Counterculture of the 1960s

Anti-establishment cultural phenomenon

Counterculture of the 1960s

The peace sign (or peace symbol), designed and first used in the UK by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, later became associated with elements of the 1960s counterculture.[1][2]

Date| Mid-1960s to early 1970s
Location| Worldwide
Outcome| Cultural movements
British Invasion
Hippie movement (Hippie trail)
Back-to-the-land movement (Communes)
Sexual revolution
Swinging Sixties (Swinging London)
Rise of the music festival
New Age
New Wave movements
Progg
Protest movements
Protests of 1968
Anti-nuclear movement
Civil rights movement (Anti-racism)
Northern Ireland Civil Rights Movement
Black Power movement
Chicano Movement
American Indian Movement (Indigenous rights)
Māori protest movement (Māori renaissance)
Asian American movement
Nuyorican Movement
Free Speech Movement
Gay liberation
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
Second-wave feminism
New Left (Japan, West Germany)
Environmentalism

* v
* t
* e

Movements in the
Counterculture of the 1960s

* Anti-nuclear movement
* Black power movement
* Chicano movement
* Civil rights movement
* Free Speech Movement
* Opposition to US involvement in the Vietnam War
* Sexual revolution
* Gay liberation
* Women's liberation movement

Part of a series on

Progressivism

Movements

* 50501 movement
* BLM
* Conservation movement
* ECG
* Ethical movement
* Environmental movement
* Indivisible movement
* Labour
* LGBTQ movements
* #MeToo
* Occupy Wall Street
* Reform
* Social hygiene
* "The Resistance"
* Taiwan independence
* YIMBY

Ideas

* Direct democracy
* Economic development
* Environmentalism
* Broad measures of economic progress
* Gender equality
* Green politics
* Human enhancement
* Indigenous rights
* Intersectionality
* Liberation theology
* Metaphysics
* Minority rights
* LGBTQ rights
* Multiculturalism
* Modernism
* Post
* Moral universalism
* Progress
* Philosophy of progress
* Progressive education
* In Latin America
* Progressive stack
* Progressive nationalism
* Progressive taxation
* Religious liberalism
* Reparations for slavery
* In the US
* Scientific management
* Scientific progress
* Social change
* Social constructivism
* Social justice
* Social justice warrior
* Social organization
* Social progress
* List of countries
* Solidarity unionism
* Strategic essentialism
* Sustainable design
* Ecological engineering
* Sustainable development
* Techno-progressivism
* Welfare state
* Women's suffrage
* Workplace democracy
* Youth rights

Variants

* Christian
* Confucian
* Conservative
* Economic
* Islamic
* Neoliberal
* Techno

Ideologies

* Ecevitism
* Kirchnerism
* Lulism
* Roosevelt Republican

Activists

* Abbott (Edith)
* Abbott (Grace)
* Addams
* Armstrong
* Ahmed
* Ajamu X
* Alexander
* Alinsky
* Archer
* Belmont
* Bond
* Brandeis
* Breckinridge
* Cambell
* Cloward
* Dees
* Gilman
* Hammer
* Hanna
* Hassan
* Heumann
* Huang
* Jackson (Esther)
* Jackson (George)
* Jackson (Jesse)
* Kahane
* King (Shaun)
* King (Jr.)
* Lennon
* Ludmer
* Markey
* McIlrath
* Mckesson
* Page
* Pearson
* Roosevelt (Eleanor)
* Rothblatt
* Seligmann
* Smeeth
* Soros (Alexander)
* Soros (George)
* Su
* Walia
* Windsor
* Wong (Alice)
* Wong (Joshua)
* Woodhull

Commentators

* Bedborough
* Brewis
* Cohen
* Conover
* Criado Perez
* Danskin
* Duberman
* Ellis
* Faust
* Favreau
* Fiorentini
* Glaude
* Goldberg
* Hartmann
* Hasan
* Jennings
* Klippenstein
* Kochinski
* Krugman
* Kulinski
* Levy
* Lovett
* Marshall
* McKay
* Miller (Stephanie)
* Moore
* Morgan
* Nagle
* Oliver
* Pakman
* Pfeiffer
* Piker
* Rather
* Reich (Robert)
* Reid
* Seder
* Sharpton
* Smith
* Stewart
* Thorn
* Vietor
* Wise
* Wynn
* Welles
* Zuckerberg

