations

Several Asian national space programs are attempting to achieve the scientific and technological advancements necessary for regular spaceflight, as well as to reap the strategic and economic benefits of space capability. This is sometimes referred to as the Asian space race in popular media,[1] an allusion to the Cold-War-era Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union.

As in the previous Space Race, between the United States and the USSR, the motivations for the current push into space include national security, national pride, and commercial gain. As a result, several Asian countries have sent both unmanned satellites and humans into geocentric orbit and beyond.[2]

Although many Asian nations have taken steps toward a significant presence in space, three countries are forerunners: China, India, and Japan.[3]

## Contents

* 1 Asian space agencies and programs
* 2 Asian space powers
* 2.1 China
* 2.2 India
* 2.3 Japan
* 3 Other Asian nations
* 3.1 Iran
* 3.2 Israel
* 3.3 North Korea
* 3.4 Indonesia
* 3.5 South Korea
* 3.6 Turkey
* 3.7 Pakistan
* 3.8 Other nations and regions
* 4 Timeline of national firsts
* 4.1 Other achievements
* 5 Comparison of key technologies
* 5.1 Launch vehicle technology
* 5.2 Satellite technology
* 5.3 Human spaceflight and rendezvous space docking and berthing capabilities
* 5.4 Lunar exploration
* 5.5 Interplanetary exploration missions
* 6 Asian orbital launch systems
* 6.1 Orbital launch systems from Asian national space agencies
* 6.2 Orbital launch frequency
* 7 Human spaceflight
* 7.1 China
* 7.1.1 From crewed spacecrafts to space station
* 7.1.2 Future development
* 7.2 India
* 7.2.1 First human spaceflights
* 7.2.2 Continuing programs
* 7.3 Japan
* 7.4 Iran
* 7.5 Iraq
* 8 Solar System exploration
* 8.1 Moon missions
* 8.1.1 Probing the Moon
* 8.1.2 Moon landings
* 8.2 Exploration of the major planets
* 9 Budgets
* 10 See also
* 11 Notes and references
* 12 External links

## Asian space agencies and programs[edit]

Human Lunar Exploration (includes Space station capability, etc.)

Space station (includes Human spaceflight capability, etc.)

Human spaceflight (includes Extraterrestrial Probes capability, etc.)

Extraterrestrial Probes (includes Launch Capability, etc.)

Launch Capability (includes Satellites capability)

Satellites

Uses capabilities of other nations

Country  | Official Name  | Acronym  | Founded  | Terminated  | Capabilities  | Remarks

|
|
|
|
|
|

Astronauts  | Operates Satellites  | Sounding Rockets capable  | Recoverable Biological Sounding Rockets capable
Bangladesh | Space Research and Remote Sensing Organization | SPARRSO | 1980 | — | No | Yes | No | No  | [4]
People's Republic of China | China National Space Administration
(Chinese: 国家航天局)  | CNSA | 22 April 1993 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes  | [5]
India | Indian Space Research Organisation
(Hindi: भारतीय अंतरिक्ष अनुसंधान संगठन)  | ISRO
इसरो  | 15 August 1969 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes  | [6][7][8]
Indonesia | Indonesian: Lembaga Antariksa dan Penerbangan Nasional
(National Institute of Aeronautics and Space)  | LAPAN | 27 November 1964 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | No  | [citation needed]
Iran | Iranian Space Agency
(Persian: سازمان فضایی ایران)  | ISA | 2003 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes  | [9][10][11]
Israel | Israeli Space Agency
(Hebrew: סוכנות החלל הישראלית)
| ISA
סל"ה  | April 1983 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | No  | [citation needed]
Japan | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency
(Japanese: 宇宙航空研究開発機構)  | JAXA | 1 October 2003 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes  | [12][13]
Malaysia | Malaysian National Space Agency
(Malay: Agensi Angkasa Negara)  | ANGKASA | 2002 | — | Yes | Yes | No | No  | [14]
North Korea | Korean Committee of Space Technology
(Korean: 조선우주공간기술위원회)  | KCST | 1980s | 2013 | No | Yes | Yes | No  | [15][16][17]
Pakistan | Pakistan Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission
(Urdu: پاکستان خلائی و بالا فضائی تحقی‍قاتی کمیشن)  | SUPARCO
سپارکو  | 16 September 1961 | — | No | Yes | Yes | No  | [citation needed]
Philippines | Philippine Space Agency | PhilSA | 8 August 2019 | — | No | Yes | No | No  | [18]
South Korea | Korea Aerospace Research Institute
(Korean: 한국항공우주연구원)  | KARI | 10 October 1989 | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | No  | [citation needed]
Republic of China | National Space Organization
(Chinese: 國家太空中心)  | NSPO | 3 October 1991 | — | No | Yes | Yes | No  | [19]
Thailand | Geo-Informatics and Space Technology Development Agency
(Thai: สำนักงานพัฒนาเทคโนโลยีอวกาศและภูมิสารสนเทศ)  | GISTDA
สทอภ  | 3 November 2002 | — | No | Yes | No | No  | [20]

## Asian space powers[edit]

See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country

The countries that have independently and successfully launched satellites into orbit include Japan (1970), China (1970), India (1980), Israel (1988), Iran (2009), and North Korea (2012). Of these six Asian agencies, three countries—China, India, and Japan—possess the ability to launch heavy payloads into geosynchronous orbits, launch multiple and recoverable satellites, deploy cryogenic engines, and operate extraterrestrial exploratory missions.[citation needed]

China's first crewed spacecraft entered orbit in October 2003, making China the first Asian nation to send a human into space.[21] India expects to send its own vyomanauts into space in the Gaganyaan capsule no earlier than 2023.[22][23]

The achievements of these space programs do not yet rival those of the former Soviet Union and the United States, although some experts[who?] believe Asia may soon lead the world in space exploration.[24]

Although Japan was the first program on Earth to launch a mission that returned samples from an asteroid,[citation needed] the existence of a space race in Asia is still debated, due to the lack of true spaceflight milestones. Although China denies that there is an Asian space race, there was competition between China and India in their attempts to be the first to launch a probe to the Moon within the first decade of the 21st century.[25] In January 2007, China became the first Asian space power to send an anti-satellite missile into orbit, destroying an aging Chinese Feng Yun 1C weather satellite in polar orbit. The resulting explosion sent a wave of debris hurtling through space at more than 6 miles per second.[26][27] In 2019, India, in operation Mission Shakti, did the same, shooting down its own Microsat-R satellite.[28] China and India tested their anti-satellite weapons in 2007 and 2019 respectively, making them the only countries other than the US and the USSR/Russia, to possess ASAT weapons.[citation needed]

A month later, Japan's space agency launched an experimental communications satellite designed to enable super-high-speed data transmission in remote areas.[26]

After the successful attainment of geostationary technology, India's ISRO launched its first Moon mission, Chandrayaan-1, in October 2008, when it discovered ice water on the Moon.[29]

In addition to enhancing national prestige, countries are economically motivated to operate in space, frequently launching commercial satellites to enable communications, weather forecasting, and atmospheric research. According to a 2006 report by the Space Frontier Foundation, the "space economy" is estimated to be worth about $180 billion, with more than 60% of space-related economic activity coming from commercial goods and services.[2]

### China[edit]

Long March 5 heavy-lifted rocket, the most powerful launch vehicle from an Asian country as of 2021[update].

Return capsule carrying lunar sample back to CAST after successful completion of Chang'e 5 mission.

Main articles: Chinese space program and China National Space Administration

China successfully completed its first orbital launch with Long March 1 rocket in 1970. With increased economy and technology strength in the following decades, especially since the early 21st century, China has made significant achievements in many aspects of space activities. It has developed a sizable family of Long March rockets, including Long March 5, the launch vehicle with highest payload capacity in Asia since 2016[update]. Starting from year 2010, China has been conducting more orbital launches than all other Asian countries combined every year.[30]

As of 2021,[update] China is the only Asian country who has independent human spaceflight capability. Following Shenzhou 5, the first successful crewed spaceflight mission in 2003, China has developed critical capabilities including EVA, space docking and berthing and space station. The construction of Tiangong space station, the long-term Chinese space station, began in year 2021, marked by the successful launch of Tianhe core module in April 2021.

As the first step of distance outer space exploration, the Chinese Lunar Exploration Program was approved in 2004. It launched two lunar orbiters: Chang'e 1 and Chang'e 2 in 2007 and 2010 respectively. On 14 December 2013, China successfully soft-landed Chang'e 3 Moon lander and its rover Yutu on the Moon's surface, becoming the first Asian country capable to do so, followed by Chang'e 4, the first ever soft landing on the far side of the Moon, in 2019 and Chang'e 5, the first lunar sample return mission conducted by an Asian country, in 2020, marking the completion of the three goals (orbiting, landing, returning) of the first stage of the program which no other Asian country has achieved previously.[31]

China began its first interplanetary exploration attempt in 2011 by sending Yinghuo-1, a Mars orbiter, in a joint mission with Russia. Yet it failed to leave Earth orbit due to the failure of Russian launch vehicle.[32] As a result, the Chinese space agency then embarked on its independent Mars mission. In July 2020, China launched Tianwen-1, which included an orbiter, a lander, and a rover, on a Long March 5 rocket to Mars. Tianwen-1 was inserted into Mars orbit on 10 February 2021, followed by a successful landing and deployment of the Zhurong rover on 14 May 2021, making China the second country in the world and the first country in Asia which successfully soft-landed a fully operational spacecraft on Mars surface.

In addition to outer space explorations, China's space activities also plays important role in the national economic activities. Since 2019, China each year has launched more orbital vehicles than any other nations,[33][34] with more than 140 spaceflight launched between 2015 and 2020.[31] China is operating multiple satellite systems, including communication, Earth imaging, weather forecast, ocean monitoring. BeiDou Navigation Satellite System, the satellite navigation system developed, launched, and operated by China, is one of the four core system providers and the only Asian provider of International Committee on Global Navigation Satellite Systems.[35]

As part of international space collaboration, China has collaborative projects with Russia, the ESA, and Brazil, launching commercial satellites for other countries. Some analysts suggest that the Chinese space program is linked to the nation's efforts at developing advanced military technology.[36]

In conjunction with public sector space programs, there are also privately owned Chinese companies dedicated on space activities. The private company i-Space achieved Asia's first successful private sector orbital launch in 2019.[37]

### India[edit]

Main articles: Indian Space Research Organisation, List of Indian satellites, and List of ISRO missions

GSLV Mk III D2 on launch pad carrying GSAT-29

India's interest in space travel began in the early 1960s, when scientists launched a Nike-Apache rocket from TERLS, Kerala.[38][39] Under Vikram Sarabhai, the program focused on the practical uses of space in increasing the standard of living by sending remote sensing and communications satellites into orbit.[40]

India's space launch vehicles are SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, SSLV, ULV, RLV, HLV and some Sounding Rockets such as Rohini. Some of them are retired and not in operation and some of them are under developmental progress.

The first Indian to travel in space was Rakesh Sharma, who flew aboard Soyuz T-11, launched 2 April 1984 from the USSR.[41]

In 2003, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee publicly urged his country's scientists to work towards sending a man to the Moon.[42] India successfully sent its first probe to the Moon, known as Chandrayaan-1, in October 2008, which helped to find the presence of water in the Moon.[43] The nation also launched its second Moon mission, Chandrayaan-2, to the south pole of the Moon.[44][45]

ISRO launched its Mars Orbiter Mission (informally called "Mangalyaan") on November 5, 2013, successfully entering orbit around Mars on September 24, 2014. India is the first country in Asia, and the fourth in the world, to perform a successful Mars mission. It is also the only one to do so on the first attempt, at a record low cost of $74 million.[46]

All of these have been launched successfully by PSLVs so far, meaning that the country's scientists have gained significant expertise in space technologies. In June 2016, India set a record by launching 20 satellites simultaneously.[47]

India broke the world record by successfully placing 104 satellites in Earth's orbit from a single rocket launch (PSLV-C37) on February 15, 2017, which almost tripled the previous record of 37, which had been held by Russia.[48][49]

### Japan[edit]

Main article: Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency

The H-IIA F11 launch vehicle lifts off from Tanegashima Space Center in Japan

North Korean nuclear and Chinese military programs represent a serious issue for Japan's foreign relations.[50] Japan is working on military and civilian space technologies, developing missile defense systems and new generations of military spy satellites, as well as planning for the implementation of crewed stations on the Moon.[51] The North Korean government claimed the missile was merely launching a satellite into space, accusing Japan of causing an arms race.[52] Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution, adopted after World War II, limits military activities to defensive operations; although in May 2007, Prime Minister Shinzo Abe called for a bold review of the Japanese Constitution to allow the country to take a larger role in global security and foster a revival of national pride.[53] Japan has not yet developed its own crewed spacecraft and does not have a program in place to develop one. The Japanese did develop a space shuttle, HOPE-X, to be launched by the conventional space launcher H-II, but the program was postponed and eventually cancelled. Then, the simpler crewed capsule Fuji was proposed but not adopted. Pioneer projects—including the single-stage-to-orbit, reusable launch vehicle, horizontal-takeoff-and-landing ASSTS[citation needed] and the vertical takeoff and landing Kankoh-maru—were developed but have also not been adopted. In 2009, a more conservative JAXA crewed spacecraft project was supposed to be launched by 2025 as part of Japan's plan to send human missions to the Moon. Shinya Matsuura was doubtful about the Japanese human Moon project, suspecting the project was a euphemism for participation in the American Constellation program.[54] In 2019, JAXA planned to send a humanoid robot, such as ASIMO, to the Moon within the next decade, in the hopes of using both automated and remote-controlled machines to build their planned Moon base.[54][55] As of 2022, Japanese astronauts will land on the Moon via NASA's Artemis program.[56]

