Comparison of multi-paradigm programming languages

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Programming languages can be grouped by the number and types of paradigms supported.

## Paradigm summaries

[edit]

A concise reference for the programming paradigms listed in this article.

* Concurrent programming – have language constructs for concurrency, these may involve multi-threading, support for distributed computing, message passing, shared resources (including shared memory), or futures
* Actor programming – concurrent computation with actors that make local decisions in response to the environment (capable of selfish or competitive behaviour)
* Constraint programming – relations between variables are expressed as constraints (or constraint networks), directing allowable solutions (uses constraint satisfaction or simplex algorithm)
* Dataflow programming – forced recalculation of formulas when data values change (e.g. spreadsheets)
* Declarative programming – describes what computation should perform, without specifying detailed state changes cf. imperative programming (functional and logic programming are major subgroups of declarative programming)
* Distributed programming – have support for multiple autonomous computers that communicate via computer networks
* Functional programming – uses evaluation of mathematical functions and avoids state and mutable data
* Generic programming – uses algorithms written in terms of to-be-specified-later types that are then instantiated as needed for specific types provided as parameters
* Imperative programming – explicit statements that change a program state
* Logic programming – uses explicit mathematical logic for programming
* Metaprogramming – writing programs that write or manipulate other programs (or themselves) as their data, or that do part of the work at compile time that would otherwise be done at runtime
* Template metaprogramming – metaprogramming methods in which a compiler uses templates to generate temporary source code, which is merged by the compiler with the rest of the source code and then compiled
* Reflective programming – metaprogramming methods in which a program modifies or extends itself
* Object-oriented programming – uses data structures consisting of data fields and methods together with their interactions (objects) to design programs
* Class-based – object-oriented programming in which inheritance is achieved by defining classes of objects, versus the objects themselves
* Prototype-based – object-oriented programming that avoids classes and implements inheritance via cloning of instances
* Pipeline programming – a simple syntax change to add syntax to nest function calls to language originally designed with none
* Rule-based programming – a network of rules of thumb that comprise a knowledge base and can be used for expert systems and problem deduction & resolution
* Visual programming – manipulating program elements graphically rather than by specifying them textually (e.g. Simulink); also termed diagrammatic programming[1]

## Language overview

[edit]

List of multi-paradigm programming languages  Language  |

Paradigm count

Concurrent

Constraints

Dataflow

Declarative

Distributed

Functional

Metaprogramming

Generic

Imperative

Logic

Reflection

Object-oriented

Pipelines

Visual

Rule-based

| Other

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Ada[2][3][4][5][6] | 5  | Yes[a 1] | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
ALF | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | —
AmigaE
[citation needed] | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
APL | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | Array (multi-dimensional)
BETA
[citation needed] | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
C++ | 7 (15)  | Yes[7][8][9] | Library[10] | Library[11][12] | Library[13][14] | Library[15][16] | Yes | Yes[17] | Yes[a 3] | Yes | Library[18][19] | Library[20] | Yes[a 2] | Library[21] | — | Library[22] | Array (multi-dimensional; using STL)
C# | 6 (7)  | Yes | — | Library[a 4] | — | — | Yes[a 5] | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Reactive[a 6]
ChucK
[citation needed] | 3  | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Claire | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Clojure | 5  | Yes[23][24] | — | — | Yes | — | Yes[25] | Yes[26] | — | — | Library[27] | — | — | Yes[28] | — | — | Multiple dispatch,[29] Agents[30]
Common Lisp | 7 (14)  | Library[31] | Library[32] | Library[33] | Yes[34] | Library[35] | Yes | Yes | Yes[36] | Yes | Library[37] | Yes | Yes[a 7][a 2][38] | Library[39] | Library[40] | Library[41] | Multiple dispatch, meta-OOP system,[42] Language is extensible via metaprogramming.
Curl | 5  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | Yes[a 3] | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Curry | 4  | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | —
D (version 2.0)[43][44] | 7  | Yes[a 8] | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes[45][a 3] | Yes[a 3] | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Delphi | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 3] | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Dylan
[citation needed] | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
E | 3  | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
ECMAScript[46][47] (ActionScript, E4X, JavaScript, JScript) | 4 (5)  | Partial[a 9][a 10] | — | — | Library[48][49] | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 11] | Library[50][51] | — | — | Reactive,[a 12][52] event driven[a 13][a 14]
Erlang | 3  | Yes | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | —
Elixir | 4  | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | —
Elm | 6  | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes (pure)[a 15] | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Reactive
F# | 7 (8)  | Yes[a 8] | — | Library[a 4] | Yes | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Reactive[a 6]
Fortran | 4 (5)  | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 15] | — | Yes[a 16] | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Array (multi-dimensional)
Go | 4  | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | — | Yes | — | — | —
Haskell | 8 (15)  | Yes | Library[53] | Library[54] | Yes | Library[55] | Yes (lazy) (pure)[a 15] | Yes[56] | Yes | Yes | Library[57] | — | Partial[a 17] | Yes | Yes | Library[58] | Literate, reactive, dependent types (partial)
Io | 4  | Yes[a 8] | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 11] | — | — | — | —