Intellectuals

* Addams
* Allen
* Anderson
* Benedict
* Benjamin
* Ben-Moshe
* Beveridge
* Black
* Blackwell
* Bornstein
* Brand
* Brandeis
* Butler
* Carpenter
* de Condorcet
* Cornell
* Davis (Mike)
* Dewey
* DiAngelo
* Douglas (Kelly)
* Douglas (William)
* Du Bois
* Dyson
* Ellis
* Fredrickson
* Friedan
* Gilmore
* Hammonds
* Helms
* Hirschfeld
* hooks
* Jeffries
* Karenga
* Keller
* Kendi
* McIntosh
* Merriam
* Meyers
* Mills
* Money
* Moore
* Oastler
* Ostrowski
* Painter
* Patterson
* Peled-Elhanan
* Rawls
* Reich (Wilhelm)
* Roberts
* Rothstein
* Saini
* Sanger
* Seuss
* Shaw
* Stanley
* Stein
* TallBear
* Wachowskis (Lana/Lilly)
* Wells
* Welsing
* West
* Whedon
* Wilderson III
* Zuboff

Politicians

* Albanese
* Ardern
* Attlee
* Boric
* Brandt
* Bryan
* Casar
* Crockett
* da Silva
* Debs
* Drees
* Frost
* Gorbachev
* Harris
* Hawkins
* Hessel
* Hunter
* Jackson
* Jayapal
* Johnson
* Kennedy (John F.)
* Kennedy (Ted)
* Khanna
* La Follette
* La Guardia
* Lai
* Layton
* Lee (Barbara)
* Lee (Summer)
* Lewis
* Lyuh
* Mamdani
* Manley
* Markey
* McGovern
* Merkley
* Mottley
* Murayama
* Murphy (Emily)
* Murphy (Chris)
* Nader
* Nehru
* Norris
* Norton
* Obrador
* Ocasio-Cortez
* Omar
* Petro
* Pocan
* Pressley
* Raskin
* Roosevelt (Franklin)
* Roosevelt (Theodore)
* Sánchez
* Sanders
* Tlaib
* Trudeau
* Tsai
* Wallace
* Walz
* Warren
* Weaver
* Wilson (Harold)
* Yamamoto
* Yavlinsky
* Zapatero

Literature

* Looking Backward (1888)
* Equality (1897)
* Better-World Philosophy (1899)
* Man and Superman (1903)
* The Universal Kinship (1906)
* The Open Conspiracy (1928)
* The Mass Psychology of Fascism (1933)
* Sexuality in the Cultural Struggle (1936)
* Beveridge Report (1942)
* Rules for Radicals (1971)
* Humanist Manifesto II (1973)
* Woman Hating (1974)
* The Handmaid's Tale (1985)
* Black Athena (1987–2006)
* The Racial Contract (1997)
* War Against the Weak (2003)
* The Audacity of Hope (2006)
* The Invention of the Jewish People (2008)
* The New Jim Crow (2010)
* The Speech (2011)
* Our Revolution (2016)
* White Rage (2016)
* The Color of Law (2017)
* Inferior (2017)
* Not All Dead White Men (2018)
* White Fragility (2018)
* Invisible Women (2019)
* How to Be an Antiracist (2019)
* Race After Technology (2019)
* Superior (2019)
* Nice Racism (2021)

Organizations

* Amadeu Antonio Foundation
* ACLU
* ASHA
* BLMGNF
* CGS
* Brennan Center for Justice
* Color of Change
* Democracy Alliance
* Ella Baker Center for Human Rights
* Equality and Human Rights Commission
* ENAR
* Fabian Society
* "Coefficients"
* FIRM
* Ford Foundation
* ILGA
* InCAR
* IPPA
* MacArthur Foundation
* Movement for Black Lives
* No one is illegal
* NWRO
* New SDS
* OSF
* Our Revolution
* PFAW
* Progressive Alliance
* Progressive International
* Progressive League
* Progressive Majority
* ProgressNow
* Red Flare
* RWJF
* SftP
* Tides Foundation

