Cooking

Preparing food using heat

This article is about the preparation of food specifically via heat. For a general outline, see Outline of food preparation. For varied styles of international food, see Cuisine. Not to be confused with Coking.

A man cooking in a restaurant kitchen, Morocco

Cooking, also known as cookery, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from grilling food over an open fire, to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, to boiling and blanching in water, reflecting local conditions, techniques and traditions. Cooking is an aspect of all human societies and a cultural universal.

Types of cooking also depend on the skill levels and training of the cooks. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. The term "culinary arts" usually refers to cooking that is primarily focused on the aesthetic beauty of the presentation and taste of the food.

Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. Archeological evidence of cooking fires from at least 300,000 years ago exists, but some estimate that humans started cooking up to 2 million years ago.[1][2]

The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling of water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served.[3]

## History

[edit]

Pots being heated with a wood-burning fire in South India

Phylogenetic analysis suggests that early hominids may have adopted cooking 1–2 million years ago.[4] Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa has provided evidence supporting control of fire by early humans 1 million years ago.[5] In his seminal work Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human, Richard Wrangham suggested that evolution of bipedalism and a large cranial capacity meant that early Homo habilis regularly cooked food.[6][7] However, unequivocal evidence in the archaeological record for the controlled use of fire begins at 400,000 BCE, long after Homo erectus.[8][9][clarification needed] Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago,[10] in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe and the Middle East. The oldest evidence (via heated fish teeth from a deep cave) of controlled use of fire to cook food by archaic humans was dated to ~780,000 years ago.[11][12] Anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago when hearths first appeared.[13]

Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.[14]

Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Columbian Exchange influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the New World, such as potatoes, tomatoes, maize, beans, bell pepper, chili pepper, vanilla, pumpkin, cassava, avocado, peanut, pecan, cashew, pineapple, blueberry, sunflower, chocolate, gourds, green beans, and squash, had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic from the Old World, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, oats, barley, rice, apples, pears, peas, chickpeas, mustard, and carrots, similarly changed New World cooking.[15]

In the 17th and 18th centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the 19th-century "Age of Nationalism", cuisine became a defining symbol of national identity.[citation needed]

The Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing, and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast.[16] In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias, and fast food restaurants emerged.

## Ingredients

[edit]

Most ingredients in cooking are derived from living organisms. Vegetables, fruits, grains and nuts as well as herbs and spices come from plants, while meat, eggs, and dairy products come from animals. Mushrooms and the yeast used in baking are kinds of fungi. Cooks also use water and minerals such as salt. Cooks can also use wine or spirits.

Naturally occurring ingredients contain various amounts of molecules called proteins, carbohydrates and fats. They also contain water and minerals. Cooking involves a manipulation of the chemical properties of these molecules.

### Carbohydrates

[edit]

Main article: Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates include the common sugar, sucrose (table sugar), a disaccharide, and such simple sugars as glucose (made by enzymatic splitting of sucrose) and fructose (from fruit), and starches from sources such as cereal flour, rice, arrowroot and potato.[17]

The interaction of heat and carbohydrate is complex. Long-chain sugars such as starch tend to break down into more digestible simpler sugars.[18] If the sugars are heated so that all water of crystallisation is driven off, caramelization starts, with the sugar undergoing thermal decomposition with the formation of carbon, and other breakdown products producing caramel. Similarly, the heating of sugars and proteins causes the Maillard reaction, a basic flavor-enhancing technique.

An emulsion of starch with fat or water can, when gently heated, provide thickening to the dish being cooked. In European cooking, a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces.[19] In Asian cooking, a similar effect is obtained from a mixture of rice or corn starch and water. These techniques rely on the properties of starches to create simpler mucilaginous saccharides during cooking, which causes the familiar thickening of sauces. This thickening will break down, however, under additional heat.

### Fats

[edit]

Main articles: Fat and Cooking oil

Doughnuts frying in oil

Types of fat include vegetable oils, animal products such as butter and lard, as well as fats from grains, including maize and flax oils. Fats are used in a number of ways in cooking and baking. To prepare stir fries, grilled cheese or pancakes, the pan or griddle is often coated with fat or oil. Fats are also used as an ingredient in baked goods such as cookies, cakes and pies. Fats can reach temperatures higher than the boiling point of water, and are often used to conduct high heat to other ingredients, such as in frying, deep frying or sautéing. Fats are used to add flavor to food (e.g., butter or bacon fat), prevent food from sticking to pans and create a desirable texture.

Fats are one of the three main macronutrient groups in human diet, along with carbohydrates and proteins,[20][21] and the main components of common food products like milk, butter, tallow, lard, salt pork, and cooking oils. They are a major and dense source of food energy for many animals and play important structural and metabolic functions, in most living beings, including energy storage, waterproofing, and thermal insulation.[22] The human body can produce the fat it requires from other food ingredients, except for a few essential fatty acids that must be included in the diet. Dietary fats are also the carriers of some flavor and aroma ingredients and vitamins that are not water-soluble.[23]

### Proteins

[edit]

Main articles: Protein (nutrient) and Protein denaturation

Edible animal material, including muscle, offal, milk, eggs and egg whites, contains substantial amounts of protein.[24][25][26] Almost all vegetable matter (in particular legumes and seeds) also includes proteins, although generally in smaller amounts.[27] Mushrooms have high protein content.[28][29] Any of these may be sources of essential amino acids.[30] When proteins are heated they become denatured (unfolded) and change texture. In many cases, this causes the structure of the material to become softer or more friable – meat becomes cooked and is more friable and less flexible. In some cases, proteins can form more rigid structures, such as the coagulation of albumen in egg whites. The formation of a relatively rigid but flexible matrix from egg white provides an important component in baking cakes, and also underpins many desserts based on meringue.

Water is often used to cook foods such as noodles.

### Water

[edit]

Main article: Water

Cooking often involves water, and water-based liquids. These can be added in order to immerse the substances being cooked (this is typically done with water, stock or wine). Alternatively, the foods themselves can release water. A favorite method of adding flavor to dishes is to save the liquid for use in other recipes. Liquids are so important to cooking that the name of the cooking method used is often based on how the liquid is combined with the food, as in steaming, simmering, boiling, braising and blanching. Heating liquid in an open container results in rapidly increased evaporation, which concentrates the remaining flavor and ingredients; this is a critical component of both stewing and sauce making.