[citation needed] | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Java | 6  | Yes | Library[59] | Library[60] | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Julia | 9 (17)  | Yes | Library[61] | Library[62][63] | Library[64] | Yes | Yes (eager) | Yes | Yes | Yes | Library[65] | Yes | Partial[a 18] | Yes | — | Library[66][67] | Multiple dispatch,
Array (multi-dimensional); optionally lazy[68] and reactive (with libraries)
Kotlin | 8  | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | —
LabVIEW | 4  | Yes | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | — | —
Lava | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | Yes | — | —
LispWorks (version 6.0 with support for symmetric multi-processing, rules, logic (Prolog), CORBA) | 9  | Yes | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | Yes | —
Lua
[citation needed] | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 11] | — | — | — | —
MATLAB | 6 (10)  | Toolbox[69] | Toolbox[70] | Yes[71] | — | Toolbox[72] | — | Yes[73] | Yes[74] | — | — | Yes[75] | Yes[76] | — | Yes[77] | — | Array (multi-dimensional)
Nemerle | 7  | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Object Pascal | 4  | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
OCaml | 4  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Oz | 11  | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes[a 2] | Yes | — | Yes | —
Perl
[citation needed] | 8 (9)  | Yes[78] | — | Yes[79] | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | — | Yes[a 2] | Yes[a 2] | Yes | — | — | —
PHP[80][81][82] | 4  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Poplog | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | —
Prograph | 3  | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | Yes | — | —
Python | 5 (10)  | Library[83][84] | Library[85] | —  | —  | Library[86] | Yes  | Yes[87][88] | Yes[89][90] | Yes | Library[91] | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Structured
R | 4 (6)  | Library[92] | — | — | — | Library[93] | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | Yes[94] | — | — | Array (multi-dimensional)
Racket | 10  | Yes[95] | Yes[96] | Yes[97] | — | Yes[98] | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | Lazy[99]
Raku | 10  | Yes[100] | Library[101] | Yes[102] | — | Library[103] | Yes | Yes[104] | Yes[105] | Yes | — | Yes[106] | Yes[107] | Yes | — | — | Multiple dispatch, lazy lists, reactive.
ROOP | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | —
Ruby | 5  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Rust (version 1.0.0-alpha) | 6  | Yes[a 8] | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes[108][109] | Yes[110] | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | Linear, affline, and ownership types
Sather
[citation needed] | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Scala[111][112] | 9  | Yes[a 8] | — | Yes[a 19] | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
Simula
[citation needed] | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | —
SISAL | 3  | Yes | — | Yes | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | —
Spreadsheets | 2  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | — | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | —
Swift | 7  | Yes | — | — | — | — | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Block-structured
Tcl with Snit extension
[citation needed] | 3  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes[113] | — | — | Yes | — | — | Yes[a 11][114] | — | — | — | —
Visual Basic .NET | 6 (7)  | Yes | — | Library[a 4] | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | — | — | — | Reactive[a 6]
Windows PowerShell | 6  | — | — | — | — | — | Yes | — | Yes | Yes | — | Yes | Yes[a 2] | Yes | — | — | —
Wolfram Language & Mathematica | 13[115] (14)  | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes[116] | — | Yes | Knowledge Based