## Other Asian nations[edit]

### Iran[edit]

Main article: Iranian Space Agency

Simorgh launch vehicle

Iran put into orbit its first satellite Omid, using the Safir launch vehicle on 2 February 2009, becoming the ninth nation to achieve an orbital launch.[57] Three other satellites were inserted into orbit by the Safir before its retirement in 2019.[58] Subsequent development of launch vehicles has led to the Simorgh, which was designed and built as safir's successor and was launched for the first time on 19 April 2016.[59] The Zuljanah has also been developed as Iran's first solid fueled launch vehicle and was unveiled on 1 February 2021.[60] A dedicated Spaceport named Semnan Space Center was built in the early 2000s near the provincial capital of semnan province with two launch pads, a 45 metet tall servicing tower, integration, communication and testing facilities.[61]

A separate parallel military space program headed by the IRGC Aerospace force based out of Shahroud Space Center, focusing on solid fueled launch vehicles was unveiled on 22 April 2020 when Iran successfully launched its first military reconnaissance satellite, Noor-1, into orbit using a Qased launch vehicle.[62]

A human spaceflight project to design and manufacture crewed space capsules headed by the aerospace research institute of the ministry of science and technology also exists whose most significant achievement was the successful sub-orbital launching and retrieval of a monkey named "fargam" in 2013.[63] A mock prototype of the human space capsule was displayed in 2015.[64]

### Israel[edit]

Main article: Israel Space Agency

Shavit, the Israeli orbital launch system

On 19 September 1988, Israel became the eighth country in the world to build its own satellite and launcher. Israel launched its first satellite, Ofeq-1, using an Israeli-built Shavit three-stage launch vehicle.[65] The launch was the high point of a process that began in 1983 with the establishment of the Israel Space Agency under the aegis of the Ministry of Science. Space research by university-based scientists had begun in the 1960s, providing a ready-made pool of experts for Israel's foray into space. Since then, local universities, research institutes, and private industry, backed by the Israel Space Agency, have made progress in space technology. The agency's role is to support "private and academic space projects, coordinate their efforts, initiate and develop international relations and projects, head integrative projects involving different bodies, and create public awareness for the importance of space development."[66]

### North Korea[edit]

Main article: National Aerospace Development Administration

North Korea has many years of experience with rocket technology, which it has passed along to Pakistan and other countries.[citation needed] On 12 December 2012, North Korea placed its first satellite in orbit with the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2. On 12 March 2009, North Korea signed the Outer Space Treaty and the Registration Convention,[67] after a previous declaration of making preparations for the launch of Kwangmyongsong-2. North Korea twice announced satellite launches: Kwangmyŏngsŏng-1 on 31 August 1998 and Kwangmyŏngsŏng-2 on 5 April 2009. Neither of these claims were confirmed by the rest of the world, but the United States and South Korea believe they were tests of military ballistic missiles.[citation needed] The North Korean space agency is the Korean Committee of Space Technology, which operates the Musudan-ri and Tongch'ang-dong Space Launch Center rocket launching sites, and has developed the Baekdusan-1 and Unha (Baekdusan-2) space launchers and Kwangmyŏngsŏng satellites. In 2009 North Korea announced several future space projects, including human space flights and the development of a crewed, partially reusable launch vehicle.[68] The successor to the Korean Committee of Space Technology, National Aerospace Development Administration (NADA), successfully launched an Unha-3 launch vehicle in February 2016, placing the Kwangmyŏngsŏng-4 satellite in orbit.[citation needed]

### Indonesia[edit]

Main article: National Institute of Aeronautics and Space

LAPAN is responsible for long-term civilian and military aerospace research for Indonesia, which in July 1976 became the first developing country to operate its own domestic satellite system.[69] In October 1985, Indonesian scientist, Pratiwi Sudarmono was selected to take part in the NASA Space Shuttle mission STS-61-H as a Payload Specialist. Taufik Akbar was her backup on the mission.[citation needed] However, after the 1986 Challenger disaster the deployment of commercial satellites—such as the Indonesian Palapa B-3, planned for the STS-61-H mission—was canceled; and so the mission never took place.[citation needed] The satellite was later launched with a Delta rocket.[70] For over two decades, Indonesia has managed satellites and domain-developed small scientific-technology satellites LAPAN and telecommunication satellites Palapa, which were built by Hughes (now Boeing Satellite Systems) and launched from the US on Delta rockets or from French Guiana using Ariane 4 and Ariane 5 rockets.[citation needed] It has also developed sounding rockets and has been trying to develop small orbital space launchers.[citation needed] The LAPAN A1 in 2007 and LAPAN A2 satellites were launched by India in 2015.[71] Indonesia has undertaken programs to develop and use their own small space launch vehicle Pengorbitan (RPS-420).[72][73]

### South Korea[edit]

Main article: Korea Aerospace Research Institute

South Korea is a more recent player in the Asian space race.[74] In August 2006 South Korea launched its first military communications satellite, the Mugunghwa-5.[citation needed] The satellite was placed in geosynchronous orbit and collects surveillance information about North Korea.[75] The South Korean government is spending hundreds of millions of dollars on space technology and was due to launch its first space launcher, the Korea Space Launch Vehicle, in 2008.[76][needs update] South Korea's government justifies the cost by pointing to the long-term commercial benefits, as well as enhanced national pride. South Korea has long seen North Korea's significantly longer missile range as a serious threat to its national security. With the nation's first astronaut launched into space, Lee So-yeon, South Korea gained confidence in entering the Asian space race. They have completed the construction of Naro Space Center. South Korea is now attempting to build satellites and rockets with local technology.[77]

### Turkey[edit]

Main article: Turkish Space Agency

Turkey's first Göktürk satellite was launched on December 18, 2012. The satellite is capable of taking images which have a resolution of over two meters per pixel[citation needed] Turkey is also developing an orbital launch system known as UFS.[78]

### Pakistan[edit]

Main articles: Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission and Chronology of Pakistan's rocket tests

On 7 June 1962, with the launch of the Rehbar-I rocket, Pakistan became the first country in the Islamic world and South Asia, third in Asia, and tenth in the world to successfully launch an unmanned spacecraft. SUPARCO has launched several sounding rockets. Pakistan's first satellite, Badr-I, was launched from China in 1990. Badr-B was launched in 2001 from Baikonur Cosmodrome, using a Ukrainian Zenit-2 rocket. In 2011, Paksat-1R—which was contracted for, built, and launched by China—became Pakistan's first communication satellite.[79] Under its Space programme 2040, Pakistan aims to operate five geostationary and six low Earth orbit satellites.

### Other nations and regions[edit]

In 2018, with the launch of the Bangabandhu-1 satellite, which was purchased abroad, Bangladesh began operating its first communication satellite. The Bangladeshi Space Agency SPARRSO intends to launch satellites after 2020. Bangladesh's government has stressed that the country seeks an "entirely peaceful and commercial" role in space.[80]

Since 2002, Malaysia has had an active space program that, since 2019, is overseen by the Malaysian Space Agency.

## Timeline of national firsts[edit]

See also: Comparison of Asian national space programs § Comparison of key technologies

– Indigenous crewed missions  |  |  – Human missions  |  |  – Lunar or Interplanetary missions  |  |  – Other missions

|
|
|
|
|
|

Date  | Nation  | Name  | Asian First  | World achievements

|
|
|
|

11 February 1970  |  Japan | Ohsumi | Satellite | The smallest satellite launch vehicle (L-4S; 9.4t weight, 0.74m diameter) until SS-520
24 February 1975  |  Japan | Taiyo  | Solar observatory |
26 October 1975  |  China | FSW-0  | Satellite recovery[81] |
26 October 1975  |  China | FSW-0:
– 10m (1975)
FSW-1B:
– 4m (1992)[82]
Beidou:
– 0.5m (till 2007)[83] | High resolution imaging satellite |
8 July 1976  |  Indonesia | Palapa A1 | Geosynchronous satellite (launched by NASA)  |
23 February 1977  |  Japan | N-I | Geosynchronous launch  |
21 February 1979  |  Japan | Hakucho | Space observatory |
23 July 1980  |  Vietnam | Phạm Tuân | Asian in space (Soyuz 37)  |
20 September 1981  |  China | FB-1 | Simultaneous satellite launch[84] |
8 January 1985  |  Japan | Sakigake | Leaving Earth orbit, comet fly-by (Halley)  | First interplanetary launch from a country other than the USSR or US, using a solid-fuel rocket (M-3SII)
18 March 1990  |  Japan | Hiten | Lunar fly-by  | First lunar probe from a country other than the USSR or US
19 March 1990  |  Japan | Hagoromo | Reach lunar orbit (assumed)  |
7 April 1990  |  China | CZ-3 | Commercial launch (AsiaSat 1)  |
2 December 1990  |  Japan | Toyohiro Akiyama | Private space traveler (Soyuz TM-11)  | First commercial sponsor (Tokyo Broadcasting System) for a human spaceflight
12 September 1992  |  Japan | Mamoru Mohri | First astronaut trained by an Asian space program (STS-47)  |
10 April 1993  |  Japan | Hiten | Intentional lunar impact  | The first aerobraking test[85]
8 July 1994  |  Japan | Chiaki Mukai | Asian woman in space (STS-65)  |
11 February 1996  |  Japan | HYFLEX | Lifting body spaceplane demonstrator  |
19 November 1997  |  Japan | Takao Doi | Spacewalk (STS-87)  |
28 November 1997  |  Japan | ETS-VII | Rendezvous docking |
3 July 1998  |  Japan | Nozomi | Martian mission (Failure)  |
30 October 2000  |  China | Beidou | Satellite navigation system |
10 September 2002  |  Japan | Kodama[86] | Indigenous Tracking & Data Relay Satellite System |
15 October 2003  |  China | Yang Liwei | First man in space launched by an Asian space program  |
15 October 2003  |  China | Shenzhou 5 | Crewed spacecraft |
19 November 2005  |  Japan | Hayabusa | Soft-landed probe on extraterrestrial object (25143 Itokawa). First sample return mission and use of ion propulsion.  | The first asteroid ascent, sample return from an asteroid
11 January 2007  |  China | FY-1C | ASAT test | Highest in history with altitude 865 km, also the fastest with speed 18k miles
23 February 2008  |  Japan | WINDS | Internet satellite | The fastest internet satellite[87]
11 March 2008  |  Japan | Japanese Experiment Module | Crewed space station module (STS-123, STS-124, STS-127)  | The world's largest pressurized volume in space[88]
25 April 2008  |  China | Tianlian I | First Asian TDRS system to support crewed missions  |
27 September 2008  |  China | Zhai Zhigang (Shenzhou 7)  | Indigenous EVA |
27 September 2008  |  China | BanXing | Crewed spacecraft-launched satellite  |
23 January 2009  |  Japan | GOSAT | Greenhouse gas explorer[89] |
10 September 2009  |  Japan | HTV-1 | Dedicated cargo spacecraft |
20 May 2010  |  Japan | Akatsuki | First Venus mission |
21 May 2010  |  Japan | IKAROS | Solar sail | The first spacecraft to successfully demonstrate solar-sail technology in interplanetary space
25 August 2011  |  China | Chang'e 2 | First spacecraft to orbit Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point.  | Lunar probe with extended deep space missions (Earth–Sun L2 Lagrangian point)
13 December 2012  |  China | Chang'e 2 | First spacecraft to visit an asteroid (4179 Toutatis) from Earth–Sun Lagrangian point after completing a lunar mission.
29 September 2011  |  China | Tiangong-1 | First independent space habitation module/space station |
18 June 2012  |  China | Shenzhou 9 | First crewed space docking (with Tiangong-1)  |
14 December 2013  |  China | Chang'e 3/Yutu | First lunar soft landing and lunar rover | First lunar soft landing in the 21st century
24 September 2014  |  India | Mars Orbiter Mission | First successful Mars mission | First Martian mission by a country to succeed on the first attempt. Third individual country to do so after the USSR and the USA.
31 October 2014  |  China | Chang'e 5-T1 | First Lunar orbit return  |
27 November 2014  |  China | Chang'e 5-T1 | First spacecraft to orbit Earth–Moon L2 Lagrangian point  |
20 October 2018  |  Japan | Mio | First Mercury mission (with ESA), planned orbital insertion in December 2025  |
3 January 2019  |  China | Chang'e 4 | First soft landing and lunar rover on the far side of the Moon by any country
5 December 2020  |  China | Chang'e 5 | First lunar ascent, lunar rendezvous and docking and lunar sample return  | First automated lunar rendezvous and docking by any country.
15 March 2021  |  China | Chang'e 5 Orbiter | First spacecraft to orbit Earth-Sun L1 Lagrange point  |
15 May 2021  |  China | Tianwen-1/Zhurong | First successful Mars soft landing and Mars rover | First country to complete orbiting, landing and roving in one single mission
17 June 2021  |  China | Tiangong space station/Shenzhou 12 | First indigenous permanent space station  | First human mission-rated hall-effect thrusters in operation
7 November 2021  |  China | Wang Yaping | First female spacewalk (Shenzhou 13)  |

