Coney Island Creek

Creek in Brooklyn, New York

Coney Island Creek

A New York City Subway train crossing the Coney Island Creek

Location
Country| United States
State| New York
City| New York City
Borough| Brooklyn
Physical characteristics
Source| Shell Road (emerging from storm drain under the road)
Mouth| Gravesend Bay
Length| 1.8 mi (2.9 km)

Coney Island Creek is a 1.8-mile-long (2.9 km)[1] tidal inlet in Brooklyn, New York City. It was created from a series of streams and inlets by land filling and digging activities starting in the mid-18th century which, by the 19th century, became a 3-mile-long (4.8 km) continual strait and a partial mudflat connecting Gravesend Bay and Sheepshead Bay, separating Coney Island from the mainland. The strait was closed off in the early 20th century due to further land development and later construction projects.[2] Today only the western half of Coney Island Creek exists. What once was a thriving fish and oyster population in salt marshes, freshwater streams, and expansive forests is now an unnatural environment wrecked by industrial pollution and construction debris.[3] Urbanization of the city and man-made conditions have led to dumping of sewage and discarded materials, including cars and ship parts.[3] Restoration projects are limited and most conservation efforts are seen to be performed by the local community.[4]

## Course

[edit]

Shell Road terminus of Coney Island Creek

Coney Island Creek extends eastward 1.8 miles (2.9 km) from Gravesend Bay to Shell Road and separates the west end of Coney Island from the neighborhoods of Gravesend and Bath Beach. The west end of the creek is bordered by Coney Island Creek Park and Kaiser Park on the south side, and Calvert Vaux Park on the north side.[5] The creek is crossed by the Cropsey Avenue and Stillwell Avenue bridges as well as two parallel rail trestles carrying the West End and Sea Beach subway lines (respectively served by the D, ​R, and ​W trains and N train). The eastern end is bordered by the Shore Parkway on the north side and Neptune Avenue on the south side. The eastern portion of Coney Island Creek runs along private industrial property and several acres formerly owned by Keyspan, the local electricity provider. The creek terminates at Shell Road where a storm sewer emerges from under the road (designated stormwater outfall CI-641 in city plans).[6]

## History

[edit]

### Extensions and infilling

[edit]

At the time of European settlement the land that makes up the present day Coney Island was several barrier islands with interconnecting waterways that were all constantly changing shape. Coney Island Creek was once primarily characterized by salt marshes, hardwood forests, and freshwater streams.[3] The waterway that became Coney Island Creek did not originally extend across the back side of the island since part of the land on the west end was a peninsula called Coney Hook. Hubbard's Creek, which ran down the eastern side of the peninsula, connected directly with the ocean. In 1750 a 0.25-mile-long canal (called the "Jamaica Ditch") was dug through the Coney Hook salt-marsh from a creek connecting to Gravesend Bay east to Hubbard's creek.[7][8] This new waterway, allowing shipping traffic to travel from Jamaica Bay to New York Harbor without having to venture out into the ocean, connected Gravesend Bay and Sheepshead Bay together.[9][10] The waterway behind the islands was called Gravesend Creek in the early 19th century since it cut below the town of Gravesend (later the name was used interchangeably with "Coney Island Creek").[11][12] Eventually Hubbard's and the other creeks and inlets that separated the islands were filled by a combination of natural process and land development, leaving just a single island that came to be called Coney Island and a single creek behind it that came to be called Coney Island Creek.

In August 1776, the Battle of Brooklyn took place on the marshy fields of Gowanus and Red Hook, where a British invasion force was off of Staten Island, preparing to attack New York City.[13] This battle continued through NY and ended up taking place on the beaches of Gravesend, which marked the beginning of the Battle of Brooklyn. This battle, also referred to as the Battle of Long Island, was the first major armed campaign for the colonies following their Declaration of Independence from Great Britain. This battle resulted in the retreat of General George Washington and the Continental Army from Brooklyn Heights, forcing them to cross the East River and regroup in Manhattan.[13] This battle showcases a significant part of U.S. history that happened at Coney Island Creek.