### Vitamins and minerals

[edit]

Vegetables contain important vitamins and minerals.

Main articles: Vitamin and Mineral (nutrient)

Vitamins and minerals are required for normal metabolism; and what the body cannot manufacture itself must come from external sources. Vitamins come from several sources including fresh fruit and vegetables (Vitamin C), carrots, liver (Vitamin A), cereal bran, bread, liver (B vitamins), fish liver oil (Vitamin D) and fresh green vegetables (Vitamin K). Many minerals are also essential in small quantities including iron, calcium, magnesium, sodium chloride and sulfur; and in very small quantities copper, zinc and selenium. The micronutrients, minerals, and vitamins[31] in fruit and vegetables may be destroyed or eluted by cooking. Vitamin C is especially prone to oxidation during cooking and may be completely destroyed by protracted cooking.[32][failed verification] The bioavailability of some vitamins such as thiamin, vitamin B6, niacin, folate, and carotenoids are increased with cooking by being freed from the food microstructure.[33] Blanching or steaming vegetables is a way of minimizing vitamin and mineral loss in cooking.[34]

## Methods

[edit]

See also: List of cooking techniques

This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

|

There are many methods of cooking, most of which have been known since antiquity. These include baking, roasting, frying, grilling, barbecuing, smoking, boiling, steaming and braising. A more recent innovation is microwaving. Various methods use differing levels of heat and moisture and vary in cooking time. The method chosen greatly affects the result. Some major hot cooking techniques include:

A cook sautees onions and green peppers in a skillet.

Roasting
Roasting – Barbecuing – Grilling/Broiling – Rotisserie – Searing
Baking
Baking – Baking Blind
Boiling
Boiling – Blanching – Braising – Coddling – Double steaming – Infusion – Poaching – Pressure cooking – Simmering – Smothering – Steaming – Steeping – Stewing – Stone boiling – Vacuum flask cooking
Frying
Fry – Air frying — Deep frying – Gentle frying – Hot salt frying – Hot sand frying – Pan frying – Pressure frying – Sautéing – Shallow frying – Stir frying – Vacuum frying
Steaming
Steaming works by boiling water continuously, causing it to vaporise into steam; the steam then carries heat to the nearby food, thus cooking the food. By many it is considered a healthy form of cooking, holding nutrients within the vegetable or meat being cooked.
En papillote – The food is put into a pouch and then baked, allowing its own moisture to steam the food.
Smoking
Smoking is the process of flavoring, cooking, or preserving food by exposing it to smoke from burning or smoldering material, most often wood.
Sous vide
Sous vide

## Health and safety

[edit]

### Indoor air pollution

[edit]

Main article: Household air pollution

As of 2021, over 2.6 billion people cook using open fires or inefficient stoves using kerosene, biomass, and coal as fuel.[35][36] These cooking practices use fuels and technologies that produce high levels of household air pollution, causing 3.8 million premature deaths annually. Of these deaths, 27% are from pneumonia, 27% from ischaemic heart disease, 20% from chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, 18% from stroke, and 8% from lung cancer. Women and young children are disproportionately affected, since they spend the most time near the hearth.[37]

### Security while cooking

[edit]

Hazards while cooking can include:

* Unseen slippery surfaces (such as from oil stains, water droplets, or items that have fallen on the floor)
* Cuts; about a third of the US's estimated annual 400,000 knife injuries are kitchen-related.[38]
* Burns or fires

To prevent those injuries there are protections such as cooking clothing, anti-slip shoes, fire extinguisher and more.

### Food safety

[edit]

Main article: Food safety

Cooking can prevent many foodborne illnesses that would otherwise occur if raw food is consumed. When heat is used in the preparation of food, it can kill or inactivate harmful organisms, such as bacteria and viruses, as well as various parasites such as tapeworms and Toxoplasma gondii. Food poisoning and other illness from uncooked or poorly prepared food may be caused by bacteria such as pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhimurium and Campylobacter, viruses such as noroviruses, and protozoa such as Entamoeba histolytica. Bacteria, viruses and parasites may be introduced through salad, meat that is uncooked or done rare, and unboiled water.[39]

The sterilizing effect of cooking depends on temperature, cooking time, and technique used. Some food spoilage bacteria such as Clostridium botulinum or Bacillus cereus can form spores that survive cooking or boiling, which then germinate and regrow after the food has cooled. This makes it unsafe to reheat cooked food more than once.[40]

Cooking increases the digestibility of many foods which are inedible or poisonous when raw. For example, raw cereal grains are hard to digest, while kidney beans are toxic when raw or improperly cooked due to the presence of phytohaemagglutinin, which is inactivated by cooking for at least ten minutes at 100 °C (212 °F).[41]

Food safety depends on the safe preparation, handling, and storage of food. Food spoilage bacteria proliferate in the "Danger zone" temperature range from 40 to 140 °F (4 to 60 °C); therefore, food should not be stored in this temperature range. Washing of hands and surfaces, especially when handling different meats, and keeping raw food separate from cooked food to avoid cross-contamination,[42] are good practices in food preparation.[43] Foods prepared on plastic cutting boards may be less likely to harbor bacteria than wooden ones.[44][45] Washing and disinfecting cutting boards, especially after use with raw meat, poultry, or seafood, reduces the risk of contamination.[45]

### Effects on nutritional content of food

[edit]

See also: Raw foodism

A raw tomato sauce with olives, celery, spinach and walnuts on zucchini noodles.

Proponents of raw foodism argue that cooking food increases the risk of some of the detrimental effects on food or health. They point out that during cooking of vegetables and fruit containing vitamin C, the vitamin elutes into the cooking water and becomes degraded through oxidation. Peeling vegetables can also substantially reduce the vitamin C content, especially in the case of potatoes where most vitamin C is in the skin.[46] However, research has shown that in the specific case of carotenoids a greater proportion is absorbed from cooked vegetables than from raw vegetables.[32]

Sulforaphane, a glucosinolate breakdown product, is present in vegetables such as broccoli, and is mostly destroyed when the vegetable is boiled.[47][48] Although there has been some basic research on how sulforaphane might exert beneficial effects in vivo, there is no high-quality evidence for its efficacy against human diseases.