Media

* CTXT
* HuffPost
* Jacobin
* Jezebel
* Lucifer
* Mother Jones
* MSNBC
* The Nation
* New Statesman
* The Progressive
* Salon
* Searchlight
* The Young Turks
* Rational Wiki

By region

* Japan
* South Korea
* Taiwan
* United States

Related

* Accelerationism
* Communitarianism
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Critical theory
* Democratic capitalism
* Democratic socialism
* Red–green alliance
* Social democracy
* Left-libertarianism
* Libertarian socialism
* Left-wing populism
* Liberalism
* Classical radicalism
* Social liberalism
* In United States
* New Left
* Pink tide
* Progress Studies
* Progressive Era
* Technocracy
* Unitarian Universalism
* Western Marxism

* Politics portal

* v
* t
* e

The counterculture of the 1960s was an anti-establishment cultural phenomenon and political movement that developed in the Western world during the mid-20th century. It began in the mid-1960s,[3] and continued through the early 1970s.[3] It is often synonymous with cultural liberalism and with the various social changes of the decade. The effects of the movement[3] have been ongoing to the present day. The aggregate movement gained momentum as the civil rights movement in the United States had made significant progress, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and with the intensification of the Vietnam War that same year, it became revolutionary to some.[4][5][6] As the movement progressed, widespread social tensions also developed concerning other issues, and tended to flow along generational lines regarding respect for the individual, human sexuality, women's rights, traditional modes of authority, rights of people of color, end of racial segregation, experimentation with psychoactive drugs, and differing interpretations of the American Dream. Many key movements related to these issues were born or advanced within the counterculture of the 1960s.[7]

As the era unfolded, what emerged were new cultural forms and a dynamic subculture that celebrated experimentation, individuality,[8] modern incarnations of Bohemianism, and the rise of the hippie and other alternative lifestyles. This embrace of experimentation is particularly notable in the works of popular musical acts such as the Beatles, The Grateful Dead, Jimi Hendrix, Jim Morrison, Janis Joplin and Bob Dylan, as well as of New Hollywood, French New Wave, and Japanese New Wave filmmakers, whose works became far less restricted by censorship. Within and across many disciplines, many other creative artists, authors, and thinkers helped define the counterculture movement. Everyday fashion experienced a decline of the suit and especially of the wearing of hats; other changes included the normalisation of long hair worn down for women (as well as many men at the time),[9] the popularization of traditional African, Indian and Middle Eastern styles of dress (including the wearing of natural hair for those of African descent), the invention and popularization of the miniskirt which raised hemlines above the knees, as well as the development of distinguished, youth-led fashion subcultures. Styles based around jeans, for both men and women, became an important fashion movement that has continued up to the present day.

Several factors distinguished the counterculture of the 1960s from anti-authoritarian movements of previous eras. The post-World War II baby boom[10][11] generated an unprecedented number of potentially disaffected youth as prospective participants in a rethinking of the direction of the United States and other democratic societies.[12] Post-war affluence allowed much of the counterculture generation to move beyond the provision of the material necessities of life that had preoccupied their Depression-era parents.[13] The era was also notable in that a significant portion of the array of behaviors and "causes" within the larger movement were quickly assimilated within mainstream society, particularly in the United States, even though counterculture participants numbered in the clear minority within their respective national populations.[14][15]

## Historical background

[edit]

See also: Timeline of 1960s counterculture

### Post-war geopolitics

[edit]

Underwater atomic test "Baker", Bikini Atoll, Pacific Ocean, 1946

The Cold War between communist and capitalist states involved espionage and preparation for war between powerful nations,[16][17] along with political and military interference by powerful states in the internal affairs of less powerful nations. Poor outcomes from some of these activities set the stage for disillusionment with and distrust of post-war governments.[18] Examples included harsh responses from the Soviet Union (USSR) towards popular anti-communist uprisings, such as the 1956 Hungarian Revolution and Czechoslovakia's Prague Spring in 1968; and the botched US Bay of Pigs Invasion of Cuba in 1961.