1879 map of Coney Island with Coney Island Creek running across the top of the island (planned canal and expansion of the urban grid can be seen overlaid in the map)

Coney Island Creek was still a minimally navigable waterway over its 3-mile length through the turn of the 20th century.[14] By the early part of the century, industries started to develop around the creek. This resulted in it becoming polluted with substances including arsenic, cyanide, and benzene. The largest polluters included the Brooklyn Yarn Dye Company and the Brooklyn Union Gas Company.[15]

In a period from the late 19th century through the early 20th century there were plans to turn the creek into the Gravesend Ship Canal.[16] It would re-dredge the creek into a canal running in a straight east–west line and fill all the marsh land on either side of the creek to expand the urban grid to the edge of the canal.[14] The plan was eventually abandoned and by 1924 local land owners had filled a portion of the creek.[17] A major section of the creek was further filled in to allow construction of the Belt Parkway in the 1930s. More fill was added in 1962 with the construction of the Verrazzano-Narrows Bridge.[18] This turned Coney Island Creek into an inlet with the western and eastern ends of the island becoming peninsulas. None of the creek remains at the eastern end. That terminus, Sheepshead Bay, has been dredged and, for the most part, enclosed in bulkheads. The path of the landfill of what used to be the creek follows Shore Parkway, Guider Avenue, and the triangular block between Neptune Avenue and Cass Place to a bulkhead at Sheepshead Bay.

### Current status

[edit]

Burnt, sunken barges in Gravesend Bay mouth of the creek

A northwestern part of the creek is known as a "ship graveyard" for the dead and abandoned ships found there.[18][19] At the southern shore of the creek, the remains of a 45 feet (14 m) yellow submarine, the Quester I, protrudes from the water. Built from salvaged metal in the late 1960s, it was never able to maintain an even keel and was abandoned.[20] There are other leftover shipwrecks left in the creek, but there origins are somewhat unknown. They either are left over from The Battle of Brooklyn, or they are left over from when the creek was somewhat active in the 20th century.[21] The creek is also used for performing baptisms.[15][22]

The health and behavior of marine life in Coney Island Creek have been impacted by environmental factors and human activities in previous years. Pollution from nearby urban development has degraded water quality, leading to harmful substances lingering in the water that could affect marine life.[23] Additionally, the creek's confined space and fluctuating tides can trap marine animals, as evidenced by the 2013 incident involving a dolphin that became disoriented and stranded.[24] This dolphin became trapped and was found dead in the creeks waterway.[25] Incidents like these showcase the challenges faced by marine life in adapting to their changing habitat. There is an obvious need for conservation efforts and better management of local waterways to protect these vulnerable species.[26]

In 2016, the New York City government found that a nearby apartment complex, Beach Haven Apartments, was dumping 200,000 U.S. gallons (760,000 L; 170,000 imp gal) of sewage each day into Coney Island Creek.[22][27] The complex was fined $400,000 two years later.[28] By late 2016, local residents were advocating the designation of the creek as a Superfund site, which would provide funding to clean the hazardous materials from the creek. Community members testified that auto shops on nearby Neptune Avenue were still dumping cars into the creek.[29][30] The creek was expected to undergo some minor cleanup between 2018 and 2020.[31] By late 2020, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was considering designating the creek as a Superfund site.[32] In a site inspection, the EPA found toxic levels of cyanide, iron, and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the sediment and surface water samples of the Coney Island Creek.[33] However, the EPA has not yet called for an official cleanup of the creek nor designated it as a Superfund site despite the community still using the creek for recreational purposes.[33]

Pollution washed up along the shore line of Coney Island Creek.