The United States Department of Agriculture has studied retention data for 16 vitamins, 8 minerals, and alcohol for approximately 290 foods across various cooking methods.[49]

### Carcinogens and AGEs

[edit]

Chicken, pork and bacon-wrapped corn cooking in a barbecue smoker. Studies show that barbecuing and smoking generate carcinogens.

In a human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981, diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers.[50] Studies suggest that around 32% of cancer deaths may be avoidable by changes to the diet.[51] Some of these cancers may be caused by carcinogens in food generated during the cooking process, although it is often difficult to identify the specific components in diet that serve to increase cancer risk.[52]

Several studies published since 1990 indicate that cooking meat at high temperature creates heterocyclic amines (HCA's), which are thought to increase cancer risk in humans. Researchers at the National Cancer Institute found that human subjects who ate beef rare or medium-rare had less than one third the risk of stomach cancer than those who ate beef medium-well or well-done.[53] While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCA's in meat fully, the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below 212 °F (100 °C) creates "negligible amounts" of HCA's. Also, microwaving meat before cooking may reduce HCAs by 90% by reducing the time needed for the meat to be cooked at high heat.[53] Nitrosamines are found in some food, and may be produced by some cooking processes from proteins or from nitrites used as food preservatives; cured meat such as bacon has been found to be carcinogenic, with links to colon cancer. Ascorbate, which is added to cured meat, however, reduces nitrosamine formation.[52][54]

Baking, grilling or broiling food, especially starchy foods, until a toasted crust is formed generates significant concentrations of acrylamide. This discovery in 2002 led to international health concerns. Subsequent research has however found that it is not likely that the acrylamides in burnt or well-cooked food cause cancer in humans; Cancer Research UK categorizes the idea that burnt food causes cancer as a "myth".[55]

Cooking food at high temperature may create advanced glycation end-products (AGEs) that are believed to be involved in a number of diseases, including diabetes, chronic kidney disease, cancer and cardiovascular diseases, as well as in ageing. AGEs are a group of compounds that are formed between reducing sugars and amino acids via Maillard reaction. These compounds impart colors, tastes and smells that are specific to these food, but may also be deleterious to health.[56] Dry heat (e.g. in roasting or grilling) can significantly increase the production of AGEs, as well as food rich in animal protein and fats. The production of AGEs during cooking can be significantly reduced by cooking in water or moist heat, reducing the cooking times and temperatures, as well as by first marinating the meat in acidic ingredients such as lemon juice and vinegar.[57]

## Scientific aspects

[edit]

Main article: Molecular gastronomy

The scientific study of cooking has become known as molecular gastronomy. This is a subdiscipline of food science concerning the physical and chemical transformations that occur during cooking.[58]

Important contributions have been made by scientists, chefs and authors such as Hervé This (chemist), Nicholas Kurti (physicist), Peter Barham (physicist), Harold McGee (author), Shirley Corriher (biochemist, author), Robert Wolke (chemist, author.) It is different for the application of scientific knowledge to cooking, that is "molecular cooking" (for the technique) or "molecular cuisine" (for a culinary style), for which chefs such as Raymond Blanc, Philippe and Christian Conticini, Ferran Adria, Heston Blumenthal, Pierre Gagnaire (chef).[59]

Chemical processes central to cooking include hydrolysis (in particular beta elimination of pectins, during the thermal treatment of plant tissues), pyrolysis, and glycation reactions wrongly named Maillard reactions.[60][61]

Cooking foods with heat depends on many factors: the specific heat of an object, thermal conductivity, and (perhaps most significantly) the difference in temperature between the two objects. Thermal diffusivity is the combination of specific heat, conductivity and density that determines how long it will take for the food to reach a certain temperature.[62]

## Home-cooking and commercial cooking

[edit]

A restaurant kitchen in Munich, Germany (Haxnbauer restaurant)

Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a communal fire, and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility.[63] Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. Bakeries were one of the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and bakeries in the past often offered the cooking of pots of food provided by their customers as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" as well as "ready-to-cook" foods being prepared and cooked in factories and home cooks using a mixture of scratch made, and factory made foods together to make a meal. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods has been found to be inferior to home-made foods.[64] Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium on a per calorie basis while providing more fiber, calcium, and iron.[65] The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing chronic disease.[66] Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.[67]

"Home-cooking" may be associated with comfort food,[68] and some commercially produced foods and restaurant meals are presented through advertising or packaging as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin. This trend began in the 1920s and is attributed to people in urban areas of the U.S. wanting homestyle food even though their schedules and smaller kitchens made cooking harder.[69]

## See also

[edit]

Main article: Outline of food preparation

* Food portal

* Carryover cooking
* Cookbook
* Cooker
* Cooking weights and measures
* Culinary arts
* Culinary profession
* Cooking school
* Dishwashing
* Food and cooking hygiene
* Food industry
* Food preservation
* Food writing
* Foodpairing
* Gourmet Museum and Library
* High altitude cooking
* International food terms
* List of cooking appliances
* List of cuisines
* List of films about cooking
* List of food preparation utensils
* List of ovens
* List of stoves
* Scented water
* Solar cooker
* Staple (cooking)