### Other achievements[edit]

* First Asian country to collaborate on the International Space Station –  Japan
* First Asian country to launch over 100 satellites from a single rocket –  India[90][91]

Timeline of the heaviest satellite launch vehicle in Asia  First success | LEO | GTO / GEO | Notes

|
|
|

11 Feb 1970  |  L-4S (26 kg) |  | First launch was 1966 (failed 4 times).
24 Apr 1970  |  CZ-1 (0.3 t) | First launch failed in 1969.
26 Jul 1975  |  FB-1 (2.5 t) | Suborbital flight was performed in 1972.
CZ-2A (LEO 2t) failed in 1974.
12 Aug 1986  |  H-I (LEO 3.2 t / GTO 1.1 t) | First stage was a license-built Delta rocket.
16 Jul 1990  |  CZ-2E (LEO 9.2 t / GTO 3.5 t) |
3 Feb 1994  |  H-II (LEO 10.1 t / GTO 3.9 t) |
20 Aug 1997  |  CZ-3B (LEO 11.2 t / GTO 5.2 t) |
18 Dec 2006  |  H-IIA204 (LEO 15 t / GTO 5.8 t) |
10 Sep 2009  |  H-IIB (LEO 19 t / GTO 8 t) |
3 Nov 2016  |  H-IIB (LEO 19 t)  |  CZ-5 (GTO 14 t)[92] |
5 May 2020  |  CZ-5 (LEO 25 t / GTO 14 t) |

## Comparison of key technologies[edit]

Records of each country are listed by chronological order unless otherwise noted.

### Launch vehicle technology[edit]

First successful independent launches (rocket/satellite)

Main article: Timeline of first orbital launches by country

Country  | Year  | Mission

|
|

Japan | 1970  | Lambda-4S/Ohsumi
China | 1970  | Long March 1/Dong Fang Hong I
India | 1980  | SLV/Rohini D1
Israel | 1988  | Shavit/Ofeq 1
Iran | 2009  | Safir-1/Omid
North Korea | 2012  | Unha-3/Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit 2
South Korea | 2022  | KSLV-2 (Nuri)/PVSAT

Solid fuel rockets
Country  | Rocket  | Burn time  | Specific impulse (Vac.)  | Thrust (Vac.)

|
|
|
|

India | S200 booster rocket stage[93] | 130s  | 274.5s  | 5,150 kN (1,160,000 lbf)
Japan | SRB-A series solid fueled rocket boosters  | 100s  | 280s  | 2,260 kN (510,000 lbf)
Israel | Shavit's first stage  | 82s  | 280s  | 1,650 kN (370,000 lbf)
China | Kuaizhou series of launch vehicles  |  |  |
China | Long March 11 launch system  |  | 248s (SL.)  | 1,188 kN (267,000 lbf) (SL.)
Iran | Zuljanah First Stage  | 80s  |  | 725 kN (163,000 lbf) (SL)

Cryogenic and semi-cryogenic rocket engines
Country  | Engine  | Thrust (vac.)  | Stage  | Cycle  | Active  | Status

|
|
|
|
|
|

Japan | LE-5 cryogenic engine  | LE-5 — 102.9 kN (23,100 lbf)
\

-
LE-5A — 121.5 kN (27,300 lbf)
\

-
LE-5B — 144.9 kN (32,600 lbf)  | Upper stage  | 5 — Gas generator
5A and 5B — Expander | 1986 — present | In service
LE-7 cryogenic engine  | LE-7 — 1,078 kN (242,000 lbf)
\

-
LE-7A — 1,074 kN (241,000 lbf)  | Booster  | Staged combustion | 1994 — present | In service
China | YF-73 cryogenic engine  | 44.15 kN (9,930 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Gas generator | 1987–2000  | Retired
YF-75 cryogenic engine  | 78.45 kN (17,640 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Gas generator | 1994 — present | In service
YF-75D cryogenic engine  | 88.36 kN (19,860 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Expander | 2016 — present | In service
YF-77 cryogenic engine  | 700 kN (160,000 lbf)  | Booster  | Gas generator | 2016 — present | In service
YF-79 cryogenic engine  | 250 kN (56,000 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Expander | ~2028  | Under development
YF-90 cryogenic engine  | 2,200 kN (490,000 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Staged combustion | ~2028  | Under development
YF-100 semi-cryogenic engine  | 1,340 kN (300,000 lbf)  | Booster  | Staged combustion | 2015 — present | In service
YF-115 semi-cryogenic engine  | 180 kN (40,000 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Staged combustion | 2015 — present | In service
YF-130 semi-cryogenic engine  | ~5,000 kN (1,100,000 lbf) (SL.)  | Booster  | Staged combustion | ~2028  | Under development
India | CE-7.5 cryogenic engine  | 73.5 kN (16,500 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Staged combustion | 2014 — present | In service
CE-20 cryogenic engine  | 196.5 kN (44,200 lbf)  | Upper stage  | Gas-generator | 2017 — present | In service
SCE-200 semi-cryogenic engine  | 2,030 kN (460,000 lbf)  | Booster  | Staged combustion | After 2022  | Under development

Capability of Launch Vehicle (in active)
Country  | Highest payload capacity

|

LEO | GTO
Launch Vehicle  | Payload capacity  | Active since  | Launch Vehicle  | Payload capacity  | Active since
China | CZ-5B | 25,000 kg (55,000 lb)  | 2020  | CZ-5 | 14,500 kg (32,000 lb)  | 2016
Japan | H-IIA | 15,000 kg (33,000 lb)  | 2001  | H-IIA | 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)  | 2001
India | GSLV MkIII | 10,000 kg (22,000 lb)  | 2017  | GSLV MkIII | 4,000 kg (8,800 lb)  | 2017
Israel | Shavit | 800 kg (1,800 lb)  | 1988  | Not any yet
Iran | Simorgh | 350 kg (770 lb)  | 2016  | Not any yet
North Korea | Unha-3 | 200 kg (440 lb)  | 2009  | Not any yet
South Korea | KSLV-2 (Nuri) | 2,600 kg (5,700 lb)  | 2022  | Not any yet

Biggest multi-satellite simultaneous launches (by number)
Country  | Number of satellites  | Year  | Launch Vehicle  | Flight

|
|
|
|

India | 104  | 2017  | PSLV-XL  | C37
China | 22  | 2022  | Long March 8 | Y2
Japan | 8  | 2009  | H-IIA | F15

First flight of space shuttles
Including shuttle-shaped hyper-sonic reentry vehicles reach to space.
Country  | Spaceplane  | First flight mission  | Year  | Program status

|
|
|
|

Japan | HOPE-X | HYFLEX | 1996  | Cancelled
China | Various  | Shenlong | 2007  | Ongoing
India | RLV–TD | Hypersonic Flight Experiment | 2016  | Under development

### Satellite technology[edit]

Payloads in orbit by number
First five as of 1 February 2020[94] Country  | Active  | In orbit  | Decayed  | Total

|
|
|
|

China | 352  | 407  | 84  | 491
Japan | 90  | 183  | 65  | 248
India | 64  | 101  | 12  | 113
Israel | 17  | 20  | 6  | 26
South Korea | 15  | 22  | 5  | 27

Optical satellite imagery (by highest available resolution)
Country  | Resolution  | Satellite  | Year launched

|
|
|

China | 0.1 meter  | Gaofen 11  | 2020
India | 0.25 meter  | Cartosat-3 | 2019
Japan | 0.4 meter  | IGS Optical 5V  | 2013
Israel | 0.5 meter  | Ofeq 9  | 2010
South Korea | 0.55 meter  | KOMPSAT-3A  | 2015
Iran | 10 meters  | Noor-2 | 2022

Radar satellite imagery (by resolution)
Country  | Resolution  | Satellite  | Year launched

|
|
|

India | 0.35 meter  | RISAT-2BR1 | 2019
0.5 meter x 0.3 meter  | RISAT-2B | 2019
Israel | 0.5 meter  | TecSAR | 2008
China | 0.3 meter  | Yaogan 30  | 2018
Japan | 0.5 meter  | IGS R-5  | 2017
South Korea | 1 meter  | KOMPSAT-5  | 2013

Communications satellite technology

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by adding missing items with reliable sources.

Country  | Satellite  | Transponders  | Mass  | Power  | Year launched

|
|
|
|
|

China | Shijian-20 | 120+  | 8,000 kg (18,000 lb)  | 28 kW  | 2019
Japan | ST-2 | 51  | 5,090 kg (11,220 lb)  |  | 2011
India | GSAT-16 | 48  | 3,100 kg (6,800 lb)  | 5.6 kW  | 2014
GSAT-11 | 40  | 5,854 kg (12,906 lb)  | 13.6 kW  | 2018

Solar Sail spacecraft
Country  | Satellite  | Type  | Year launched

|
|
|

Japan | IKAROS | Extraterrestrial exploration  | 2010

Spacecraft powered by indigenous plasma thrusters
Country  | Spacecraft (engine)  | Power  | Thrust  | Specific impulse  | Year

|
|
|
|
|

Japan | ETS-IV (Unnamed teflon pulsed plasma thruster)  | 20 W  |  | 300s  | 1981
Space Flyer Unit (EPEX, magnetoplasmadynamic thruster)  | 430 W  | 12.9 mN  | 600s  | 1995
China | Dongfeng 5 ballistic rocket (MDT-2A, teflon pulsed plasma thruster)  | 5 W  |  | 280s  | 1981

Spacecraft powered by indigenous ion thrusters
Country  | Spacecraft  | Power  | Thrust  | Specific impulse  | Year launched

|
|
|
|
|

Japan | Hayabusa (μ-10, microwave ion thrusters)  | 350 W  | 8 mN  | 3200s  | 2003
China | Shijian 9A (LIPS-200, ring-cusp magnetic field ion thruster)  | 1 kW  | 40 mN  | 3000s  | 2012
India | GSAT-20 (Full)  |  |  |  | 2022 (Planned)

Spacecraft powered by indigenous Hall thrusters
Country  | Spacecraft  | Power  | Thrust  | Specific impulse  | Year launched

|
|
|
|
|

South Korea | DubaiSat-2 | 0.3 kW  | 7 mN  | 1000s  | 2013
China | Shijian 17 (HEP-100MF, magnetic focusing hall thruster)  | 1.4 kW  |  | 1850s  | 2016
Shijian 17 (LHT-100)  | 1.536 kW  | 83 mN  | 1600s
Tiangong space station (HET-80)  | 1.35 kW  | 80 mN  | 1600s  | 2021

### Human spaceflight and rendezvous space docking and berthing capabilities[edit]

First indigenous human spaceflights

Main article: List of human spaceflight programs

Country  | Program  | First successful human spaceflight  | Status

|
|
|

Name  | Period  | Year  | Spacecraft
China | Project 714 | 1968–1972  | —  | Shuguang-1  | Cancelled
Project 873 | 1978–1980  | —  | Piloted FSW satellite  | Cancelled
Project 921/China Manned Space | 1992–present | 2003  | Shenzhou 5 | Ongoing
India | Indian Human Spaceflight Programme | 2007–present | 2024 (Planned)  | Gaganyaan | Ongoing

Independent human spaceflights

See also: List of space travelers by nationality

Country  | Total flights  | Total persons  | Total person flights

|
|
|

China[95] | 9  | 14  | 23

First independent extravehicular activity
Country  | Spacecraft involved  | Year

|
|

China | Shenzhou 7 | 2008

First independent Space rendezvous
Country  | Uncrewed rendezvous  | crewed rendezvous

|
|

Spacecraft involved  | Year  | Spacecraft involved  | Year
Japan | ETS-VII | 1997  |  |
China | Shenzhou 8 and Tiangong 1 | 2011  | Shenzhou 9 and Tiangong 1 | 2012

First space habitation module
Country  | Spacecraft  | Year launched

|
|

Japan | Kibo | 2008
China | Tiangong 1 | 2011
India[96][97][98][99] | Indian Space Station | ~2030 (Proposed)