In 2018, the Coney Island History Project opened an exhibition about the history of the Coney Island creek titled: "Coney Island Creek and the Natural World."[34]

In recent years, there have been several efforts made to help restore the ecosystem of Coney Island Creek, one of which being The Billion Oyster Project. The Billion Oyster Project is a significant initiative aimed at restoring the oyster population in New York Harbor, particularly in areas like Coney Island Creek.[35] In 2018, the Billion Oyster Project focused on Coney Island Creek for several reasons.[36] Historically, this area was home to a thriving oyster population, representing a crucial part of New York Harbor's natural heritage. By restoring oysters in Coney Island Creek, the project aims to demonstrate that even urban environments can support healthy ecosystems.[37] The creek has faced significant pollution and degradation over the years, and the project seeks to improve water quality through the natural filtration capabilities of oysters, helping to mitigate the impacts of urban runoff and pollutants. Additionally, Coney Island Creek provides an accessible location for local community engagement and education, encouraging schools and community members to participate in hands-on restoration activities and fostering a sense of stewardship for the environment.[38] The diverse habitats in the creek can benefit from the introduction of oyster reefs, promoting increased biodiversity essential for the overall health of the marine ecosystem. Furthermore, Coney Island Creek is vulnerable to flooding and erosion, particularly during storms, restoring oyster reefs contributes to natural coastal protection, helping to buffer against storm surges and enhance resilience. Overall, the Billion Oyster Project's focus on Coney Island Creek reflects a commitment to environmental restoration and community involvement in a vital urban area.[36]

In 2020, the city planned to build a NYC Ferry dock along the creek off Kaiser Park.[39] The ferry dock would be the terminal of a new route to Pier 11/Wall Street; the route, announced in 2019, was to have begun operations in 2021.[40][41] Local activists rallied against the dock plan, arguing it would disrupt the ecosystems of the creek.[42] There were also concerns that the addition of ferry service would worsen pollution in the creek.[43][44] The implementation of the Coney Island ferry route was delayed and, in mid-2022, the EDC announced that the ferry route had been postponed indefinitely. One problem was that the sand in the Coney Island Creek shifted frequently, hampering efforts to construct a ferry pier there.[45][46] Another issue was that the creek itself was heavily polluted, and a Superfund cleanup project was being planned for the creek.[45][47] Independent news site Hell Gate subsequently reported that test boats had repeatedly run aground in Coney Island Creek and that sand had returned to the creek after it was partially dredged in 2021.[48][49] A ferry in Coney Island Creek also faced much opposition from the local residents who believed it would lead to additional air, water, and noise pollution and reduce safe playing area for children and families.[50]

Dead horseshoe crab found along the Coney Island Creek shore line among garbage.

Despite the recent restoration efforts over the years, Coney Island Creek is still filled with litter from the surrounding urban area and continues to affect the creek to this day.[3] Washed up along the shore line of the creek are various types of garbage including plastic bags, broken pieces of glass.[51] Along the creek bank, dead marine creatures have been found before such as horseshoe crabs, sand crabs, and shark eggs. This continues to demonstrate the need for greater restoration projects to recover Coney Island Creek and allow this ecosystem to become flourishing habitat for its native species once again.[51]

## Biodiversity

[edit]

### Urban wildlife

[edit]

The Coney Island Creek, though within the highly developed area of Brooklyn, provides a very important habitat for various species, mainly birds, fish, and invertebrates.These tidal estuaries offer a peculiar combination of salt and fresh water that enables the tidal estuary to support various species.[52] This natural variation in salinity, along with the sheltered environment, creates the creek as an important breeding and feeding ground for many species. In a similar way, urban estuaries such as Coney Island Creek support ecological resilience by offering refuge to species and allowing populations to recover after disturbances. For example, meta-population dynamics, where semi-isolated groups of individuals can interbreed across habitats, can enhance the resilience of the native species, even in the urban environments. These environments further allow for adaptation by species to more environmental stressors, such as pollution and variable salinity levels.[53][54]