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Rupp, Rebecca (2 September 2015). "A Brief History of Cooking With Fire". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 29 May 2019.
2. ^ Wrangham, Richard (2009). Catching Fire: How cooking made us human.
3. ^ W. Wayt Gibbs; Nathan Myhrvold (2011). "A New Spin on Cooking". Scientific American. 304 (3): 23. Bibcode:2011SciAm.304c..23G. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0311-23a. PMID 21438483.
4. ^ Organ, Chris (22 August 2011). "Phylogenetic rate shifts in feeding time during the evolution of Homo". PNAS. 108 (35): 14555–14559\. Bibcode:2011PNAS..10814555O. doi:10.1073/pnas.1107806108. PMC 3167533. PMID 21873223.
5. ^ Pringle, Heather (2 April 2012), "Quest for Fire Began Earlier Than Thought", ScienceNOW, archived from the original on 15 April 2013, retrieved 4 April 2012
6. ^ Wrangham, R. and Conklin-Brittain, N., 2003. Cooking as a biological trait. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology, 136(1), pp. 35–46
7. ^ Pollard, Elizabeth (2015). Worlds Together, Worlds Apart. New York: Norton. p. 13\. ISBN 978-0-393-92207-3.
8. ^ Luke, Kim. "Evidence That Human Ancestors Used Fire One Million Years Ago". Retrieved 27 October 2013. "An international team led by the University of Toronto and Hebrew University has identified the earliest known evidence of the use of fire by human ancestors. Microscopic traces of wood ash, alongside animal bones and stone tools, were found in a layer dated to one million years ago"
9. ^ "Archaeologists Find Earliest Evidence of Humans Cooking With Fire". DiscoverMagazine.com. Archived from the original on 27 December 2017. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
10. ^ Smith, Roff (29 January 2014). "Oldest Known Hearth Found in Israel Cave". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 1 February 2014. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
11. ^ "Ancient human relative used fire, surprising discoveries suggest". Washington Post. Retrieved 11 December 2022.
12. ^ Zohar, Irit; Alperson-Afil, Nira; Goren-Inbar, Naama; Prévost, Marion; Tütken, Thomas; Sisma-Ventura, Guy; Hershkovitz, Israel; Najorka, Jens (December 2022). "Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 6 (12): 2016–2028\. Bibcode:2022NatEE...6.2016Z. doi:10.1038/s41559-022-01910-z. ISSN 2397-334X. PMID 36376603. S2CID 253522354.
13. ^ "Pennisi: Did Cooked Tubers Spur the Evolution of Big Brains?". Cogweb.ucla.edu. Retrieved 7 November 2013.
14. ^ "What Does It Mean To Be Human? – Hearths & Shelters". Smithsonian Institution. 12 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
15. ^ Nunn, Nathan; Qian, Nancy (2010). "The Columbian Exchange: A History of Disease, Food, and Ideas". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 24 (2): 163–188\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.232.9242. doi:10.1257/jep.24.2.163. JSTOR 25703506.
16. ^ "The History of Food Irradiation" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 November 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2012.
17. ^ "Carbohydrates: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia". medlineplus.gov. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
18. ^ Öste, Rickard E. (1991), "Digestibility of Processed Food Protein", Nutritional and Toxicological Consequences of Food Processing, Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol. 289, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 371–388, doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-2626-5_27, ISBN 978-1-4899-2628-9, retrieved 19 May 2021
19. ^ "What is...roux?". MICHELIN Guide. Archived from the original on 4 February 2019. Retrieved 4 February 2019.
20. ^ Entry for "fat" "Fat | Definition of Fat by Merriam-Webster". Archived from the original on 25 July 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2023.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link) in the online Merriam-Webster disctionary, sense 3.2. Accessed on 2020-08-09
21. ^ "Macronutrients: the Importance of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat". McKinley Health Center. University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. Archived from the original on 21 September 2014. Retrieved 20 September 2014.
22. ^ "Introduction to Energy Storage". Khan Academy.
23. ^ Thomas A. B. Sanders (2016): "The Role of Fats in Human Diet". Pages 1–20 of Functional Dietary Lipids. Woodhead/Elsevier, 332 pages. ISBN 978-1-78242-247-1doi:10.1016/B978-1-78242-247-1.00001-6
24. ^ Reynolds, Daman; Caminiti, Jeff; Edmundson, Scott; Gao, Song; Wick, Macdonald; Huesemann, Michael (12 July 2022). "Seaweed proteins are nutritionally valuable components in the human diet". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 116 (4): 855–861\. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqac190. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 35820048.
25. ^ "Protein in diet". United States National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health. 2009.
26. ^ "High-Protein Alternatives to Meat". Pocket. Retrieved 9 June 2022.
27. ^ "cooking - Fun_with_Words - 博客园". www.cnblogs.com (in Chinese (China)). Retrieved 8 December 2023.
28. ^ Wang, Meiqi; Zhao, Ruilin (1 March 2023). "A review on nutritional advantages of edible mushrooms and its industrialization development situation in protein meat analogues". Journal of Future Foods. 3 (1): 1–7\. doi:10.1016/j.jfutfo.2022.09.001. ISSN 2772-5669.
29. ^ Rahi, Deepak K.; Malik, Deepika (2016). "Diversity of Mushrooms and Their Metabolites of Nutraceutical and Therapeutic Significance". Journal of Mycology. 2016: 1–18\. doi:10.1155/2016/7654123. ISSN 2356-7481.
30. ^ Baofu, Peter (3 January 2013). The Future of Post-Human Culinary Art: Towards a New Theory of Ingredients and Techniques. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4438-4484-0.
31. ^ "Loss of nutrients when vegetables are cooked". Archived from the original on 9 September 2009.
32. ^ a b "Cooking vegetables 'improves benefits'". BBC News. 2 June 1999. Retrieved 30 April 2010.
33. ^ Hotz, Christine; Gibson, Rosalind S. (2007). "Traditional food-processing and preparation practices to enhance the bioavailability of micronutrients in plant-based diets". The Journal of Nutrition. 137 (4): 1097–1100\. doi:10.1093/jn/137.4.1097. PMID 17374686.
34. ^ Lee, S.; Choi, Y.; Jeong, H. S.; Lee, J.; Sung, J. (12 October 2017). "Effect of different cooking methods on the content of vitamins and true retention in selected vegetables". Food Science and Biotechnology. 27 (2): 333–342\. doi:10.1007/s10068-017-0281-1. PMC 6049644. PMID 30263756.