First Space laboratory
Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|

Japan | Kibo | 2009
China | Tiangong 2 | 2016
India | Indian Space Station  | ~2030(Proposed)

Resupply spacecraft
Country  | Spacecraft  | Launch payload  | Year launched

|
|
|

Japan | HTV | 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)  | 2009
China | Tianzhou | 6,500 kg (14,300 lb)  | 2017

First permanent space station and space presence
Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|

China | Tiangong space station | 2021

### Lunar exploration[edit]

First orbiters to the Moon
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|
|

1  |  Japan | Hiten/Hagoromo | 1990
2  |  China | Chang'e 1 | 2007
3  |  India | Chandrayaan-1 | 2008
TBD  |  South Korea | Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter | 2022 (Planned)

First intentional Moon landings
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year  | Landing type

|
|
|
|

1  |  Japan | Hiten | 1993  | Controlled impact
2  |  India | Moon Impact Probe | 2008  | Controlled impact
3  |  China | Chang'e 1 | 2009  | Controlled impact

First Lunar soft landings/Lunar rovers
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|
|

1  |  China | Chang'e 3/Yutu | 2013
TBD  |  Israel | Beresheet | 2019 (Failed)
TBD  |  India | Chandrayaan-2/Pragyan | 2019 (Failed)
Chandrayaan-3 | 2023 (Planned)
TBD  |  United Arab Emirates | Emirates Lunar Mission | 2023 (Planned)
TBD  |  India
Japan | Lunar Polar Exploration Mission | 2024 (Planned)

First Lunar sample-return missions
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|
|

1  |  China | Chang'e 5 | 2020

### Interplanetary exploration missions[edit]

First probes to Mercury
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year  | Type

|
|
|
|

TBD  |  Japan | Mercury Magnetospheric Orbiter | 2018 (en route)  | Orbiter

First probes to Venus
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year  | Type

|
|
|
|

1  |  Japan | Akatsuki | 2015  | Orbiter
TBD  |  India | Shukrayaan-1 | 2024 or 2026 (Planned)  | Orbiter with aerobots
TBD  |  China | Gan De | 2030 (Planned)  | Flyby

First orbiters to Mars
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|
|

1  |  India | Mars Orbiter Mission | 2014[100]
2  |  United Arab Emirates | Hope Mars Mission | 2021
3  |  China | Yinghuo-1 | 2011 (Failed)[101]
Tianwen-1 | 2021
TBD  |  Japan | Nozomi | 1998 (Failed)

First Mars soft landings
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year

|
|
|

1  |  China | Tianwen-1/Zhurong | 2021

First Asteroid explorations
No. | Country  | Spacecraft  | Year  | Type

|
|
|
|

1  |  Japan | Hayabusa | 2003  | Sample return
2  |  China | Chang'e 2 | 2012  | Flyby
Other comparable technologies  Nation | Multi-satellite simultaneous launches | Launch of foreign satellite | Geostationary launches | Atmos-
pheric reentry | Rendezvous dockings in orbit | Satellite navigation system | Data relay satellites | Martian missions | Solar Space Missions | Space observatories

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

China | 1981
(FB-1)[102]
3 Sats | 1990
CZ-2E
science satellite | 1984
Dong Fang Hong 02
(by CZ-3) | 1975
FSW-0 | 2011
Tiangong 1 | 2000
Beidou | 2008
Tianlian I | 2021
Tianwen-1/Zhurong (rover) (orbiter, lander, and rover)
| 2021
CHASE | 2015
Dark Matter Particle Explorer
India | 1999
(PSLV-CA C2)

3 Sats

| 1999
PSLV-C2
Kitsat-3
DLR-Tubsat | 2001
Kalpana-1
(by PSLV) | 2007
SRE-1 | SPADEX

(planned)

| 2013
IRNSS[103] | IDRSS

(Planned)

| 2013
Mangalyaan[100]
(orbiter) | 2021 (planned)
Aditya-L1 | 2015
Astrosat
Japan | 1986
(H-I H15F)[104]
3 Sats | 2002
H-IIA
FedSat | 1977
ETS-II[105]
(by N-I) | 1994
OREX | 1997
ETS-VII[106] | 2010
QZSS[107] | 2002
Kodama | 1998
Nozomi
(orbiter) (Failure) | 1975
Taiyo[108] | 1979
Hakucho

? : Date is assumed
Only projects with under-development or above status have been listed

## Asian orbital launch systems[edit]

### Orbital launch systems from Asian national space agencies[edit]

Main article: List of orbital launch systems

* Long March 3B lifting off from Xichang Satellite Launch Center.

* Launch of GSLV Mk III D2 from SLP SDSC carrying GSAT-29.

* H-IIB F2 carrying HTV-2.

The list documents launch systems developed or used by national space agencies only and not private spaceflight companies.

Legend:

Under development

Operational

Retired/Cancelled

Launch system  | Country of origin  | Class and type  | Payload capacity  | Maiden flight  | Manufacturer  | Status  | Ref

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

LEO (Orbit)  | GTO | Other
Al-Abid |  Iraq | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 100 kg (220 lb) to 300 kg (660 lb) (200 km (120 mi) to 500 km (310 mi)  | —  |  | 1989  | Space Research Center, Baghdad  | Abandoned  | [109]
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle |  India | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 150 kg (330 lb) (400 km (250 mi))  | —  |  | 1987  | ISRO | Retired  | [110]
Epsilon |  Japan | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) (250 km (160 mi)x500 km (310 mi))
700 kg (1,500 lb) (500 km (310 mi))  |  | 590 kg (1,300 lb) to 500 km (310 mi) (SSO)  | 2013  | JAXA/IHI | In service  | [111]
Feng Bao 1 |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,500 kg (5,500 lb)  |  |  | 1972  | Shanghai Bureau No.2 | Retired  | [112]
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle | GSLV Mk I  |  India | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 5,000 kg (11,000 lb)  | 2,150 kg (4,740 lb)  |  | 2001  | ISRO | Retired  | [113]
GSLV Mk II  | 5,000 kg (11,000 lb)  | 2,700 kg (6,000 lb)  |  | 2010  | ISRO | In service
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III |  India | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 10,000 kg (22,000 lb)  | 4,000 kg (8,800 lb)  |  | 2014 (Suborbital)
2017 (Orbital) | ISRO | In service  | [114]
GX |  Japan
United States | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,600 kg (7,900 lb)  |  | 1,814 kg (3,999 lb) to 800 km (500 mi) SSO | —  | JAXA/ULA/IHI | Cancelled  | [115]
H-I |  Japan
United States | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,200 kg (7,100 lb)  | 1,100 kg (2,400 lb)  |  | 1986  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries/McDonnell Douglas | Retired  | [116]
H-II | H-II |  Japan | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 10,060 kg (22,180 lb)  | 3,930 kg (8,660 lb)  |  | 1994  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries | Retired  | [117]
H-IIA | 10,000 kg (22,000 lb) to 15,000 kg (33,000 lb)  | 4,100 kg (9,000 lb) to 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)  |  | 2001  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries/ATK | In service  | [118]
H-IIB | 16,500 kg (36,400 lb)  | 8,000 kg (18,000 lb)  |  | 2009  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries | Retired  | [119]
H3 |  Japan | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle |  | >8,000 kg (18,000 lb)  | >4,000 kg (8,800 lb) to SSO (Minimum configuration)  | 2020 (Planned)  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries | Under development  | [120]
J-I |  Japan | Experimental expendable launch vehicle | –  | –  | 1,054 kg (2,324 lb) along 1,300 km (810 mi) downrange.  | 1996  | NASDA/ISAS | Retired  | [121]
Jielong-1 |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle |  | —  | 150 kg (330 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (SSO)  | 2019  | CALT | In service  | [122]
Kaituozhe | Kaituozhe-1  |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 100 kg (220 lb)  | Not applicable |  | 2002  | CASC | Retired  | [123]
Kaituozhe-2  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 800 kg (1,800 lb)  |  |  | 2017  | In service  | [124]
Kaituozhe-2A  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,000 km (1,200 mi)  |  |  | Unconfirmed  | Unknown
Kuaizhou | Kuaizhou 1  |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle |  | —  | 430 kg (950 lb) to 500 km (310 mi) (SSO)  | 2013  | CASC | In service  | [125][126]
Kuaizhou-1A  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 300 kg (660 lb)  | —  | 250 kg (550 lb) to 500 km (310 mi) (SSO)
200 kg (440 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (SSO)  | 2017  | In service
Kuaizhou-11  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)  |  | 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (SSO)  | 2019–20 (Planned)  | Under development  | [127]
Kuaizhou-21  | Heavy lift expendable launch vehicle | 20,000 kg (44,000 lb)  |  |  | 2025 (Projected)  | Under development  | [125][128]
Kuaizhou-31  | Super heavy lift expendable launch vehicle | 70,000 kg (150,000 lb)  |  |  | TBD  | Under development
Lambda (rocket family) |  Japan | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 26 kg (57 lb)  |  |  | 1970  | ISAS/Nissan | Retired  | [129]
Long 1 March rocket family  | Long March 1 |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 300 kg (660 lb)  |  |  | 1970  | MAI/CASC/CAST | Retired  | [130]
Long March 1D | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 930 kg (2,050 lb)  |  |  | 1995  | CALT | Retired  | [131]
Long March 2 | Long March 2A |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,000 kg (4,400 lb)  |  |  | 1974  | CALT | Retired  | [132]
Long March 2C | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,850 kg (8,490 lb)  | 1,250 kg (2,760 lb)  | 1,900 kg (4,200 lb) to SSO | 1982  | In service
Long March 2D | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)  |  | 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) to SSO | 1992  | In service
Long March 2E | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 9,500 kg (20,900 lb)  | 3,500 kg (7,700 lb)  |  | 1990  | In service
Long March 2F | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 8,400 kg (18,500 lb)  |  |  | 1990  | In service
Long March 3 | Long 3 March  |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 5,000 kg (11,000 lb)  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)  |  | 1984  | CALT | Retired  | [133]
Long March 3A | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 8,500 kg (18,700 lb)  | 2,600 kg (5,700 lb)  | 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) to HCO | 1993  | In service
Long March 3B, 3B/E  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 11,500 kg (25,400 lb)  | 5,100 kg (11,200 lb)  | 3,300 kg (7,300 lb) to HCO
2,000 kg (4,400 lb) to GEO | 1996  | In service
Long March 3C, 3C/E  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle |  | 3,900 kg (8,600 lb)  | 2,400 kg (5,300 lb) to HCO | 2008  | In service
Long March 4 | Long March 4A |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 4,000 kg (8,800 lb)  |  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit | 1988  | CALT | Retired  | [134]
Long March 4B | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 4,200 kg (9,300 lb)  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)  | 2,800 kg (6,200 lb) to SSO | 1999  | In service
Long March 4C | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 4,200 kg (9,300 lb)  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)  | 2,800 kg (6,200 lb) to SSO | 2006  | In service
Long March 5 |  China | Heavy lift expendable launch vehicle | 25,000 kg (55,000 lb) (200 km (120 mi) x 400 km (250 mi))  | 14,000 kg (31,000 lb)  | 8,200 kg (18,100 lb) to TLI | 2016  | CALT | In service  | [135]
Long March 6 |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle |  | —  | 1,080 kg (2,380 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (SSO)  | 2015  | SAST | In service  | [136]
Long March 6A |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle |  | —  | 4,000 kg (8,800 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (SSO)  | 2022  | SAST | In service  | [136]
Long March 7 |  China | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 13,500 kg (29,800 lb) (200 km (120 mi) x 400 km (250 mi))  | 5,500 kg (12,100 lb)  |  | 2016  | CALT | In service  | [137]
Long March 9[138] |  China | Super heavy lift | 140,000[139] | 66,000[140] | 50,000 to TLI[139]
44,000 to TMI[141] | 2028[142]–2030[141] | CALT | In development  |
Long March 11 |  China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 700 kg (1,500 lb)  |  | 350 kg (770 lb) to 700 km (430 mi) (Sun-synchronous orbit)  | 2015  | CALT | In service  | [143]
Mu (rocket family) | Mu-3C  |  Japan | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 195 kg (430 lb)  |  |  | 1974  | ISAS/Nissan/IHI | Retired  | [144]
Mu-3H  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 300 kg (660 lb)  |  |  | 1977  | Retired
Mu-3S  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 300 kg (660 lb)  |  |  | 1980  | Retired
Mu-3SII  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 770 kg (1,700 lb)  |  |  | 1985  | Retired
Mu-4S  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 180 kg (400 lb)  |  |  | 1971  | Retired
M-V | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 1,850 kg (4,080 lb)  |  | 1,300 kg (2,900 lb) to Polar LEO | 1997  | Retired
N (rocket family) | N-I |  United States
Japan | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 1,200 kg (2,600 lb)  | 360 kg (790 lb)  |  | 1975  | Mitsubishi Heavy Industries/McDonnell Douglas | Retired  | [145]
N-II | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,000 kg (4,400 lb)  | 730 kg (1,610 lb)  |  | 1981  | Retired  | [146]
Naro |  South Korea
Russia | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 100 kg (220 lb)  |  |  | 2013  | Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI)/Khrunichev | Retired  | [147]
Nuri |  South Korea | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,600 kg (5,700 lb) (300 km (190 mi))  |  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb) to SSO | 2022  | Korea Aerospace Research Institute (KARI) | In service  | [148]
Paektusan-1 |  North Korea | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 700 kg (1,500 lb)  |  |  | 1998  | KCST | Retired  | [149]
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle | PSLV-G  |  India | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,200 kg (7,100 lb)  | 1,050 kg (2,310 lb)  | 1,600 kg (3,500 lb) to SSO | 1993  | ISRO | Retired  | [150]
PSLV-CA  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,100 kg (4,600 lb)  |  | 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) to SSO | 2007  | In service
PSLV-XL  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,800 kg (8,400 lb)  | 1,300 kg (2,900 lb)  | 1,750 kg (3,860 lb) to SSO
1,350 kg (2,980 lb) to TMI | 2008  | In service
PSLV-DL  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 2,100 kg (4,600 lb)  |  | 1,100 kg (2,400 lb) to SSO | 2019  | In service
PSLV-QL  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 3,800 kg (8,400 lb)  | 1,300 kg (2,900 lb)  | 1,750 kg (3,860 lb) to SSO
1,350 kg (2,980 lb) to TMI | 2019  | In service
PSLV-3S  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 500 kg (1,100 lb) (550 km (340 mi)  |  |  | —  | Concept only
Qased |  Iran | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 50 kg (110 lb)  |  |  | 2020  | IRGCASF | In service  | [151]
Reusable Launch Vehicle |  India | TSTO Reusable launch system |  |  |  | 2016 (Flight experiment)  | ISRO | Under development  | [152]
RPS-420 | Pengorbitan-1  |  Indonesia | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 25 kg (55 lb)  | —  |  | TBD  | LAPAN | Proposed  | [153]
Pengorbitan-2  | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 50 kg (110 lb)  | —  |  | TBD  | Proposed
S-Series (rocket family) | SS-520 |  Japan | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 100 kg (220 lb) (>300 km (190 mi)  | —  |  | 1980  | IHI Corporation | In service  | [154]
Safir |  Iran | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 65 kg (143 lb)  | —  |  | 2008  | ISA | Retired  | [155][58]
Satellite Launch Vehicle |  India | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 40 kg (88 lb) (400 km (250 mi)  | —  |  | 1979  | ISRO | Retired  | [156]
Shavit |  Israel | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 800 kg (1,800 lb)  | —  |  | 1988  | Israel Aerospace Industries | In service  | [157]
Simorgh |  Iran | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 350 kg (770 lb)  | —  |  | 2016 (Sub-orbital)  | ISA | In service  | [158]
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle |  India | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 500 kg (1,100 lb) (500 km (310 mi))  | —  | 300 kg (660 lb)  | 2020 (Planned)  | ISRO | Under development  | [159]
TSLV |  Republic of China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 50 kg (110 lb) (700 km (430 mi))  | —  |  | TBD  | NSPO | Under development  | [160][161]
Unha |  North Korea | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 200 kg (440 lb) (465 km (289 mi) x 502 km (312 mi))  | —  |  | 2009  | KCST | In service  | [162]
Unified Modular Launch Vehicle | ULV with 6 x S-13 boosters  |  India | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 4,500 kg (9,900 lb)  | 1,500 kg (3,300 lb)  |  | No earlier than 2022  | ISRO | Under development  | [163][164][165]
ULV with 2 x S-60 boosters  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 10,000 kg (22,000 lb)  | 3,000 kg (6,600 lb)  |  | No earlier than 2022  | Under development
ULV with 2 x S-139 boosters  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 12,000 kg (26,000 lb)  | 4,500 kg (9,900 lb)  |  | No earlier than 2022  | Under development
ULV with 2 x S-200 boosters  | Medium lift expendable launch vehicle | 15,000 kg (33,000 lb)  | 6,000 kg (13,000 lb)  |  | No earlier than 2022  | Under development
HLV variant  | Heavy lift expendable launch vehicle | 20,000 kg (44,000 lb)  | 10,000 kg (22,000 lb)  |  | 2020s  | Under development
Uydu Fırlatma Sistemi |  Turkey | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | Microsatellites (700 km (430 mi))  | —  |  | TBD  | ROKETSAN | Under development  | [166]
Yun Feng SLV  |  Republic of China | Small lift expendable launch vehicle | 200 kg (440 lb) (500 km (310 mi)  | —  |  | TBD  | NCSIST | Under development  | [161]
Zuljanah |  Iran | Small lift expendable launch vehicle  | 220 kg (490 lb)  |  |  | 2021  | ISA | Under development  | [167]