The aquatic animals at Coney Island Creek exhibit high plasticity regarding their feeding and reproductive behaviors in response to changes in salinity, sediment conditions and urban runoff. Terrestrial species, including avian populations and small mammals, use urban vegetation and artificial structures like light poles and construction debris as refuge from inclement weather and nesting sites. These adaptations bring out the role of the creek as an important ecological corridor amidst intense urbanization.[55]

### Terrestrial species

[edit]

As many as 244 bird species have been recorded at Coney Island Creek.[56] Some of the species found at the creek are Horned larks, Snow buntings, and American oystercatchers. The sights of these varying species of birds rely on migratory patterns that are influenced by changing environments, altered magnetic fields, necessity for breeding and food resources.[57]

Horned lark on a rock

* Horned larks (Eremophila alpestris): During their migration and winter seasons, the Horned Larks can be found in the large, open areas surrounding Coney Island Creek. They forage on the ground for seeds and insects, and with their brilliant camouflage, they blend well with the sand and litter that defines the creek landscape. They can thus be found here, adding to the importance of providing open and undisturbed patches of natural areas within an urban setting to maintain the populations of migratory birds.[58]

Snow buntings on beach.

* Snow buntings (Plectrophenax nivalis): This species of bird could be observed on the shores of Coney Island Creek and other nearby sandy or weedy areas in winter. The birds forage for seeds and shelter along the debris zones formed by tidal movements. This adaptation to shoreline habits underscores the role of the creek in providing seasonal resources for migratory songbirds, especially in urban settings where natural habitats are often scarce.[59]

American oystercatcher on rocks.

* American oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus): American Oystercatchers are sentinel shorebird species; they are commonly seen in large numbers during breeding and foraging in Coney Island Creek. These birds show a strong association with intertidal areas, where they forage for shellfish, crabs, and other marine organisms. The tide in the creek and the presence of a variety of food items make it a very vital habitat for these birds, indicating ecological interlinkages between urban waterways and their immediate environments.[60]

### Aquatic species

[edit]

The Coney Island creek once served as a diverse habitat for fish and shellfish species such as oysters, where they were once found in great numbers.[61] Unfortunately, natural environmental processes have been disrupted by industrial runoff, combined sewer overflows, and habitat degradation. This has led to the loss of certain native species and reduced the overall resilience of the ecosystem.[62] For example, pollution contributes to eutrophication, which depletes oxygen levels in the water, making it challenging for some species to survive.[63] Urbanization has also altered the creek's natural flow and salinity, crucial factors for aquatic biodiversity.[64] Some of the native aquatic species found at Coney Island Creek are the striped bass and Atlantic silverside.

Striped Bass

* Striped Bass (Morone saxatilis): Striped bass are migratory, anadromous fish that utilize Coney Island Creek as a transitional habitat, particularly during migration between spawning grounds in freshwater and feeding grounds in marine environments. These fish are drawn to the creek due to its brackish waters, which offer a mix of saline and freshwater, supporting diverse prey species such as crustaceans and smaller fish. Striped bass play a significant role in the local food web by acting as apex predators, maintaining ecological balance in the creek's aquatic ecosystem.[65][66]

Atlantic Silverside

* Atlantic Silverside (Menidia menidia): These small schooling fish are abundant in estuarine environments like Coney Island Creek, where they serve as a critical prey species for larger fish and birds. Atlantic silversides thrive in the creek due to its shallow waters, which provide protection from predators. Their high reproductive rate and adaptability to varying salinity levels make them a key component of the creek's biodiversity.[67]

### Conservation efforts

[edit]

Although, there has been some ecological and environmental setbacks, Coney Island creek has been the focus of various conservation efforts aimed at restoring ecological health and enhancing resilience to environmental challenges.[62] Some key initiatives include:

* Long-Term Control Plan (LTCP): To combat the negative impact of combined sewer overflows (CSOs) on Coney Island Creek, the New York City DEP created a Long-Term Control Plan (LTCP). This initiative focuses on upgrading infrastructure and implementing green projects to enhance water quality and protect marine ecosystems.[68]
* Superfund Site Assessment:In response to community concerns about pollution, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) conducted a preliminary assessment of Coney Island Creek. The assessment aimed at determining the extent of contamination that existed and evaluating whether further clean up efforts under the Superfund program was warranted or needed.[69]