35. ^ "Household air pollution". www.who.int. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
36. ^ "Polluting cooking methods, used by billions of people around the world, remain a threat to women's health". Equal Times. 16 January 2023. Retrieved 8 December 2023.
37. ^ "Household air pollution and health". World Health Organization. 22 September 2021. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
38. ^ "A Guide to Keeping Safe While Cooking". StaySafe.org. Retrieved 3 July 2021.
39. ^ "Foodborne Illnesses". National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases.
40. ^ "Safe Food Australia – A Guide to the Food Safety Standards" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 September 2010.
41. ^ Noah ND, Bender AE, Reaidi GB, Gilbert RJ (July 1980). "News, Notes, And Epidemiology". Br Med J. 281 (6234): 236–237\. doi:10.1136/bmj.281.6234.235. PMC 1713670. PMID 7407532.
42. ^ "Grilling and Food Safety" (PDF). USDA. June 2017. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 May 2014. Retrieved 30 January 2019.
43. ^ "Basics for Handling Food Safely". United States Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 28 September 2004. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
44. ^ "Cutting Boards (Plastic Versus Wood)". Food Safety, Preparation and Storage Tips. Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, the University of Arizona. 1998. Archived from the original on 13 June 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
45. ^ a b "Cutting Boards – wood or plastic?". ReluctantGourmet.com. Archived from the original on 2 July 2006. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
46. ^ "Potato, nutrition and diet – International Year of the Potato 2008". Archived from the original on 5 November 2007. Retrieved 14 August 2011.
47. ^ Jin, Y.; Wang, M.; Rosen, R. T.; Ho, C. T. (1999). "Thermal Degradation of Sulforaphane in Aqueous Solution". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 47 (8): 3121–3123\. Bibcode:1999JAFC...47.3121J. doi:10.1021/jf990082e. PMID 10552618.
48. ^ Bongoni, R; Verkerk, R; Steenbekkers, B; Dekker, M; Stieger (2014). "Evaluation of Different Cooking Conditions on Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) to Improve the Nutritional Value and Consumer Acceptance". Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 69 (3): 228–234\. doi:10.1007/s11130-014-0420-2. PMID 24853375. S2CID 35228794.
49. ^ "USDA Table of Nutrient Retention Factors, Release 6" (PDF). USDA. USDA. December 2007. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
50. ^ Doll, R.; Peto, R. (1981). "The causes of cancer: Quantitative estimates of avoidable risks of cancer in the United States today". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 66 (6): 1191–1308\. doi:10.1093/jnci/66.6.1192. PMID 7017215.
51. ^ Willett WC (1995). "Diet, nutrition, and avoidable cancer". Environ Health Perspect. 103 (Suppl 8): 165–170\. Bibcode:1995EnvHP.103S.165W. doi:10.1289/ehp.95103s8165. PMC 1518978. PMID 8741778.
52. ^ a b Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet. National Academy Press. 1996. ISBN 978-0-309-05391-4.
53. ^ a b "Heterocyclic Amines in Cooked Meats". National Cancer Institute. 2018.
54. ^ Scanlan RA. (1983). "Formation and occurrence of nitrosamines in food". Cancer Res. 43 (5 Suppl): 2435s – 2440s. PMID 6831466.
55. ^ "Can eating burnt foods cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 15 October 2021. Archived from the original on 9 November 2023. Retrieved 2 October 2022.
56. ^ Prasad, Chandan; Davis, Kathleen E; Imrhan, Victorine; Juma, Shanil; Vijayagopal, Parakat (May 2017). "Advanced Glycation End Products and Risks for Chronic Diseases: Intervening Through Lifestyle Modification". Am J Lifestyle Med. 13 (4): 384–404\. doi:10.1177/1559827617708991. PMC 6600625. PMID 31285723.
57. ^ Uribarri, Jaime; Woodruff, Sandra; Goodman, Susan; Cai, Weijing; Chen, Xue; Pyzik, Renata; Yong, Angie; Striker, Gary E; Vlassara, Helen (June 2010). "Advanced Glycation End Products in Foods and a Practical Guide to Their Reduction in the Diet". J Am Diet Assoc. 110 (6): 911–16.e12. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2010.03.018. PMC 3704564. PMID 20497781.
58. ^ Molecular Gastronomy Archived 19 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine from Encyclopedia Britannica
59. ^ Guler, Ozan (2019). The Harmony of Science and Food:Molecular Gastronomy. Strategic Researchers Academy Publishing. ISBN 978-605-69709-1-7.
60. ^ "Food-Info.net : Maillard reactions". www.food-info.net. Retrieved 29 March 2017.
61. ^ Handbook of Molecular Gastronomy, CRC Press, 2021
62. ^ Barham, Peter. The Science of Cooking. p. 39.
63. ^ Jackson, Cecile (2013). Men at Work: Labour, Maculinities, Development. New York: Routledge. p. 225.
64. ^ Lin, Biing-Hwan; Guthrie, Joanne. "Nutritional Quality of Food Prepared at Home and Away From Home, 1977–2008". www.ers.usda.gov. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Archived from the original on 22 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.
65. ^ Reicks, Marla; Trofholz, Amanda C.; Stang, Jamie S.; Laska, Melissa N. (1 August 2014). "Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs". Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior. 46 (4): 259–276\. doi:10.1016/j.jneb.2014.02.001. ISSN 1878-2620. PMC 4063875. PMID 24703245.
66. ^ Soliah, Lu Ann Laurice; Walter, Janelle Marshall; Jones, Sheila Ann (1 March 2012). "Benefits and Barriers to Healthful Eating What Are the Consequences of Decreased Food Preparation Ability?". American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine. 6 (2): 152–158\. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.1026.8612. doi:10.1177/1559827611426394. ISSN 1559-8276. S2CID 71797396.
67. ^ Chen, Rosalind Chia-Yu; Lee, Meei-Shyuan; Chang, Yu-Hung; Wahlqvist, Mark L. (1 July 2012). "Cooking frequency may enhance survival in Taiwanese elderly" (PDF). Public Health Nutrition. 15 (7): 1142–1149\. doi:10.1017/S136898001200136X. ISSN 1475-2727. PMID 22578892. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
68. ^ Jones, Michael Owen; Long, Lucy M. (2017). Comfort Food: Meaning and Memories. Univ. Press of Mississippi. ISBN 978-1-4968-1086-1.
69. ^ Barbas, Samantha (Fall 2002). "Just Like Home: "Home Cooking" and the Domestication of the American Restaurant". Gastronomica. 2 (4): 43–52\. doi:10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43. JSTOR 10.1525/gfc.2002.2.4.43.[permanent dead link]