### Orbital launch frequency[edit]

2000–2009  | 2000[168] | 2001[169] | 2002[170] | 2003[171] | 2004[172] | 2005[173] | 2006[174] | 2007[175] | 2008[176] | 2009[177] | Total

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

China | 5 | 1 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 9 | 11 | 6 | 63
Japan | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | – | 2 | 6 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 22
India | - | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 16
Israel | - | – | 1 | – | 1 | – | – | 1 | – | – | 3
Iran | - | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1 | 2
South Korea | - | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 1 | 1
North Korea | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | - | 1 | 1
Total | 6 | 4 | 10 | 12 | 10 | 8 | 13 | 15 | 16 | 14 | 108
2010–2019  | 2010[178] | 2011[179] | 2012[180] | 2013[181] | 2014[182] | 2015[183] | 2016[184] | 2017[185] | 2018[186] | 2019[187] | Total

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

China | 15 | 19 | 19 | 15 | 16 | 19 | 22 | 18 | 39 | 34 | 216
India | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 7 | 5 | 7 | 6 | 47
Japan | 2 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 6 | 2 | 37
Iran | - | 1 | 3 | 1 | – | 1 | – | 1 | – | 3 | 10
North Korea | - | – | 2 | – | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | 3
Israel | 1 | – | – | – | 1 | – | 1 | – | – | – | 3
South Korea | 1 | – | – | 1 | – | – | – | – | – | – | 2
Total | 22 | 26 | 28 | 24 | 26 | 29 | 35 | 31 | 52 | 45 | 318
2020–  | 2020[188] | 2021[189] | Total

|
|
|

China | 39 | 56 | 95
India | 2 | 2 | 4
Japan | 4 | 3 | 7
Iran | 2 | 2 | 4
Israel | 1 | 0 | 1
South Korea | 0 | 1 | 1
Total | 48 | 64 | 112

## Human spaceflight[edit]

Legend:

Successful programs

Planned, defined, funded and scheduled

Planned and proposed with no clear deadline or funding or on hold

Abandoned or cancelled

Maiden human spacefaring attempts by country  Country  | Program  | Agency engaged  | First orbital crewed launch

|
|
|

Spacecraft  | Term(s) for space traveler  | First human(s) launched  | Date  | Launch system
People's Republic of China | Project 714 (1968–1972)  | Chinese space program | Shuguang spacecraft (Intended)  | 航天员 (in Chinese) hángtiānyuán
taikonaut  | —  | —  | Long March 2A (Intended)
Project 863 (1976–1980)  | Chinese space program | Piloted FSW spacecraft (Intended)  | —  | —  | Long March 2 (Intended)
Japan | HOPE-X (late 1980s–2003)  | National Space Development Agency of Japan | HOPE-X spaceplane (Intended)  | 宇宙飛行士 (in Japanese)

uchūhikōshi or アストロノート astoronoto

| —  | —  | H-IIA (Intended)
Ba'athist Iraq | ... (1989–2001)  | Space Research Center, Baghdad  | —  | رجل فضاء (in Arabic)

rajul faḍāʼ رائد فضاء (in Arabic) rāʼid faḍāʼ ملاح فضائي (in Arabic) mallāḥ faḍāʼiy

| —  | —  | Tammouz 2 or 3 (Intended)
People's Republic of China | China Manned Space Program (1992–present)  | China Manned Space Agency | Shenzhou crewed spacecraft
Tianzhou cargo spacecraft
Tiangong Space Station | 航天员 (in Chinese) hángtiānyuán
taikonaut  | 杨利伟 (Yang Liwei)  | 2003-10-15  | Long March 2F
Long March 7
Long March 5B
People's Republic of China | Project 869 (1990s)  | China National Space Administration | Tianjiao-1 or Chang Cheng-1 (Great Wall-1) winged spaceplanes (Intended)  | 航天员 (in Chinese) hángtiānyuán
taikonaut  | —  | —  | 869 reusable shuttle system (Intended)
Japan | Kankoh-maru (1993–1997,2005)  | Japanese Rocket Society [ja], Kawasaki Heavy Industries and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries | Kankoh-maru reusable shuttle system (Intended)  | 宇宙飛行士 (in Japanese)

uchūhikōshi or アストロノート astoronoto

| —  | —  | Kankoh-maru reusable shuttle system (Intended)
Japan | ... (2001–2003)  | National Space Development Agency of Japan | Fuji spacecraft (Intended)  | 宇宙飛行士 (in Japanese)

uchūhikōshi or アストロノート astoronoto

| —  | —  | H-IIA (Intended)
India | Indian Human Spaceflight Programme (2007–present)  | Human Space Flight Centre (ISRO)  | Gaganyaan spacecraft and small space laboratory  | Vyomanaut/Gaganaut  | TBA  | December 2021 (Planned)
Before 2022-08-15 (Scheduled)  | GSLV Mk III
People's Republic of China | Project 921-3 (2000s–present)  | China Manned Space Agency | Shenlong spaceplane  | 航天员 (in Chinese) hángtiānyuán
taikonaut  | TBD  | TBD  | 921-3 RLV (or Tengyun either HTS maglev launch assist) reusable shuttle system
Japan | ... (2008–present)  | Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency | HTV-based spacecraft and small space laboratory  | 宇宙飛行士 (in Japanese)

uchūhikōshi or アストロノート astoronoto

| TBD  | TBD  | H-IIB
Iran | Iranian human spaceflight program (2005–2017, on hold)  | Iranian Space Agency | Class E Kavoshgar spacecraft and small space laboratory |  | TBD  | TBD  | TBD
North Korea | DPRK space program (2010s-present)  | National Aerospace Development Administration | Spacecraft and small space laboratory |  | TBD  | TBD  | Unha 9, 20

### China[edit]

Main articles: China Manned Space Program, Tiangong program, and Tiangong Space Station

#### From crewed spacecrafts to space station[edit]

Shenzhou, China's crewed spacecraft.

Wentian, launched in July 2022, is one of the modules of Tiangong Space Station.

China was the first Asian country and third nation in the world, after the USSR and USA, to send humans into space. During the Space Race between the two superpowers, which culminated with Apollo 11 landing humans on the Moon, Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai decided on 14 July 1967 that China should not be left behind, and initiated their own crewed space program: the top-secret Project 714, which aimed to put two people into space by 1973 with the Shuguang spacecraft. Nineteen PLAAF pilots were selected for this goal in March 1971. The Shuguang-1 spacecraft, to be launched with the CZ-2A rocket, was designed to carry a crew of two. The program was officially cancelled on 13 May 1972 for economic reasons.

A second, short-lived crewed program was based on the successful implementation of landing technology by FSW satellites. It was announced a few times in 1978 with the publishing of some details, including photos, but then was abruptly canceled in 1980. It has been argued that the second crewed program was created solely for propaganda purposes, and was never intended to produce results.[190]

In 1992, under China Manned Space Program (CMS), also known as "Project 921", authorization and funding was given for the first phase of a third, successful attempt at crewed spaceflight. To achieve independent human spaceflight capability, China developed Shenzhou spacecraft and Long March 2F rocket dedicated for human spaceflight in the next few years, along with critical infrastructures like new launch site and flight control center being built. The first uncrewed spacecraft, Shenzhou 1, was launched on 20 November 1999 and recovered the next day, marking the first step of the realization of China's human spaceflight capability. Three more uncrewed missions were conducted in the next few years in order to verify the key technologies. On 15 October 2003 Shenzhou 5, China's first crewed spaceflight mission, put Yang Liwei in orbit for 21 hours and returned safely back to Inner Mongolia, making China the third nation to launch a human into orbit independently.[191]

The goal of the second phase of CMS was to make technology breakthroughs in extravehicular activities (EVA, or spacewalk) as well as space rendezvous and docking to support short-term human activities in space.[192] On 25 September 2008 during the flight of Shenzhou 7, Zhai Zhigang and Liu Boming completed China's first EVA.[193] In 2011, China launched the Tiangong 1 target spacecraft and Shenzhou 8 uncrewed spacecraft. The two spacecrafts completed China's first automatic rendezvous and docking on 3 November 2011.[194] About 9 months later, Tiangong 1 completed the first manual rendezvous and docking with Shenzhou 9, which carried China's first female astronaut Liu Yang.[195]

In September 2016, Tiangong 2 was launched into the orbit. It was a space laboratory with more advanced functions and equipment than Tiangong 1. A month later, Shenzhou 11 was launched and docked with Tiangong 2. Two astronauts entered Tiangong 2 and stationed for about 30 days and verified the viability of astronauts' medium-term stay in space.[196] In April 2017, China's first cargo spacecraft, Tianzhou 1 docked with Tiangong 2 and completed multiple in-orbit propellant refueling tests, which marked the successful completion of the second phase of CMS.[196]

The third phase of CMS began in 2020. The goal of this phase is to build China's own space station, Tiangong.[197] The first module of Tiangong, the Tianhe core module, was launched into orbit by China's most powerful rocket Long March 5B on 29 April 2021.[198] It was later visited by multiple cargo and crewed spacecrafts and demonstrated China's capability of sustaining Chinese astronauts' long-term stay in space.