## See also

[edit]

* Programming paradigm
* List of programming languages by type
* Domain-specific language
* Domain-specific multimodeling

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ rendezvous and monitor-like based
2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai class-based
3. ^ a b c d e template metaprogramming
4. ^ a b c using TPL Dataflow
5. ^ only lambda support (lazy functional programming)
6. ^ a b c using Reactive Extensions (Rx)
7. ^ multiple dispatch, method combinations
8. ^ a b c d e actor programming
9. ^ promises, native extensions
10. ^ using Node.js' cluster module or child_process.fork method, web workers in the browser, etc.
11. ^ a b c d Prototype-based
12. ^ using Reactive Extensions (RxJS)
13. ^ in Node.js via their events module
14. ^ in browsers via their native EventTarget API
15. ^ a b c purely functional
16. ^ parameterized classes
17. ^ immutable
18. ^ Uses structs with function polymorphism and multiple dispatch
19. ^ Akka Archived 2013-01-19 at the Wayback Machine

## Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Bragg, S.D.; Driskill, C.G. (20–22 September 1994). "Diagrammatic-graphical programming languages and DoD-STD-2167A". Proceedings of AUTOTESTCON '94 (IEEEXplore). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). pp. 211–220\. doi:10.1109/AUTEST.1994.381508. ISBN 978-0-7803-1910-3. S2CID 62509261.
2. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 9: Tasks and Synchronization
3. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3 Annex E: Distributed Systems
4. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 12: Generic Units
5. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, Section 6: Subprograms
6. ^ Ada Reference Manual, ISO/IEC 8652:2005(E) Ed. 3, 3.9 Tagged Types and Type Extensions
7. ^ Thread support
8. ^ Atomics support
9. ^ Memory model
10. ^ Gecode
11. ^ SystemC
12. ^ Boost.Iostreams
13. ^ Boolinq
14. ^ "AraRat" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-08-19. Retrieved 2019-09-15.
15. ^ OpenMPI
16. ^ Boost.MPI
17. ^ Boost.MPL
18. ^ LC++
19. ^ Castor Archived 2013-01-25 at the Wayback Machine
20. ^ Reflect Library
21. ^ N3534
22. ^ Boost.Spirit
23. ^ Clojure - Concurrent Programming
24. ^ Clojure - core.async
25. ^ Clojure - Functional Programming
26. ^ Clojure - Macros
27. ^ Clojure - core.logic
28. ^ Clojure - Threading Macros Guide
29. ^ Multimethods and Hierarchies
30. ^ Agents and Asynchronous Actions
31. ^ "concurrency". CLiki.
32. ^ [1] constraint programming inside CL through extensions
33. ^ [2] dataflow extension
34. ^ [3] by creating DSLs using the built-in metaprogramming; also see note on functional, constraint and logic paradigms, which are part of declarative
35. ^ [4] MPI, etc via language extensions
36. ^ template metaprogramming using macros (see C++)
37. ^ [5] [6] [7] Prolog implemented as a language extension
38. ^ Common Lisp Object System see Wikipedia article on CLOS, the Common Lisp Object System.
39. ^ implemented by the user via a short macro, example of implementation
40. ^ \- Visual programming tool based on Common Lisp
41. ^ [8] rule-based programming extension
42. ^ [9] Archived 2018-04-26 at the Wayback Machine through the Meta Object Protocol
43. ^ D Language Feature Table
44. ^ Phobos std.algorithm
45. ^ D language String Mixins
46. ^ The Little JavaScripter demonstrates fundamental commonality with Scheme, a functional language.
47. ^ Object-Oriented Programming in JavaScript Archived 2019-02-10 at the Wayback Machine gives an overview of object-oriented programming techniques in JavaScript.
48. ^ "React – A JavaScript library for building user interfaces". 2019-04-08.
49. ^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
50. ^ "Lodash documentation". 2019-04-08.
51. ^ "mori". 2019-04-08.
52. ^ "TNG-Hooks". GitHub. 2019-04-08.
53. ^ "Prolog embedding". Haskell.org.
54. ^ "Functional Reactive Programming". HaskellWiki.
55. ^ Cloud Haskell
56. ^ "Template Haskell". HaskellWiki.
57. ^ "Logict: A backtracking logic-programming monad". Haskell.org.
58. ^ Kollmansberger, Steve; Erwig, Martin (30 May 2006). "Haskell Rules: Embedding Rule Systems in Haskell" (PDF). Oregon State University.