## External links

[edit]

* Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Cookery" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 7 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–76.
* Florence Nightingale (1861), Directions for Cooking by Troops, in Camp and Hospital

* v
* t
* e

Cooking techniques

List of cooking techniques

Dry|

| Conduction|

* Dry roasting
* Hot salt frying
* Searing

|

Convection|

* Baking
* Roasting (modern)
* Smoking
* Barbecue

Radiation|

* Charbroiler
* Grilling (charbroiling)
* Roasting (traditional)
* Rotisserie
* Toasting

Wet|

| High heat|

* Blanching
* Boiling
* Decoction
* Parboiling
* Shocking
* Reduction

|

Low heat|

* Coddling
* Creaming
* Infusion
* Poaching
* Simmering
* Low-temperature cooking
* Smothering
* Steeping
* Stewing

Indirect heat|

* Bain-marie (Double boiling)
* Sous vide
* Double steaming
* Steaming

Fat-based|

| High heat|

* Basting
* Blackening
* Browning
* Frying
* Deep frying
* Pan frying
* Shallow frying
* Stir frying
* Sautéing

|

Low heat|

* Gentle frying
* Sweating

Mixed medium|

* Carryover cooking
* Barbecuing
* Braising
* Caramelization
* Deglazing
* Discada
* Flambé
* Fricassee
* Indirect grilling/Plank cooking
* Stir frying (chao)

Device-based|

* Air frying
* Microwaving
* Pressure cooking
* Pressure frying
* Slow cooker
* Thermal cooking

Non-heat|

* Aging
* Brining
* Burying in ground
* Curing
* Drying
* Fermenting
* Juicing
* Pickling
* Purée
* Salting
* Souring

See also|

* List of cooking appliances
* List of cooking vessels
* Outdoor cooking
* Food preparation
* Food preservation
* Food safety

Category

* v
* t
* e

Cuisines

Continental|

| African|

* North
* West
* list

|

Americas|

* Caribbean
* North
* South
* list

Asian|

* Caucasian
* Central
* Levantine
* South
* North Indian
* South Indian
* list

European|

* Balkan
* Central
* Eastern
* Caucasian
* list

Oceanian|

* Australian
* New Zealander

Intercontinental|

* Global
* Latin American
* Mediterranean
* Middle Eastern

National and
(regional)|

* Afghan
* Albanian
* Algerian
* American
* Puerto Rican
* Angolan
* Antarctic
* Argentine
* Armenian
* Australian
* Austrian
* Azerbaijani
* Bahraini
* Bangladeshi
* Barbadian
* Belarusian
* Belgian
* Belizean
* Beninese
* Bhutanese
* Bolivian
* Bosnian-Herzegovinian
* Botswana
* Brazilian
* British
* Anguillia
* Channel Islands
* English
* Gibraltarian
* Northern Irish
* Saint Helena
* Scottish
* Welsh
* Bruneian
* Bulgarian
* Burkinabé
* Burmese
* Burundian
* Cambodian
* Cameroonian
* Canadian
* Acadian
* Québécois
* Central African Republic
* Chadian
* Chilean
* Chinese
* Beijing
* Cantonese
* Hong Kong
* Macanese
* Shandong
* Sichuan
* Tibetan
* Xinjiang
* Colombian
* Congolese
* Croatian
* Cuban
* Cypriot
* Czech
* Danish
* Faroese
* Greenlandic
* Djiboutian
* Dominican
* Dominican Republic
* Dutch
* East Timorese
* Ecuadorian
* Egyptian
* Emirati
* Equatorial Guinean
* Eritrean
* Estonian
* Ethiopian
* Fijian
* Filipino
* Kapampangan
* Finnish
* French
* Corsican
* La Réunion
* French Guianan
* Occitan
* Gabonese
* Gambian
* Georgian
* German
* Ghanaian
* Greek
* Cretan
* Epirotic
* Greek Macedonian
* Heptanesean
* Guatemalan
* Guinea-Bissauan
* Guinean
* Guyana
* Haitian
* Honduran
* Hungarian
* Icelandic
* Indian
* Andhra
* Arunachali
* Assamese
* Bengali
* Bihari
* Chhattisgarhi
* Goan
* Gujarati
* Haryanvi
* Kashmiri
* Jharkhandi
* Karnataka
* Kerala
* Maharashtrian
* Manipuri
* Meghalayan
* Mizo
* Naga
* Odia
* Punjabi
* Rajasthani
* Sikkimese
* Sindhi
* Tamil
* Telangana
* Tripuri
* Uttar Pradesh
* Uttarakhandi
* Indonesian
* Acehnese
* Balinese
* Banjar
* Batak
* Betawi
* Gorontalese
* Indo
* Javanese
* Madurese
* Makassar
* Minahasan
* Minangkabau
* Palembangese
* Sundanese
* Iranian
* Iraqi
* Irish
* Israeli
* Italian
* Abruzzese
* Apulian
* Emilian
* Ligurian
* Lombard
* Lucanian
* Neapolitan
* Piedmontese
* Roman
* Sardinian
* Sicilian
* Tuscan
* Venetian
* Ivorian
* Jamaican
* Japanese
* Okinawan
* Jordanian
* Kazakh
* Kenyan
* Korean
* North Korean
* South Korean
* Kosovan
* Kuwaiti
* Kyrgyz
* Lao
* Latvian
* Lebanese
* Lesotho
* Liberian
* Libyan
* Liechtensteiner
* Lithuanian
* Luxembourgish
* Macedonian
* Malagasy
* Malawian
* Malaysian
* Sabahan
* Sarawakian
* Maldivian
* Malian
* Maltese
* Marshallese
* Mauritanian
* Mauritian
* Mexican
* Moldovan
* Monégasque
* Mongolian
* Montenegrin
* Moroccan
* Mozambican
* Namibian
* Nauruan
* Nepalese
* New Zealand
* Nicaraguan
* Niger
* Nigerian
* Niuean
* Norwegian
* Omani
* Pakistani
* Palestinian
* Panamanian
* Papua New Guinean
* Paraguayan
* Peruvian
* Polish
* Portuguese
* Qatari
* Romanian
* Russian
* Bashkir
* Chechen
* Circassian
* Cossack
* Komi
* Mordovian
* Sakha
* Tatar
* Udmurt
* Yamal
* Rwandan
* Saint Lucian
* Salvadoran
* Sammarinese
* São Tomé and Príncipe
* Saudi Arabian
* Senegalese
* Serbian
* Seychellois
* Sierra Leonean
* Singaporean
* Slovak
* Slovenian
* Somali
* South African
* Spanish
* Andalusian
* Asturian
* Balearic
* Basque
* Canarian
* Cantabrian
* Catalan
* Extremaduran
* Galician
* Manchegan
* Valencian
* Sri Lankan
* Sudanese
* Swazi
* Swedish
* Swiss
* Syrian
* Taiwanese
* Tajik
* Tanzanian
* Zanzibari
* Thai
* Togolese
* Trinidadian and Tobagonian
* Tunisian
* Turkish
* Turkmen
* Tuvaluan
* Ugandan
* Ukrainian
* Uruguayan
* Uzbek
* Vanuatuan
* Venezuelan
* Vietnamese
* Western Saharan
* Yemeni
* Zambian
* Zimbabwean