In the US, President Dwight D. Eisenhower's initial deception[19] over the nature of the 1960 U-2 incident resulted in the government being caught in a blatant lie at the highest levels, and contributed to a backdrop of growing distrust of authority among many who came of age during the period.[20][21][22] The Partial Test Ban Treaty divided the establishment within the US along political and military lines.[23][24][25] Internal political disagreements concerning treaty obligations in Southeast Asia (SEATO), especially in Vietnam, and debate as to how other communist insurgencies should be challenged, also created a rift of dissent within the establishment.[26][27][28] In the UK, the Profumo affair also involved establishment leaders being caught in deception, leading to disillusionment and serving as a catalyst for liberal activism.[29]

The Cuban Missile Crisis, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war in October 1962, was largely fomented by duplicitous speech and actions on the part of the Soviet Union.[30][31] The assassination of US President John F. Kennedy in November 1963, and the attendant theories concerning the event, led to further diminished trust in government, including among younger people.[32][33][34]

### Social issues and calls to action

[edit]

Free Speech activist Mario Savio on the steps of Sproul Hall, University of California, Berkeley, 1966

Many social issues fueled the growth of the larger counterculture movement. One was a nonviolent movement in the United States seeking to resolve constitutional civil rights illegalities, especially regarding general racial segregation, longstanding disfranchisement of Black people in the South by white-dominated state government, and ongoing racial discrimination in jobs, housing, and access to public places in both the North and the South.

On college and university campuses, student activists fought for the right to exercise their basic constitutional rights, especially freedom of speech and freedom of assembly.[35] Many counterculture activists became aware of the plight of the poor, and community organizers fought for the funding of anti-poverty programs, particularly in the South and within inner city areas in the United States.[36][37]

Environmentalism grew from a greater understanding of the ongoing damage caused by industrialization, resultant pollution, and the misguided use of chemicals such as pesticides in well-meaning efforts to improve the quality of life for the rapidly growing population.[38] Authors such as Rachel Carson played key roles in developing a new awareness among the global population of the fragility of our planet, despite resistance from elements of the establishment in many countries.[39]

The need to address minority rights of women, gay people, the disabled, and many other neglected constituencies within the larger population came to the forefront as an increasing number of primarily younger people broke free from the constraints of 1950s orthodoxy and struggled to create a more inclusive and tolerant social landscape.[40][41]

The availability of new and more effective forms of birth control was a key underpinning of the sexual revolution. The notion of "recreational sex" without the threat of unwanted pregnancy radically changed the social dynamic and permitted both women and men much greater freedom in the selection of sexual lifestyles outside the confines of traditional marriage.[42] With this change in attitude, by the 1990s the ratio of children born out of wedlock rose from 5% to 25% for Whites and from 25% to 66% for African-Americans.[43]

### Emergent media

[edit]

King's "I Have a Dream" speech, given in front of the Lincoln Memorial during the 1963 March on Washington

#### Television

[edit]

For those born after World War II, the emergence of television as a source of entertainment and information—as well as the associated massive expansion of consumerism afforded by post-war affluence and encouraged by TV advertising—were key components in creating disillusionment for some younger people and in the formulation of new social behaviours, even as ad agencies heavily courted the "hip" youth market.[44][45] In the US, nearly real-time TV news coverage of the civil rights movement era's 1963 Birmingham Campaign, the "Bloody Sunday" event of the 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches, and graphic news footage from Vietnam brought horrifying, moving images of the bloody reality of armed conflict into living rooms for the first time.[46]

#### New cinema

[edit]