59. ^ https://jcp.org/en/jsr/detail?id=331 JSR 331: Constraint Programming API
60. ^ https://github.com/GoogleCloudPlatform/DataflowJavaSDK Google Cloud Platform Dataflow SDK
61. ^ "JuliaOpt/JuMP.jl". GitHub. JuliaOpt. 11 February 2020. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
62. ^ "GitHub - MikeInnes/DataFlow.jl". GitHub. 2019-01-15.
63. ^ "GitHub - JuliaGizmos/Reactive.jl: Reactive programming primitives for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-28.
64. ^ https://github.com/davidanthoff/Query.jl Query almost anything in julia
65. ^ https://github.com/lilinjn/LilKanren.jl A collection of Kanren implementations in Julia
66. ^ "GitHub - abeschneider/PEGParser.jl: PEG Parser for Julia". GitHub. 2018-12-03.
67. ^ "GitHub - gitfoxi/Parsimonious.jl: A PEG parser generator for Julia". GitHub. 2017-08-03.
68. ^ Lazy https://github.com/MikeInnes/Lazy.jl
69. ^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
70. ^ "Write Constraints". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
71. ^ "Getting Started with SimEvents". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
72. ^ "Execute loop iterations in parallel". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
73. ^ "Execute MATLAB expression in text - MATLAB eval". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
74. ^ "Determine class of object". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
75. ^ "Class Metadata". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
76. ^ "Object-Oriented Programming". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
77. ^ "Simulink". mathworks.com. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
78. ^ interpreter based threads
79. ^ Higher Order Perl
80. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 17. Functions
81. ^ PHP Manual, Chapter 19. Classes and Objects (PHP 5)
82. ^ PHP Manual, Anonymous functions
83. ^ "Parallel Processing and Multiprocessing in Python". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
84. ^ "threading — Higher-level threading interface". docs.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
85. ^ "python-constraint". pypi.python.org. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
86. ^ "DistributedProgramming". Python Wiki. Retrieved 21 October 2016.
87. ^ "Chapter 9. Metaprogramming". chimera.labs.oreilly.com. Archived from the original on 23 October 2016. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
88. ^ "Metaprogramming". readthedocs.io. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
89. ^ "PEP 443 – Single-dispatch generic functions". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
90. ^ "PEP 484 – Type Hints". python.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
91. ^ "PyDatalog". Retrieved 22 October 2016.
92. ^ "Futureverse".
93. ^ "future batchtools".
94. ^ "Magrittr: A Forward Pipe Operator for R". cran.r-project.org\access-date=13 July 2017. 17 November 2020.
95. ^ Racket Guide: Concurrency and Synchronization
96. ^ The Rosette Guide
97. ^ FrTime: A Language for Reactive Programs
98. ^ Racket Guide: Distributed Places
99. ^ Lazy Racket
100. ^ Channels and other mechanisms
101. ^ "Problem Solver module".
102. ^ Feed operator
103. ^ https://github.com/perl6/doc/issues/1744#issuecomment-360565196 Cro module
104. ^ "Meta-programming: What, why and how". 2011-12-14.
105. ^ https://perl6advent.wordpress.com/2009/12/18/day-18-roles/ Parametrized Roles
106. ^ "Meta-object protocol (MOP)".
107. ^ https://docs.perl6.org/language/classtut Classes and Roles
108. ^ "The Rust macros guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
109. ^ "The Rust compiler plugins guide". Rust. Retrieved 19 January 2015.
110. ^ The Rust Reference §6.1.3.1
111. ^ An Overview of the Scala Programming Language
112. ^ Scala Language Specification
113. ^ "Tcl Programming/Introduction". en.wikibooks.org. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
114. ^ "TCLLIB - Tcl Standard Library: snitfaq". sourceforge.net. Retrieved 22 October 2016.
115. ^ Notes for Programming Language Experts, Wolfram Language Documentation.
116. ^ External Programs, Wolfram Language Documentation.