According to CMS announcement, all missions of Tiangong Space Station are scheduled to be carried out by the end of 2022.[199] Once the construction is completed, Tiangong will enter the application and development phase, which is poised to last for no less than 10 years.[199]

#### Future development[edit]

China has tested the next-generation crewed spacecraft, which is supposed to replace Shenzhou by introducing reusability and larger capacity.[200] Another type of reusable experimental spacecraft was launched and returned successfully in September 2020 with little details disclosed.[201]

In addition to low Earth orbit, China is aiming for a crewed moon landing mission in the 2030s. The concepts of several critical components, like rocket and spacecraft, have been displayed yet no formal announcement has been made by Chinese authority yet.[202]

### India[edit]

Main articles: Indian Human Spaceflight Programme, Human Space Flight Centre, and Gaganyaan

Recovery of the CARE module

#### First human spaceflights[edit]

Just a few days after China said that it would put a human into orbit in the second half of 2003, Indian Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee publicly urged his country's scientists to work toward sending a man to the Moon.[203]

India's Human Spaceflight Programme (HSP) was officially started in 2007[204][205] by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) with the aim of developing the technology needed to launch crewed spacecraft into low Earth orbit.[206] To demonstrate the ability of recovering crewed orbiters, SRE-1 was conducted in the same year.[207] The GSLV Mk III launch system—with the ability to put 10 tonnes in LEO, sufficient to carry crewed spacecraft—was developed, and work on the ISRO Orbital Vehicle initiated. In December 2014, a Crew Module Atmospheric Re-entry Experiment was conducted during the sub-orbital flight of GSLV Mk III.[208]

The Mysore-based Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) has developed dried and packaged food for astronauts. The food laboratory has developed around 70 varieties of dehydrated and processed food items that have undergone strict procedures to zero-in on containing the necessary micro bacterial and macro bacterial nutrients. Special care has to be taken in the packaging. The food item should be of limited weight but at the same time should be high in nutrition.[209]

In July 2018, a pad abort test was conducted to validate a crew escape system.[210] Parachute tests were scheduled before the end of 2019 and multiple in-flight abort tests were planned starting mid-2020.[163]

On 15 August (Indian independence day) 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi declared that before India's 75th independence day in 2022, the country would have sent humans into space. The crewed module mission was renamed Gaganyaan.[211] India is expected to send 3 humans into LEO on Gaganyaan spacecraft for 3–4 days onboard a GSLV Mk III launch vehicle.[212]

Before the prime minister's August 2018 announcement, human spaceflight was not a priority for ISRO, although most of the required capability for it had been realised;[213] afterward it received the highest priority.[214] The Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) was set up in January 2019 to coordinate implementation of the mission.[215] A third launch pad is under construction at Satish Dhawan Space Centre with the ability to support heavy lift launchers and human spaceflight while the second one is being augmented with similar systems to realise the mission on time. India's crewed orbital vehicle will have two uncrewed flights–at the end of 2020 and mid-2021—before actually taking humans onboard at the end of 2021[needs update]. Indian astronauts will be dubbed "Vyomanauts"[216] or "Gaganauts". Selected by the Indian Institute of Aerospace Medicine, a team of seven test pilots from the Indian Air Force are undergoing training in Russia per the memorandum of understanding with Glavkosmos, out of which 4 will be ready for India's first human space mission.[163]

#### Continuing programs[edit]

India plans to deploy a 20 tonne space station as a follow-up programme to the Gaganyaan mission. On 13 June 2019, ISRO Chief K. Sivan announced the plan, saying that India's space station will be deployed 5–7 years after completion of the Gaganyaan project. He also said that India will not join the International Space Station program. India's space station would be capable of harbouring a crew for 15–20 days at a time. It is expected to be placed in a low Earth orbit of 400 km altitude and be capable of harbouring three humans. Final approval is expected to be given to the program by the Indian government only after the completion of the Gaganyaan mission.[217][218][219]

ISRO is planning to conduct SPADEX (Space Docking Experiment) in 2020[needs update] to develop techniques related to orbital rendezvous, docking, formation flying, and remote robotic arm operations, for application to human spaceflight, in-space satellite servicing, and other proximity operations that will be critical for space station operations.[220]

The agency intends to conduct a crewed lunar landing, as well, in future.[221][222]

### Japan[edit]

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|

Since the late 1980s National Space Development Agency of Japan (NASDA) has developed the HOPE-X small crewed winged spaceplane that would be launched by an H-IIA rocket. Despite having successfully flown sub-scale test prototypes, the project was cancelled in 2003 in favor of participation in the International Space Station with the Kibō Japanese Experiment Module and H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft.

As an alternative to HOPE-X, NASDA in 2001 proposed the Fuji crewed capsuled spacecraft for independent or ISS shuttle flights; but the project was not adopted. Since 2008, the Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency has developed the H-II Transfer Vehicle cargo spacecraft–based crewed spacecraft.

In 1993–1997, the Japanese Rocket Society [ja], Kawasaki Heavy Industries, and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries proposed the Kankoh-maru vertical-takeoff-and-landing single-stage crewed cargo reusable launch system. In 2005, this system was proposed for space tourism.

### Iran[edit]

Main article: Iranian crewed spacecraft

Iran expressed for the first time its intention to send a human into space during the summit of Soviet and Iranian Presidents in 1990. Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev reached an agreement in principle with President Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani to make joint Soviet–Iranian crewed flights to the Mir space station; but an agreement was never finalized, due to the subsequent dissolution of USSR.

On 21 November 2005, the Iranian News Agency claimed that Iran has a human space program along with plans for the development of a spacecraft and a space laboratory. [223] On 20 August 2008, the head of the Iran Aerospace Industries Organization (IAIO), Reza Taghipour, revealed that Iran intends to launch a human mission into space within a decade. This goal was described as the country's top priority for the next 10 years, in order to make Iran the leading space power of the region by 2021.[224][225]

In August 2010, President Ahmadinejad announced that Iran's first astronaut should be sent into space onboard an Iranian spacecraft by no later than 2019.[226] A sub-orbital spaceflight was conducted in 2016.[227]

On 17 February 2015, Iran unveiled a mock prototype of an Iranian crewed spacecraft that would be capable of taking one astronaut into space.[228] According to Iran's space administrator, this program was indefinitely put on hold in 2017.[229]

According to unofficial Chinese internet sources, an Iranian participation in the future Chinese space station program has been under discussion.[230] Currently, Iran doesn't have a medium-lift rocket similar to the Long March 2F, GSLV Mk III, or H-IIA, presently making Iran's sending a human into space unlikely.[231]

### Iraq[edit]

According to a 5 December 1989 press release from the Iraqi News Agency, about the first (and last) test of the Tammouz space launcher, Iraq intended to develop crewed space facilities by the end of the 20th century. These plans were put to an end by the Gulf War of 1991 and the hard economic times that followed.[citation needed]

## Solar System exploration[edit]

Main article: List of Solar System probes

Solar System exploration and human spaceflights are major space technologies in the public eye. Since Sakigake, the first interplanetary probe from Asia, was launched in 1985, Japan has completed the most planetary explorations, but other nations are catching up.[citation needed]

### Moon missions[edit]

Main article: List of missions to the Moon

The Moon is thought to be rich in Helium-3, which could one day be used in nuclear fusion power plants, to meet future energy demands in Asia. All three main Asian space powers plan to send people to the Moon in the distant future and have already sent lunar probes.[citation needed]

Asian lunar exploration probes

Mission name  | Type  | Year  | Vehicle  | Outcome
Hiten
(MUSES-A)  | Flyby/Orbiter  | 1990  |  Mu-3S-II | Success
Hagoromo | Orbiter  | Failure
Lunar-A | Orbiter  | 2004 (intended)
Never launched  |  M5 | Cancelled and integrated into Russia's Luna-Glob.
SELENE
(VRAD)  | Orbiter  | 2007  |  H-IIA 202 | Success
Chang'e 1 | Orbiter  | 2007  |  Long March 3A | Success
Chandrayaan-1 | Orbiter  | 2008  |  PSLV-XL | Success
Chang'e 2 | Orbiter  | 2010  |  Long March 3C | Success
Chang'e 3 | Lander
Rover  | 2013  |  Long March 3B | Success
Chang'e 5-T1 | Flyby  | 2014  |  Long March 3C | Success
Queqiao | Flyby (L2 Orbiter)  | 2018  |  Long March 4C | Success
Chang'e 4 | Lander
Rover  | 2019  |  Long March 3B | Success
Chandrayaan-2 | Orbiter
Lander
Rover  | 2019  |  GSLV MkIII | Partial success
Chang'e 5 | Sample return  | 2020  |  Long March 5 | Success
SLIM | Lander  | 2022  |  H-IIA 202 | Planned
Korea Pathfinder Lunar Orbiter | Orbiter  | August 2022  |  Falcon 9 | Planned
Chandrayaan-3 | Lander
Rover  | 2023  |  GSLV MkIII | Planned
Chang'e 6 | Sample return  | 2023–24  |  Long March 5 | Planned
Chang'e 7 | Orbiter
Lander
Rover
Hopper  | 2023  |  Long March 5 | Planned
DESTINY+ | Flyby  | 2024  |  Epsilon | Planned
Lunar Polar Exploration Mission | Orbiter
Lander
Rover  | 2024  |  H3 | Proposed
Chang'e 8 | TBD  | 2026  | TBD  | Proposed
North Korean mission to Moon | TBD  | 2026  |  Unha-20 | Proposed

#### Probing the Moon[edit]

Japan was the first Asian country to launch a lunar probe. The Hiten (Japanese: "flying angel") spacecraft (known before the launch as MUSES-A), built by the Institute of Space and Astronautical Science of Japan, was launched on 24 January 1990. In many ways, the mission did not go as was planned. Kaguya, the second Japanese lunar orbiter spacecraft, was launched on 14 September 2007.[citation needed]

China launched its first lunar probe, Chang'e-1, on 24 October 2007; the probe successfully entered lunar orbit on 5 November 2007.[citation needed]

India launched its first lunar probe, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008; the probe successfully entered its final lunar orbit on 2 November 2008. The mission was considered a major success, and the probe detected water on the lunar surface.[citation needed]

#### Moon landings[edit]

Main article: Moon landing

The first confirmed Moon landing from Asia was Hiten's mission in 1993. Before an intentional hard landing at the end of the mission, some pictures of the lunar surface were taken before impact.[232] Hiten was not designed as a Moon lander and had few scientific instruments for lunar exploration. The next Japanese Moon-landing program was the LUNAR-A, in development since 1992. Although the LUNAR-A orbiter was cancelled, its penetrators were integrated into the Russian Luna-Glob program, which was scheduled to launch in 2011. The penetrators are "relatively" hard landers,[233] but they are not expected to be destroyed on impact.[citation needed]

The next Asian probe to land on the Moon was the Indian Moon Impact Probe (MIP), which was released from the Chandrayaan-1 spacecraft in 2008. MIP was a hard lander and was designed to displace the ground under it for analysis. MIP was designed to be destroyed at impact, but its instruments performed lunar observations to within 25 minutes before impact. The lessons learned from this landing were to be applied to future soft landings on spacecraft, such as Chandrayaan-2, which crashed, following successful orbital insertion, and was only a limited success. After the accomplishment of its first human mission, India has proposed space stations and manned missions to the Moon.[221][234]

The Chinese Chang'e-1 spacecraft also achieved a hard landing at the end of its mission in 2009, when China became the sixth country to reach the lunar surface. One purpose of the lander was to pre-test for future soft landings. A Chinese lunar soft landing was achieved with the Chang'e-3 mission. With the Chang'e 4, China became the first country to land on the far side of the Moon. China also aims to undertake a human Moon landing by the late 2020s.[235]