These conservation efforts, combined with the Billion Oyster project, represent a collaborative approach by government agencies, community organizations, and environmental groups toward restoring and preserving ecological integrity in Coney Island Creek.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Coney Island Creek Resiliency Study, New York City Economic Development Corporation (NYCEDC) – 2016.07.08, pages 14–15
2. ^ Kadinsky, Sergey (2016). Hidden Waters of New York City: A History and Guide to 101 Forgotten Lakes, Ponds, Creeks, and Streams in the Five Boroughs. New York, NY: Countryman Press. pp. 200–203\. ISBN 978-1-58157-566-8.
3. ^ a b c d "Coney Island Creek – DEP". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
4. ^ "Coney Island Creek: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly!". Coney Island History Project. May 10, 2017. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
5. ^ Kensinger, Nathan (November 20, 2014). "Coney Island's Untamed Creek, Caught Between Past & Future". Curbed NY. Retrieved September 23, 2019.
6. ^ "Coney Island Creek Combined Sewer Overflow, Long Term Control Plan – NYC Environmental Protection, November 4, 2015, Page 15" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on March 1, 2017. Retrieved October 24, 2017.
7. ^ 1884 history calls this other creek "Brown's Creek" and period maps show a mill pond in this area and call it "Mill Creek"
8. ^ City in Environment – Evolution Coney Island
9. ^ William H. Stillwell, A History of the Town of Gravesend, N.Y., 1884, page 34
10. ^ Coney Island History Project, Collection – Jamaica Ditch
11. ^ New York City Department of Parks & Recreation, Coney Island Creek Park
12. ^ Cover G. Tremlett, In the Matter of the Application of the City of Brooklyn to Acquire the Property and Franchises of the Long Island Water Supply Company: Before ... Commissioners of Appraisal. Proceedings and Report of the Commissioners, 1893, page 273
13. ^ a b "The Battle of Brooklyn | The New York Historical". www.nyhistory.org. Retrieved November 19, 2024.
14. ^ a b Sergey Kadinsky, Hidden Waters blog Companion blog for the book "Hidden Waters of NYC" Canal Avenue, Brooklyn
15. ^ a b Spivack, Caroline (January 4, 2021). "A Coney Island Baptism Spot Might Be Declared a Superfund Site". Curbed. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
16. ^ NYC Parks Dept Coney Island Creek Park
17. ^ Hidden Waters blog, Companion blog for the book "Hidden Waters of NYC" – Photo of the Week March 4, 2016
18. ^ a b Lamb, Jonah Owen (August 6, 2006). "The Ghost Ships of Coney Island Creek". The New York Times. Retrieved June 11, 2014.
19. ^ Viguet, Meridith (September 16, 2013). "The Abandoned Boats of Coney Island Creek". Untapped New York. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
20. ^ Moynihan, Colin (November 9, 2007). "In Coney Island Creek, Hulk of a Yellow Submarine Sticks Out". The New York Times. Retrieved September 12, 2014.
21. ^ "The Abandoned Boats of Coney Island Creek". Untapped New York. September 16, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
22. ^ a b Whitford, Emma (October 4, 2016). "Brooklyn Apartment Complex Allegedly Dumped 200K Gallons Of Sewage Daily In Coney Island Creek". Gothamist. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
23. ^ "Coney Island Creek Endangered by Massive Sewage Spill and New Development". Coney Island History Project. October 6, 2016. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
24. ^ Bredderman, Will (November 15, 2013). "UPDATE: Coney Island Creek dolphin found dead • Brooklyn Paper". www.brooklynpaper.com. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
25. ^ "Update: Coney Island Creek Dolphin Dies". Observer. November 15, 2013. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
26. ^ US EPA, OSRTI. "CONEY ISLAND CREEK Site Profile". cumulis.epa.gov. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
27. ^ Spivack, Caroline (October 4, 2016). "Apartments Dumped 200,000 Gallons of Sewage per Day into Coney Island Creek • Brooklyn Paper". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