## References

[edit]

* Jim Coplien, Multiparadigm Design for C++, Addison-Wesley Professional, 1998.

* v
* t
* e

Programming paradigms (Comparison by language)

Imperative|

| Structured|

* Jackson structures
* Block-structured
* Modular
* Non-structured
* Procedural
* Programming in the large and in the small
* Design by contract
* Invariant-based
* Nested function

|

Object-oriented
(comparison, list)|

* Class-based, Prototype-based, Object-based
* Agent
* Immutable object
* Persistent
* Uniform function call syntax

Declarative|

| Functional
(comparison)|

* Recursive
* Anonymous function (Partial application)
* Higher-order
* Purely functional
* Total
* Strict
* GADTs
* Dependent types
* Functional logic
* Point-free style
* Expression-oriented
* Applicative, Concatenative
* Function-level, Value-level

|

Dataflow|

* Flow-based
* Reactive (Functional reactive)
* Signals
* Streams
* Synchronous

Logic|

* Abductive logic
* Answer set
* Constraint (Constraint logic)
* Inductive logic
* Nondeterministic
* Ontology
* Probabilistic logic
* Query

Domain-
specific
language
(DSL)|

* Algebraic modeling
* Array
* Automata-based (Action)
* Command (Spacecraft)
* Differentiable
* End-user
* Grammar-oriented
* Interface description
* Language-oriented
* List comprehension
* Low-code
* Modeling
* Natural language
* Non-English-based
* Page description
* Pipes and filters
* Probabilistic
* Quantum
* Scientific
* Scripting
* Set-theoretic
* Simulation
* Stack-based
* System
* Tactile
* Templating
* Transformation (Graph rewriting, Production, Pattern)
* Visual

Concurrent,
distributed,
parallel|

* Actor-based
* Automatic mutual exclusion
* Choreographic programming
* Concurrent logic (Concurrent constraint logic)
* Concurrent OO
* Macroprogramming
* Multitier programming
* Organic computing
* Parallel programming models
* Partitioned global address space
* Process-oriented
* Relativistic programming
* Service-oriented
* Structured concurrency

Metaprogramming|

* Attribute-oriented
* Automatic (Inductive)
* Dynamic
* Extensible
* Generic
* Homoiconicity
* Interactive
* Macro (Hygienic)
* Metalinguistic abstraction
* Multi-stage
* Program synthesis (Bayesian, Inferential, by demonstration, by example)
* Reflective
* Self-modifying code
* Symbolic
* Template

Separation
of concerns|

* Aspects
* Components
* Data-driven
* Data-oriented
* Event-driven
* Features
* Literate
* Roles
* Subjects

* v
* t
* e

Types of programming languages

Level|

* Machine
* Assembly
* Compiled
* Interpreted

* Low-level
* High-level
* Very high-level
* Esoteric

Generation|

* First
* Second
* Third
* Fourth
* Fifth

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