The breakdown of enforcement of the U.S. Hays Code[47] concerning censorship in motion picture production, the use of new forms of artistic expression in European and Asian cinema, and the advent of modern production values heralded a new era of art-house and mainstream film production, distribution, and exhibition. The end of censorship resulted in a complete reformation of the Western film industry. With newfound artistic freedom, a generation of exceptionally talented New Wave film makers working across all genres brought realistic depictions of previously prohibited or otherwise taboo subject matter to neighborhood theater screens for the first time, even as Hollywood film studios were still considered a part of the establishment by some elements of the counterculture. Successful 1960s new films of the New Hollywood were Bonnie and Clyde, The Graduate, The Wild Bunch, and Dennis Hopper's Easy Rider.

Other examples of hippie modernist cinema includes experimental short films made by figures like Jordan Belson and Bruce Conner, the concert film Gimme Shelter, Medium Cool, Zabriskie Point and Punishment Park.[48][49][50]

#### New radio

[edit]

A family watches television, c. 1958

By the later 1960s, previously under-regarded FM radio replaced AM radio as the focal point for the ongoing explosion of rock and roll music, and became the nexus of youth-oriented news and advertising for the counterculture generation.[51][52]

### Changing lifestyles

[edit]

Communes, collectives, and intentional communities regained popularity during this era.[53] Early communities such as the Hog Farm, Quarry Hill, and Drop City in the US were established as straightforward agrarian attempts to return to the land and live free of interference from outside influences. As the era progressed, many people established and populated new communities in response to not only disillusionment with standard community forms, but also dissatisfaction with certain elements of the counterculture itself. Some of these self-sustaining communities have been credited with the birth and propagation of the international Green Movement.

The emergence of an interest in expanded spiritual consciousness, yoga, occult practices and increased human potential helped to shift views on organized religion during the era. In 1957, 69% of US residents polled by Gallup said religion was increasing in influence. By the late 1960s, polls indicated less than 20% still held that belief.[54]

The "Generation Gap", or the inevitable perceived divide in worldview between the old and young, was perhaps never greater than during the counterculture era.[55] A large measure of the generational chasm of the late 1960s and 1970s was born of rapidly evolving fashion and hairstyle trends that were readily adopted by the young, but often misunderstood and ridiculed by the old. These included the wearing of very long hair by men,[56] the wearing of natural or "Afro" hairstyles by Black people, the donning of revealing clothing by women in public, and the mainstreaming of the psychedelic clothing and regalia of the short-lived hippie culture. Ultimately, practical and comfortable casual apparel, namely updated forms of T-shirts (often tie-dyed, or emblazoned with political or advertising statements), and Levi Strauss-branded blue denim jeans[57] became the enduring uniform of the generation, as daily wearing of suits along with traditional Western dress codes declined in use. The fashion dominance of the counterculture declined with the rise of the Disco and Punk Rock eras in the late 1970s and effectively died out by the early 1980s, even as the global popularity of T-shirts, denim jeans, and casual clothing in general have continued to grow.

#### Emergent middle-class drug culture

[edit]

In the Western world, the ongoing criminal legal status of the recreational drug industry was instrumental in the formation of an anti-establishment social dynamic by some of those coming of age during the counterculture era. The explosion of marijuana use during the era, in large part by students on fast-expanding college campuses,[58] created an attendant need for increasing numbers of people to conduct their personal affairs in secret in the procurement and use of banned substances. The classification of marijuana as a narcotic, and the attachment of severe criminal penalties for its use, drove the act of smoking marijuana, and experimentation with substances in general, deep underground. Many began to live largely clandestine lives because of their choice to use such drugs and substances, fearing retribution from their governments.[59][60]

### Law enforcement

[edit]