28. ^ Zagare, Liena (January 23, 2018). "Beach Haven Apartments Fined $400,000 For Dumping Raw Sewage Into Coney Island Creek". Bklyner. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
29. ^ Walker, Ameena (December 13, 2016). "Coney Island Creek Should Be a Superfund Site, Locals Say". Curbed NY. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
30. ^ Spivack, Caroline (December 9, 2016). "Locals Want Albany to Deem Coney Creek a 'State Superfund' • Brooklyn Paper". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
31. ^ McShane, Julianne (December 7, 2018). "Liquid gold: State hands out thousands to four groups for projects to clean up Coney Island Creek". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
32. ^ Adams, Rose (December 10, 2020). "Coney Island Creek Inches Closer to Superfund Designation". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
33. ^ a b "CONEY ISLAND CREEK Site Profile". cumulis.epa.gov. Retrieved October 28, 2024.
34. ^ McShane, Julianne (June 26, 2018). "Troubled Waters: Exhibit Looks at History of the Coney Island Creek • Brooklyn Paper". www.brooklynpaper.com. Retrieved July 19, 2021.
35. ^ "Coney Island Creek". Billion Oyster Project. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
36. ^ a b Robertson, Mariana Mogilevich, Lesser Gonzalez Alvarez, Avery (March 31, 2022). "Remediation as Interspecies Collaboration: Community Oyster Reef at Coney Island Creek". Urban Omnibus. Retrieved November 19, 2024.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
37. ^ "The Billion Oyster Project: Reviving New York's Waters – Henson Architecture". October 14, 2024. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
38. ^ "Coney Island Creek". Charles Denson. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
39. ^ McShane, Julianne (February 8, 2019). "Ferry uneasy: City named Coney Creek as site for nabe's new ferry before solving critical logistical, environmental issues, locals say". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved May 6, 2019.
40. ^ Barone, Vincent (January 10, 2019). "NYC Ferry Is Adding 2 New Routes". am New York. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
41. ^ Plitt, Amy (January 10, 2019). "NYC Ferry Will Launch Service to Staten Island, Coney Island". Curbed NY. Retrieved January 11, 2019.
42. ^ Katinas, Paula (July 30, 2019). "Fishing, Not Ferries: Coney Islanders Outraged by Kaiser Park Ferry Plan". Brooklyn Eagle. Retrieved February 18, 2021.
43. ^ Adams, Rose (August 3, 2020). "Coney Island Ferry Slated for Polluted Creek Raises Alarms". Brooklyn Paper. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
44. ^ Michel, Clifford (February 11, 2020). "Coney Island NYC Ferry Site Could Dredge Up Toxins". THE CITY. Retrieved July 4, 2021.
45. ^ a b Honan, Katie (May 27, 2022). "City Pauses Planned Coney Island NYC Ferry Stop for Deeper Analysis". The City. Retrieved June 13, 2022.
46. ^ Spivack, Caroline (June 1, 2022). "City halts plans for Coney Island Creek ferry". Crain's New York Business. Retrieved June 13, 2022.
47. ^ Parks, Jessica (June 2, 2022). "Coney Island Creek Ferry Project on Pause While EDC Conducts Further Study on Viability". Brownstoner. Retrieved June 13, 2022.
48. ^ Ramsay, James (November 14, 2022). "Early Addition: NYC kept running boats aground in a futile attempt to put a ferry terminal in Coney Island Creek". Gothamist. Retrieved November 15, 2022.
49. ^ McPherson, Coco (November 12, 2022). "Nature Has Its Way: Sand and Money Halt the Coney Island Ferry". Hell Gate. Retrieved November 15, 2022.
50. ^ Parks, Jessica (October 19, 2021). "Coney Islanders blast health risks from construction of incoming ferry landing after suspected oil spill • Brooklyn Paper". www.brooklynpaper.com. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
51. ^ a b Dietz, Nina (November 21, 2023). "The Quest to Clean Up Coney Island Creek, Part 1: Industrial Past Collides with a Superstorm". City Limits. Retrieved November 19, 2024.
52. ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. "Estuaries Tutorial: NOAA's National Ocean Service Education". oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
53. ^ McFarland, Katherine; Hare, Matthew P. (June 13, 2019). "Correction: Restoring oysters to urban estuaries: Redefining habitat quality for eastern oyster performance near New York City". PLOS ONE. 14 (6): e0218535. Bibcode:2019PLoSO..1418535M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0218535. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 6564020. PMID 31194846.
54. ^ Lunt, Jessica; Smee, Delbert L (January 1, 2020). Grabowski, Jonathan (ed.). "Turbidity alters estuarine biodiversity and species composition". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 77 (1): 379–387\. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsz214. ISSN 1054-3139.
55. ^ Juan, Silvia de; Thrush, Simon F.; Hewitt, Judi E. (June 5, 2013). "Counting on β-Diversity to Safeguard the Resilience of Estuaries". PLOS ONE. 8 (6): e65575. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...865575D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0065575. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3673921. PMID 23755252.
56. ^ "South Brooklyn Coast". NYC Bird Alliance. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
57. ^ "The Basics of Bird Migration: How, Why, and Where". All About Birds. August 1, 2021. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
58. ^ "Horned Lark Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
59. ^ "Snow Bunting Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
60. ^ "American Oystercatcher Overview, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology". www.allaboutbirds.org. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
61. ^ "Coney Island Creek – DEP". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
62. ^ a b "Coney Island Creek – DEP". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
63. ^ "Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, and Controls in Aquatic Ecosystems | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
64. ^ Ombadi, Mohammed; Varadharajan, Charuleka (July 15, 2022). "Urbanization and aridity mediate distinct salinity response to floods in rivers and streams across the contiguous United States". Water Research. 220: 118664. Bibcode:2022WatRe.22018664O. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2022.118664. ISSN 0043-1354. PMID 35671686.
65. ^ Doll, Jason C.; Marsik, Jason (December 1, 2023). "Striped Bass Movement in a Large Southeastern River System". Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management. 14 (2): 354–364\. doi:10.3996/JFWM-22-073. ISSN 1944-687X.
66. ^ Secor, David H.; Houde, Edward D.; Kellogg, Loren L. (July 1, 2017). Paris, Claire (ed.). "Estuarine retention and production of striped bass larvae: a mark-recapture experiment". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 74 (6): 1735–1748\. doi:10.1093/icesjms/fsw245. ISSN 1054-3139.
67. ^ "Schooling | Calvert Marine Museum, MD – Official Website". www.calvertmarinemuseum.com. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
68. ^ "Coney Island Creek – DEP". www.nyc.gov. Retrieved November 22, 2024.
69. ^ US EPA, OSRTI. "CONEY ISLAND CREEK Site Profile". cumulis.epa.gov. Retrieved November 22, 2024.

## External links

[edit]

* ConeyIslandCreek.org
* Coney Island's Untamed Creek, Caught Between Past & Future
* CONEY ISLAND CREEK: An Uncertain Future

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* Central Park
* Conservatory Water
* Harlem Meer
* Lake
* Onassis Reservoir
* Pond
* Pool and Loch
* Turtle Pond
* Croton Distributing Reservoir
* Highbridge Reservoir

Staten Island|

* Clove Lakes
* Long Pond
* Sharrotts Pond
* Silver Lake
* Wolfe's Pond

Former waterways shown in italics. Smaller ponds may not be shown.
See also: Geography of New York City, Geography of New York–New Jersey Harbor Estuary
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