### Exploration of the major planets[edit]

Japanese interplanetary probes have been mostly limited to Small Solar System bodies, such as comets and asteroids. Japan was the world's first country to launch a spacecraft to the asteroids. JAXA's Nozomi probe was launched in 1998, but contact with the probe was lost due to electrical failures before visiting the planet Mars. The second Japanese probe, Akatsuki, was launched in 2010, bound for the planet Venus. Akatsuki entered orbit around Venus on 7 December 2015. Together with the European Space Agency, JAXA has launched Mio spacecraft for mapping the magnetic field of Mercury. The spacecraft will also conduct a flyby of Venus.[citation needed]

The Chinese human Mars exploration program is planned by the Chinese Academy of Sciences for around 2050.[236] After the failed attempt to launch Yinghuo-1, China successfully launched Tianwen-1 Mars mission. Tianwen-1 was inserted into Mars orbit on 10 February 2021, followed by a successful landing and deployment of the Zhurong rover on 14 May 2021, making China the second country in the world and the first country in Asia which successfully soft-landed a fully operational spacecraft on Mars surface.[237] China has also been planning to conduct Mars sample return, send an orbiter to Jupiter, as well as a probe to flyby Uranus.[238]

India successfully launched its Mars Orbiter Mission on 5 November 2013. It reached Mars in September 2014. India has become the only country to successfully insert a satellite into Martian orbit on its maiden attempt; and, as such, it also became the first Asian country to achieve this feat. India is planning another mission to Mars in the 2020s.[239] India was scheduled to launch Aditya-L1 near the Sun to study Solar corona[240] and is developing the Shukrayaan-1 spacecraft to be sent to Venus.[241] India is also studying exploration missions to asteroids, Jupiter, to beyond the Solar System like the American Voyager 1 and to exo-planets.[242]

Asian interplanetary exploration probes

Mission name  | Destination  | Type  | Year  | Vehicle  | Outcome
Nozomi | Mars | Orbiter  | 2003  |  M-V | Failure
Hayabusa | Asteroid: 25143 Itokawa | Sample return  | 2005-7  |  M-V | Success
Akatsuki
(PLANET-C)  | Venus | Orbiter  | 2010  |  H-IIA 202 | Failure
(Failed orbit insertion)
2015  | Success
IKAROS | Venus | Flyby  | 2010  | Success
Shin'en | Venus | Flyby  | 2010  | Failure
Yinghuo-1 | Mars | Orbiter  | 2011  |  Zenit-2M | Failure
Chang'e 2 | Asteroid: 4179 Toutatis | Flyby  | 2012  |  Long March 3C | Success
Mars Orbiter Mission | Mars | Orbiter  | 2013–14  |  PSLV-XL  | Success
Hayabusa2 | Asteroid: 162173 Ryugu | Sample return  | 2014–20  |  H-IIA 202 | Success
PROCYON | Asteroid: 2000 DP107 | Flyby  | 2016  |  H-IIA 202 | Failure
Mio | Mercury | Orbiter  | 2018–24  |  Ariane 5 ECA  | en route
Hope Mars Mission | Mars | Orbiter  | 2020–21  |  H-IIA 202 | Success
Tianwen-1 | Mars | Orbiter/Lander/Rover  | 2020–21  |  Long March 5 | Success
Aditya-L1 | Sun | Orbiter  | 2022  |  PSLV-XL  | Planned
Shukrayaan-1 | Venus | Orbiter and aerobots  | 2023  |  GSLV MkIII | Planned
MMX | Mars | Orbiter  | 2024–2025  |  H3-24L | Planned
Phobos | Sample return  | Planned
ZhengHe | Asteroid: 469219 Kamoʻoalewa | Sample Return  | 2024–32  |  Long March 3B/Long March 7A | Planned
Comet: 311P/PANSTARRS | Orbiter  | Planned
DESTINY+ | Asteroid: 3200 Phaethon | Flyby  | 2024–28  |  Epsilon | Planned
Mars Orbiter Mission 2 | Mars | Orbiter
Lander
Rover  | 2024  |  GSLV MkII or GSLV MkIII | Planned
Tianwen-2 | Mars | Sample return  | 2028–31  |  Long March 3B and Long March 5/Long March 9B | Planned
Gan De | Jupiter | Orbiter  | 2029–35  |  Long March 5 | Planned
Uranus | Flyby  | 2029-46  | Planned

## Budgets[edit]

Agency  | Country  | Budget
(in millions of US $)  | Year  | Ref(s)

|
|
|
|

China National Space Administration |  China | 8852  | 2020  | [243]
Indian Space Research Organisation |  India | 1760  | 2020  | [244]
Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency |  Japan | 1710  | 2017  | [245]
Korean Aerospace Research Institute |  South Korea | 583  | 2016  | [246]
Iranian Space Agency and Iranian Space Research Center |  Iran | 393  | 2018  | [247]
National Institute of Aeronautics and Space |  Indonesia | 55  | 2019  | [248][249]
Philippine Space Agency |  Philippines | 38  | 2019  | [250]
Israel Space Agency |  Israel | 14.5  | 2019  | [251]
Turkish Space Agency |  Turkey | 4.3  | 2019  | [252]

## See also[edit]

* Spaceflight portal

* Space Race
* Billionaire space race
* List of government space agencies
* Asian Century
* Akatsuki (spacecraft)

## Notes and references[edit]

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230. ^ "权威发布:神舟飞船将从神八开始批量生产". 新华网. 26 September 2008. Archived from the original on 29 September 2008. Retrieved 7 December 2019.
231. ^ "Report: Iran Attempt to Launch Monkey into Space Fails". Space.com. 12 October 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2019.
232. ^ "ISAS news No.154" (PDF) (in Japanese).
233. ^ "Lunar exploration satellite "LUNAR-A"". Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency. 2003. Archived from the original on 7 June 2013. Retrieved 16 March 2009.
234. ^ "India eying an indigenous station in space". The Hindu Business Line. 13 June 2019. Retrieved 13 June 2019.
235. ^ "China to build moon station in 'about 10 years'". MSN. AFP. 24 April 2019. Archived from the original on 24 April 2019.
236. ^ 2050年頃に有人火星探査を実施＝中国科学院が計画を発表―中国 (in Japanese). Recoed China. 10 June 2009. Archived from the original on 16 June 2009. Retrieved 12 June 2009.
237. ^ "Model of China's first Venus probe unveiled in Shanghai". GBTimes. 2 November 2016. Retrieved 15 October 2019.
238. ^ Jones, Andrew (12 January 2021). "Jupiter Mission by China could include Callisto Landing". Planetary.org. Retrieved 1 May 2021.
239. ^ MOM Orbiter enters 6th year, ISRO eyes Mangalyaan-2. Rasheed Kappan, The Deccan Herald. 25 September 2019.
240. ^ "India's first solar mission in 2020: ISRO chairman". Times of India. 4 May 2019. Retrieved 5 May 2019.
241. ^ Annadurai, Mylswami. "ISRO Space Physics: future missions" (PDF). Raman Research Institute.
242. ^ After Mars, Venus on Isro's planetary travel list. Archived 27 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine U. Tejonmayam, Times of India. 18 May 2019.
243. ^ Seminari, Simon. "Government Space Budgets Surge Despite Global Pandemic". Via Satellite. Archived from the original on 30 July 2021. Retrieved 4 November 2021.
244. ^ "Department of Space Budget" (PDF). Retrieved 4 February 2020.
245. ^ "Transition of Number of Staff and Budget". JAXA. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
246. ^ "기관별 경영공시 한국항공우주연구원" (in Korean). alio.go.kr. Archived from the original on 24 June 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2020.
247. ^ Budget Bill of 1398 (لايحه بودجه سال 1398 كل كشور). Secretariat of Planning and Supervision, Office of President. November 2019.
248. ^ "RUU APBN 2019" (PDF) (in Indonesian). Ministry of Finance. 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2020.
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## External links[edit]

* Japan's Evolving Space Program, Comparison of Japan's program with the rest of Asia (September 2011)
* Asian Space Race Accelerates, Comparison of Indian, Chinese & Japanese space programs in different aspects (November 2013)

* v
* t
* e

Spaceflight

General|

* Astrodynamics
* History
* Timeline
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Applications|

* Astronomy
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Human spaceflight|

| General|

* Astronaut
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Programs|

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Health issues|

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Spacecraft|

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Destinations|

* Sub-orbital
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Space launch|

* Direct ascent
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Ground segment|

* Flight controller
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* Pass
* Mission control center

* Category
* Portal
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* v
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Spaceflight lists and timelines

* Timeline of spaceflight

General|

* Space exploration
* outline
* timeline
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Human spaceflight|

| General|

* Crewed spacecraft
* timeline
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* Spaceflights
* 1961–1970
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|

Salyut|

* Expeditions
* Spaceflights
* crewed
* uncrewed
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* Visitors

Mir|

* Expeditions
* Spaceflights
* crewed
* uncrewed
* Spacewalks
* Visitors

ISS|

* Expeditions
* Spaceflights
* crewed
* uncrewed
* Spacewalks
* Visitors
* Deployed

Tiangong|

* Expeditions
* Crewed Spaceflights
* Spacewalks

Shuttle|

* Crews
* Missions
* Rollbacks

People|

* Astronauts
* by name
* by year of selection
* Apollo
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* Space scientists
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* by name
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* billionaires
* timeline by nationality
* Spaceflight-related human fatalities

EVA|

* 1965–1999
* 2000–2014
* 2015–present
* Cumulative spacewalk records
* Longest spacewalks
* Spacewalkers

Solar System
exploration|

* Timeline
* Interplanetary voyages
* Landings on other planets
* rovers
* artificial objects
* Objects at Lagrange points
* Probes
* active
* orbiters
* leaving the Solar System
* lunar probes
* Missions to the Moon
* Timeline of satellites
* Sample-return mission
* Mars

Earth-orbiting
satellites|

* Communications satellite firsts
* CubeSats
* PocketQube
* Earth observation satellites
* Timeline of first Earth observation satellites
* Geosynchronous orbit
* GOES
* GPS
* Kosmos
* Magnetospheric
* NRO
* TDRS
* USA

Vehicles|

* Orbital launch systems
* Comparison
* Sounding rocket list
* Spacecraft
* uncrewed
* crewed
* heaviest
* Upper stages
* Sounding rocket
* Small-lift launch vehicle
* Medium-lift launch vehicle
* Heavy-lift launch vehicle
* Super heavy-lift launch vehicle

Launches
by rocket type|

* Ariane
* Atlas
* Black Brant
* Electron
* Falcon 9 and Heavy
* 2010–2019
* GSLV
* H-II and H3
* Kosmos
* Long March
* Proton
* PSLV
* R-7 (including Semyorka, Molniya, Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz)
* Scout
* SLS
* Starship
* Thor and Delta
* Titan
* Tsyklon
* V-2 tests
* Zenit

Launches by spaceport|

* Satish Dhawan

Agencies, companies
and facilities|

* Communications satellite companies
* comparison
* Private spaceflight companies
* Rocket launch sites
* Space agencies
* Spacecraft manufacturers

Other mission lists
and timelines|

* First orbital launches by country
* First artificial satellites by country
* NASA missions
* Constellation missions
* Timeline of private spaceflight
* Timeline of longest spaceflights

* v
* t
* e

Politics of outer space

* Spacefaring nations
* Space policy
* Space traffic management
* Space debris management
* Space Debris Working Group
* Space Debris Committee
* Planetary protection principle
* Post-detection policy
* Asteroid impact
* Prediction
* Avoidance
* Spaceguard
* The Spaceguard Foundation

Space races|

* Cold War space race
* Sputnik crisis
* Timeline
* Asian space race
* Billionaire space race
* Mars race
* Records
* Space propaganda
* Space competition

Chinese
space program|

* Two Bombs, One Satellite doctrine (1966–1976)
* Shuguang program (1966–1972)
* Chinese ASAT program (1964–)
* 2007 test
* Project 921 (1992–)
* Shenzhou program
* Tiangong program
* Space station
* Chinese Lunar Exploration Program (2003–)
* Mars and beyond
* Planetary Exploration of China (2016–)
* MARS-500 study

ESA Science Programme|

* European Launcher Development Organisation (1960–1975)
* Europa launcher programme (1962–1973)
* European Space Research Organisation (1964–1975)
* European Space Agency (1975–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* European Cooperation for Space Standardization
* European Space Research and Technology Centre
* Concurrent Design Facility
* European Astronaut Centre
* ESA Centre for Earth Observation
* Living Planet Programme
* European Centre for Space Applications and Telecommunications
* European Data Relay System
* Space Telescope European Coordinating Facility (1983–2010)
* European Space Astronomy Centre (2005–)
* European Space Security and Education Centre
* European Space Operations Centre
* ESTRACK network
* Guiana Space Centre
* Ariane launcher programme (1973–)
* Vega launcher programme (1998–)
* European Space Policy Institute
* Space Situational Awareness Programme
* Future Launchers Preparatory Programme
* Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle
* PRIDE
* Space Rider
* ESA Television
* Mars and beyond
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* MARS-500 study
* Aurora programme
* ExoMars

| Horizon 2000 (1985–1995)|

* SOHO
* Cassini–Huygens
* Huygens
* Cluster
* Cluster II
* XMM-Newton
* Rosetta
* INTEGRAL
* Herschel
* Planck

|

Horizon 2000 Plus (1995–2015)|

* ISS programme
* Politics
* Gaia
* LISA Pathfinder
* BepiColombo

Cosmic Vision (2015–2025)|

* Solar Orbiter
* Euclid
* ARIEL
* EnVision
* CHEOPS
* JUICE
* ATHENA
* LISA
* Comet Interceptor
* SMILE