Ethnic|

* African American
* Ainu
* Arab
* Arab-Indonesian
* Aromanian
* Assyrian
* Balochi
* Berber
* Buryat
* Cajun
* Chinese
* American
* Australian
* British
* Cambodian
* Canadian
* Filipino
* Indian
* Indonesian
* Malaysian
* Pakistani
* Peruvian
* Crimean Tatar
* Gagauz
* Greek-American
* Hausa
* Hazaragi
* Hmong
* Indian
* English
* Indonesian
* Malaysian
* Indigenous American
* Indigenous Australian
* Inuit
* Italian American
* Jewish
* American
* Ashkenazi
* Bukharan
* Ethiopian
* Mizrahi
* Moroccan
* Sephardic
* Syrian
* Kurdish
* Livonian
* Louisiana Creole
* Malay
* Ossetian
* Parsi
* Pashtun
* Pennsylvania Dutch
* Peranakan
* Pontic Greek
* Romani
* Sámi
* Tejano
* Transylvanian Saxon
* Yup'ik

Religious|

* Buddhist
* Christian
* Goan Catholic
* Mangalorean Catholic
* Mennonite
* Hindu
* Islamic
* Chinese
* Ital
* Jain
* Kashrut
* Kosher food
* Sikh

Historical|

* Ancient Egyptian
* Ancient Greek
* Ancient Israelite
* Ancient Roman
* Antebellum America
* Aztec
* Byzantine
* Early modern European
* Historical Argentine
* Historical Chinese
* Historical Indian subcontinent
* Historical Japanese
* Historical North Indian and Pakistani
* History of agriculture
* History of alcoholic drinks
* History of bread
* History of seafood
* History of vegetarianism
* Hittite
* Inca
* Mayan
* Muisca
* Mughal
* Medieval
* Ottoman
* Peasant
* Pre-contact Hawaiian
* Korean royal court
* Scottish royal household
* Soviet
* Thirteen Colonies

Styles|

* Classique
* Fast food
* Fusion
* New American
* Eurasian
* Haute
* Molecular gastronomy
* Note by Note
* Nouvelle
* Vegetarian

Lists|

* List of cuisines
* List of historical cuisines
* Lists of foods
* Prepared

Related|

* Cookbook
* Cooking
* Culinary arts
* Drink
* Food
* history
* sociology
* specialty
* Diet
* Fat
* Meal
* Meal preparation
* Ritual slaughter

* Category
* Outline

* v
* t
* e

Meals

Common meals|

* Suhur
* Breakfast
* Second breakfast
* Elevenses
* Coffee break
* Brunch
* Lunch
* Tea
* Merienda
* Tiffin
* Dinner
* Supper
* Iftar
* Siu yeh

Components
and courses|

* Apéritif and digestif
* Hors d'oeuvre
* Amuse-bouche
* Soup
* Entrée
* Roast
* Main course
* Salad
* Side dish
* Entremets
* Dessert
* Savoury
* Meal replacement
* Snack

Table service|

* Buffet
* smörgåsbord
* Conveyor belt sushi
* Dish
* Finger food
* Full-course dinner
* Platter
* Rodízio
* Service à la française
* Service à la russe
* Silver service
* Small plates
* Table reservation

Presentation|

* Al fresco
* Dining room
* Eating utensils
* Food presentation
* Garnish
* Nyotaimori
* Pièce montée
* Serving size
* Table setting
* Tablecloth
* Tableware

Dining|

* Dress code
* Table manners
* Eating utensil etiquette
* Toast
* Waiting staff

Regional styles|

* Anju
* Antipasto
* Cicchetti
* Banchan / Korean table d'hôte
* Bandeja paisa
* Dastarkhān
* Dim sum / Yum cha
* Fika
* Izakaya / Sakana
* Kaiseki
* Meat and three
* Meze
* Okazuya
* Plate lunch
* Pu pu platter
* Rice and three
* Rijsttafel
* Sadhya
* Smörgåsbord
* Tapas
* Thali
* Tiffin
* Zakuski

Packed|

* Airline meal
* Bento
* Convenience food
* Dosirak
* Ekiben
* Emergency rations
* Fast food
* Field ration
* Frozen meal
* Instant breakfast
* Jūbako
* Ninja diet
* Packed lunch
* Space food
* Take-out

Menus and
meal deals|

* À la carte
* Blue-plate special
* Combination meal
* Free lunch
* Free refill
* Happy hour
* Kids' meal
* Menú del día
* School meal
* Suspended meal
* Table d'hôte
* Tasting menu / Degustation
* Value menu

Communal meals|

* Banquet
* State banquet
* Barbecue
* Commercium
* Dining in
* Iftar
* Picnic
* Potluck
* Seder
* Sittning
* Soup kitchen
* Supra
* Tableround
* Tea party

Catering and
food delivery|

* Food delivery
* Online food ordering
* Virtual restaurant

Places to eat|

* Café
* Cafeteria
* Dining room
* Food truck
* Inn
* Kitchen
* Mess
* Picnic table
* Restaurant
* Soup kitchen
* Street food
* Tavern
* Traiteur

Related|

* Coffee culture
* Cook
* Cookbook
* Cooking
* Chef
* Culinary arts
* Cuisine
* outline
* Drink
* Eating
* Food
* Lists of food and beverage topics
* Meal preparation
* Outline of food preparation
* Salumeria
* Tea culture

* Category
* Commons

* v
* t
* e

Prehistoric technology

* Prehistory
* Timeline
* Outline
* Stone Age
* Subdivisions
* New Stone Age
* Technology
* history
* Glossary

Tools

| Farming|

* Neolithic Revolution
* Founder crops
* New World crops
* Ard / plough
* Celt
* Digging stick
* Domestication
* Goad
* Irrigation
* Secondary products
* Sickle
* Terracing

|

Food processing
(Paleolithic diet)|

* Fire
* Basket
* Cooking
* Earth oven
* Granaries
* Grinding slab
* Ground stone
* Hearth
* Aşıklı Höyük
* Qesem cave
* Manos
* Metate
* Mortar and pestle
* Pottery
* Quern-stone
* Storage pits

Hunting|

* Arrow
* Boomerang
* throwing stick
* Bow and arrow
* history
* Nets
* Spear
* spear-thrower
* baton
* harpoon
* Schöningen
* woomera

Projectile points|

* Arrowhead
* Transverse
* Bare Island
* Cascade
* Clovis
* Cresswell
* Cumberland
* Eden
* Folsom
* Lamoka
* Manis Mastodon
* Plano

Systems|

* Game drive system
* Buffalo jump

Toolmaking|

* Earliest toolmaking
* Oldowan
* Acheulean
* Mousterian
* Aurignacian
* Clovis culture
* Cupstone
* Fire hardening
* Gravettian culture
* Hafting
* Hand axe
* Grooves
* Langdale axe industry
* Levallois technique
* Lithic core
* Lithic reduction
* analysis
* debitage
* flake
* Lithic technology
* Magdalenian culture
* Metallurgy
* Microblade technology
* Mining
* Prepared-core technique
* Solutrean industry
* Striking platform
* Tool stone
* Uniface
* Yubetsu technique

Other tools|

* Adze
* Awl
* bone
* Axe
* Bannerstone
* Blade
* prismatic
* Bone tool
* Bow drill
* Burin
* Canoe
* Oar
* Pesse canoe
* Chopper
* tool
* Cleaver
* Denticulate tool
* Fire plough
* Fire-saw
* Hammerstone
* Knife
* Microlith
* Quern-stone
* Racloir
* Rope
* Scraper
* side
* Stone tool
* Tally stick
* Weapons
* Wheel
* illustration

Architecture

| Ceremonial|

* Kiva
* Pyramid
* Standing stones
* megalith
* row
* Stonehenge

|

Dwellings|

* Neolithic architecture
* long house
* British megalith architecture
* Nordic megalith architecture
* Burdei
* Cave
* Cliff dwelling
* Dugout
* Hut
* Quiggly hole
* Jacal
* Longhouse
* Mudbrick
* Mehrgarh
* Pit-house
* Pueblitos
* Pueblo
* Rock shelter
* Blombos Cave
* Abri de la Madeleine
* Sibudu Cave
* Roundhouse
* Stilt house
* Alp pile dwellings
* Stone roof
* Wattle and daub

Water management|

* Check dam
* Cistern
* Flush toilet
* Reservoir
* Well

Other architecture|

* Archaeological features
* Broch
* Burnt mound
* fulacht fiadh
* Causewayed enclosure
* Tor enclosure
* Circular enclosure
* Goseck
* Cursus
* Henge
* Thornborough
* Megalithic architectural elements
* Midden
* Oldest extant buildings
* Timber circle
* Timber trackway
* Sweet Track

Arts and culture

| Material goods|

* Baskets
* Beadwork
* Beds
* Chalcolithic
* Clothing/textiles
* timeline
* Cosmetics
* Glue
* Hides
* shoes
* Ötzi
* Jewelry
* amber use
* Mirrors
* Pottery
* Cardium
* Cord-marked
* Grooved ware
* Jōmon
* Linear
* Unstan ware
* Sewing needle
* Weaving
* Wine
* winery
* wine press

|

Prehistoric art|

* Art of the Upper Paleolithic
* Art of the Middle Paleolithic
* Blombos Cave
* List of Stone Age art
* Bird stone
* Cairn
* Carved stone balls
* Cave paintings
* Cup and ring mark
* Geoglyph
* Hill figure
* Golden hats
* Guardian stones
* Gwion Gwion rock paintings
* painting
* pigment
* Megalithic art
* Petroform
* Petroglyph
* Petrosomatoglyph
* Pictogram
* Rock art
* Rock cupule
* Stone carving
* Sculpture
* Statue menhir
* Stone circle
* list
* British Isles and Brittany
* Venus figurine

Prehistoric music|

* Evolutionary musicology
* music archaeology
* Alligator drum
* Paleolithic flute
* Divje Babe flute
* Gudi

Prehistoric religion|

* Evolutionary origin of religion
* Paleolithic religion
* Spiritual drug use

Burial|

* Burial mounds
* Bowl barrow
* Round barrow
* Mound Builders culture
* U.S. sites
* Chamber tomb
* Cotswold-Severn
* Cist
* Dartmoor kistvaens
* Clava cairn
* Court cairn
* Cremation
* Dolmen
* Great dolmen
* Funeral pyre
* Gallery grave
* transepted
* wedge-shaped
* Grave goods
* Jar burial
* Long barrow
* unchambered
* Grønsalen
* Megalithic tomb
* Mummy
* Passage grave
* Rectangular dolmen
* Ring cairn
* Simple dolmen
* Stone box grave
* Tor cairn
* Unchambered long cairn

Other cultural|

* Archaeoastronomy
* sites
* lunar calendar
* Behavioral modernity
* Origin of language
* Prehistoric counting
* Prehistoric medicine
* trepanning
* Prehistoric warfare
* Symbols
* symbolism

Authority control databases

National|

* Germany
* United States
* Japan
* Czech Republic

Other|

* NARA

Portal:

* Food

Cooking at Wikipedia's sister projects:

* Definitions from Wiktionary
* Media from Commons
* Quotations from Wikiquote
* Texts from Wikisource
* Textbooks from Wikibooks
* Resources from Wikiversity

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template