EU Space Programme|

* Western European Union Satellite Centre (1992–2002)
* EU Satellite Centre (2002–)
* EU/ESA Space Council
* EU Commission DG Defence Industry and Space
* European GNSS Supervisory Authority (2004–2010)
* European GNSS Agency (2010–2021)
* EU Agency for the Space Programme (2021–)
* Galileo programme
* Copernicus programme
* EGNOS programme
* EUSST programme
* Body of European Regulators for Electronic Communications
* European Union Aviation Safety Agency
* European Network of Civil Aviation Safety Investigation Authorities
* European Defence Agency
* Europe by Satellite

Other European
initiatives and bodies|

* AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe
* Eurospace
* Eurocontrol
* Council of Europe
* Council of European Aerospace Societies
* European Broadcasting Union
* European Civil Aviation Conference
* European Committee for Standardization/European Committee for Electrotechnical Standardization
* European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations
* European Telecommunications Standards Institute
* European Organisation for Civil Aviation Equipment
* European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites
* European Patent Organisation
* European Patent Office
* European Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* European Southern Observatory
* Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe

Indian space policy|

* Department of Space
* Indian Human Spaceflight Programme
* Space Activities Bill
* Indian ASAT programme
* Mission Shakti

British
space programme|

* Creation of the British National Committee for Space Research (1958)
* Start of the Ariel programme (1962)
* Black Arrow launcher (1964–1971)
* Creation of the British National Space Centre (1985)
* Outer Space Act 1986
* Project Juno (1991)
* Space Innovation and Growth Team (2009–2010)
* Creation of the UK Space Agency (2010)
* Strategic Defence and Security Review 2015
* Space Industry Act 2018
* UK Global Navigation Satellite System (2018–2020)
* 2021 Integrated Review
* Defence in a Competitive Age

US space policy|

| Truman
space policy|

* Operation Paperclip
* Aerobee rocket program
* RAND
* Establishment of Cape Canaveral

|

Eisenhower
space policy|

* WS-117L
* Project Vanguard
* Sputnik crisis
* Introduction to Outer Space
* 1958 NASA Act
* Space Act Agreement
* Cancellation of Man in Space Soonest
* Launch of Project Mercury
* Missile gap
* Launch of X-15 program

Kennedy
space policy|

* Launch of the Mariner program
* Launch of the Gemini project
* Launch of the Apollo program
* "We choose to go to the Moon"

Johnson
space policy|

* 1967 Outer Space Treaty

Nixon
space policy|

* Moon landing
* Extra-Terrestrial Exposure Law
* Launch of the Space Shuttle Program
* Skylab

Ford
space policy|

* Apollo–Soyuz
* Launch of the Viking program

Carter
space policy|

Reagan
space policy|

* Citizens' Advisory Council
* Strategy of Technology doctrine
* Strategic Defense Initiative
* Space Station Freedom proposal
* 1984 Space Act
* 1985 anti-satellite missile test
* Space Shuttle Challenger disaster
* Rogers Report
* Ride Report

George H. W. Bush
space policy|

* Space Exploration Initiative
* 1990 Augustine Committee
* Hubble
* National Space Council

Clinton
space policy|

* Faster, better, cheaper
* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics
* Launch of the Mars Exploration Program
* 1998 Space Act
* Decadal Planning Team
* Launch of the X-37 program

George W. Bush
space policy|

* Aerospace Industry Commission
* 2002 National missile defense directive
* Space Shuttle Columbia disaster
* Vision for Space Exploration
* Aldridge Commission
* ESAS
* 2005 NASA Act
* Launch of the Constellation program
* Operation Burnt Frost

Obama
space policy|

* 2009 Augustine Committee
* Kennedy Space Center speech
* Cancellation of the Constellation program
* Launch of the Space Launch System program
* Redesign of the Orion program
* Flexible path
* Mars Exploration Joint Initiative
* 2010 NASA Act
* Title 51
* Space Shuttle retirement
* Development of the Commercial Crew Program
* 2014 NASA Act
* 2015 Space Act

Trump
space policy|

* Re-establishment of the National Space Council
* Creation of the Space Force
* Launch of the Artemis program
* Launch of the Lunar Gateway project
* Executive Order 13959

* China exclusion policy of NASA
* International Traffic in Arms Regulations
* Full-spectrum dominance doctrine
* Budget of NASA
* House Committee on Space
* NESDIS
* Office of Space Commerce
* FCC
* FAA/AST
* NRO
* IEEE
* Aerospace and Electronic Systems Society
* Antennas & Propagation Society
* Broadcast Technology Society
* Geoscience and Remote Sensing Society
* Vehicular Technology Society

USSR and Russia|

| Soviet
space
program|

| Stalin|

* Operation Osoaviakhim (1946)

|

Khrushchev|

* Sputnik program
* Sputnik crisis (1957)
* Vostok program (1960–1963)
* Fractional Orbital Bombardment System (1960–1982)
* Soviet crewed lunar programs (1961–1976)
* Voskhod program (1964–1966)

Brezhnev|

* Soyuz program (1967–)
* Interkosmos (1967–1991)
* Salyut program (1971–1986)
* Almaz (1973–1977)
* Buran program (1974–1993)
* Apollo–Soyuz (1975)

Gorbachev|

* Mir (1986–2001)

Roscosmos|

| Yeltsin|

* Gore–Chernomyrdin Commission
* ISS (1993–)
* Shuttle–Mir program
* ISS programme
* Politics

|

Medvedev|

* Medvedev modernisation programme
* 2010 Military doctrine

Putin|

* United Rocket and Space Corporation (2013–2015)
* 2014 Military doctrine
* 2015 Creation of Roscosmos
* Mars
* MARS-500 study
* ExoMars

Other policies|

* Australian space program
* Brazilian space program
* Emirati space program
* Japanese space program
* Kazakh space program
* Kenyan space program
* Lebanese space program
* North Korean space program
* Pakistani space program
* Space programme 2040
* Philippine space program
* Ugandan space initiatives
* International Space Station programme
* Politics of the International Space Station

United Nations|

* International Civil Aviation Organization
* ITU-R
* Office for Outer Space Affairs
* UN-SPIDER
* Space Generation Advisory Council
* Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space
* General Assembly Fourth Committee

Other intergovernmental
or inter-agency bodies|

* Consultative Committee for Space Data Systems
* Committee on Earth Observation Satellites
* Committee on Space Research
* International Planetary Data Alliance
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Group on Earth Observations
* Global Standards Collaboration
* Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters'
* International Mobile Satellite Organization
* International Space Exploration Coordination Group
* International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board
* International Telecommunications Satellite Organization
* Intersputnik
* Orbital Debris Co-ordination Working Group
* Regional African Satellite Communication Organization
* Arab Satellite Communications Organization
* Asia-Pacific Space Cooperation Organization

Space law|

* Partial Test Ban Treaty (1963)
* Outer Space Treaty (1967)
* Rescue Agreement (1968)
* Space Liability Convention (1972)
* US-USSR Cooperation Agreement (1972)
* Satellite Convention (1974)
* Registration Convention (1975)
* Bogota Declaration (1976)
* Moon Treaty (1979)
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (1981)
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme Agreement (1988)
* International Space Station Intergovernmental Agreement (1998)
* International Docking System Standard
* International Charter 'Space and Major Disasters' (1999)
* Cape Town Treaty, Space Assets protocol (2012)
* Artemis Accords (2020)
* Space jurisdiction
* Common heritage of mankind
* Extraterrestrial real estate
* Astronomical naming conventions
* ITU Radio Regulations
* CCSDS standards
* ODCWG standards
* CEOS standards
* COSPAR standards
* International Designator
* IPDA standards
* GSC standards
* GEO standards
* ISECG standards
* Various conventions, treaties, agreements, memorandums, charters or declarations establishing and governing intergovernmental organisations or inter-agency bodies dealing with space affairs

Commercial use|

* Space industry
* India
* Russia
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Private spaceflight
* Launch market competition
* Space tourism
* Space advertising
* Space technology
* Space-based economy
* Space trade
* Space manufacturing
* Lunar resources
* Project Harvest Moon
* Asteroid mining

Militarisation|

| Space forces,
units and formations|

* Space forces
* China
* France
* Iran
* Russia
* Spain
* United States
* History
* Structure
* Ranks and insignia
* Space commands
* France
* India
* NATO
* NORAD
* United Kingdom
* United States

|

Space warfare|

* Space domain awareness
* Space weapon
* Anti-satellite weapon
* China
* India
* Russia
* United States
* Kinetic bombardment
* Kill vehicle
* Missile defense
* Military satellite
* Reconnaissance satellite
* Spaceplane
* Satellite jamming

Space advocacy|

* Air & Space Forces Association
* Alliance for Space Development
* National Space Society
* Space Frontier Foundation
* Mars Society
* Moon Society
* Students for the Exploration and Development of Space
* Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Modern Technologies
* British Interplanetary Society
* Coalition for Deep Space Exploration
* International Academy of Astronautics
* International Astronautical Federation
* International Astronomical Union
* Lunar Explorers Society
* Space Exploration Alliance
* Space Fellowship
* Space Force Association
* Space Foundation
* The Planetary Society

* v
* t
* e

Public-sector space agencies

Africa|

| Pan-African and Pan-Arab|

* RASCOM
* Arabsat

|

National|

* ASAL
* NARRS
* ESSTI
* GSSTC
* NASRDA
* SANSA

Americas|

| North America|

* CSA
* AEM
* NASA
* NESDIS
* OSC
* FAA/AST
* FCC
* USSF
* USSPACECOM
* NRO

|

South America|

* ALCE
* CONAE
* ABE
* AEB
* DCTA
* INPE
* ITA
* CCE
* ABAE
* IVIC

Asia|

| Pan-Asian and Pan-Arab|

* APSCO
* Arabsat

|

Central Asia|

* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VK
* TNSA1

East Asia|

* CNSA
* SASTIND
* CASC
* CALT
* CAST
* CCF
* CGWIC
* SSD
* CASIC
* JAXA 2
* ISAS
* NICT
* JSS
* NADA
* KARI
* SaTReC
* NSPO

South Asia|

* SPARRSO
* ISRO 2
* Antrix Corp
* DoS
* NRSC
* DSA
* SUPARCO

Southeast Asia|

* LAPAN
* MYSA
* PhilSA
* SSTL
* GISTDA
* VNSC

Southwest Asia|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* NSSA
* NEHSA
* ISA
* ISRC
* ISA
* NCSR
* SSC
* KACST-SRI
* SSA2
* GORS
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* UAESA (MBRSC)

Europe|

| Pan-European|

* CEN/CENELEC
* CEPT
* ETSI
* Eurocontrol
* ECAC
* ESA
* ECSS
* ESRTC
* EAC
* ESRIN
* ECSAT
* ESAC
* ESOC
* ESTRACK
* Guiana Space Centre
* EUMETSAT
* EUTELSAT IGO
* ESO

|

EU and EEA|

* DG DEFIS
* EUSPA
* EU SatCen
* EASA
* BEREC
* ALR 2
* BelSPo
* BIRA-IASB
* SRTI2
* CSO2
* DTU Space
* ESO1
* CNES2
* AAE
* CdE
* DLR2
* HSC
* HSO2
* ASI
* LSA
* LSO1
* SRON
* NSO
* NSC
* POLSA2
* CBK PAN
* UKE
* KRRiT
* ORO
* ULC
* PTSPACE
* ROSA2
* INTA
* AEC
* EAE
* AEE
* SNSA

Other|

* ArmCosmos1
* MAKA1
* BSA1
* KazCosmos1
* Roscosmos1
* SRI
* VKO
* SSO
* TUA
* TÜBİTAK UZAY
* SSAU1
* UKSA 2

Oceania|

* ASA
* CSIRO
* NZSA

World|

* CCSDS
* CEOS
* COSPAR
* IPDA
* Cospas-Sarsat
* GEO
* GSC
* IADC
* ICSMD
* IMSO
* ISECG
* ISS MCB
* ITSO
* Intersputnik
* ODCWG
* ITU-R
* UNCOPUOS
* UNOOSA

Former|

* BNSC
* KCST
* NAL
* NASDA
* SSP
* Interkosmos

* See also: Timeline of first orbital launches by country
* 1 Preceded by the Soviet space program
* 2 Preceded by Interkosmos participation

*[v]: View this template
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*[e]: Edit this template