Anti-war protesters

The confrontations between college students (and other activists) and law enforcement officials became one of the hallmarks of the era. Many younger people began to show deep distrust of police, and terms such as "fuzz" and "pig" as derogatory epithets for police reappeared, and became key words within the counterculture lexicon. The distrust of police was based not only on fear of police brutality during political protests, but also on generalized police corruption—especially police manufacture of false evidence, and outright entrapment, in drug cases. In the US, the social tension between elements of the counterculture and law enforcement reached the breaking point in many notable cases, including: the Columbia University protests of 1968 in New York City,[61][62][63] the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests in Chicago,[64][65][66] the arrest and imprisonment of John Sinclair in Ann Arbor, Michigan,[67] and the Kent State shootings at Kent State University in Kent, Ohio, where National Guardsman acted as surrogates for police.[68] Police malfeasance was also an ongoing issue in the UK during the era.[69]

### Vietnam War

[edit]

Main article: Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War

The Vietnam War, and the protracted national divide between supporters and opponents of the war, were arguably the most important factors contributing to the rise of the larger counterculture movement.

The widely accepted assertion that anti-war opinion was held only among the young is a myth,[70][71] but enormous war protests consisting of thousands of mostly younger people in every major US city, and elsewhere across the Western world, effectively united millions against the war, and against the war policy that prevailed under five US congresses and during two presidential administrations.

## Regions

[edit]

### Western Europe

[edit]

The counterculture movement took hold in Western Europe, with London, Amsterdam, Paris, Rome and Milan, Copenhagen and West Berlin rivaling San Francisco and New York as counterculture centers.

Carnaby Street, London, 1966

The UK Underground was a movement linked to the growing subculture in the US and associated with the hippie phenomenon, generating its own magazines and newspapers, fashion, music groups, and clubs. Underground figure Barry Miles said, "The underground was a catch-all sobriquet for a community of like-minded anti-establishment, anti-war, pro-rock'n'roll individuals, most of whom had a common interest in recreational drugs. They saw peace, exploring a widened area of consciousness, love and sexual experimentation as more worthy of their attention than entering the rat race. The straight, consumerist lifestyle was not to their liking, but they did not object to others living it. But at that time the middle classes still felt they had the right to impose their values on everyone else, which resulted in conflict."[72]

In the Netherlands, Provo was a counterculture movement that focused on "provocative direct action ('pranks' and 'happenings') to arouse society from political and social indifference".[73][74]

In France, the General Strike centered in Paris in May 1968 united French students, and nearly toppled the government.[75]

Kommune 1 or K1 was a commune in West Berlin known for its bizarre staged events that fluctuated between satire and provocation. These events served as inspiration for the "Sponti" movement and other leftist groups. In the late summer of 1968, the commune moved into a deserted factory on Stephanstraße to reorient. This second phase of Kommune 1 was characterized by sex, music and drugs. Soon, the commune was receiving visitors from all over the world, including Jimi Hendrix.[76][77]

### Eastern Europe

[edit]

Mánička is a Czech term used for young people with long hair, usually males, in Czechoslovakia through the 1960s and 1970s. Long hair for males during this time was considered an expression of political and social attitudes in communist Czechoslovakia. From the mid-1960s, the long-haired and "untidy" persons (so called máničky or vlasatci (in English: Mops) were banned from entering pubs, cinema halls, theatres and using public transportation in several Czech cities and towns.[78] In 1964, the public transportation regulations in Most and Litvínov excluded long-haired máničky as displeasure-evoking persons. Two years later, the municipal council in Poděbrady banned máničky from entering cultural institutions in the town.[78] In August 1966, Rudé právo informed that máničky in Prague were banned from visiting restaurants of the I. and II. price category.[78]

In 1966, during a big campaign coordinated by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia, around 4,000 young males were forced to cut their hair, often in the cells with the assistance of the state police.[79] On August 19, 1966, during a "safety intervention" organized by the state police, 140 long-haired people were arrested. As a response, the "community of long-haired" organized a protest in Prague. More than 100 people cheered slogans such as "Give us back our hair!" or "Away with hairdressers!". The state police arrested the organizers and several participants of the meeting. Some of them were given prison sentences.[78] According to the newspaper Mladá fronta Dnes, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Interior in 1966 even compiled a detailed map of the frequency of occurrence of long-haired males in Czechoslovakia.[80] In August 1969, during the first anniversary of the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia, the long-haired youth were one of the most active voices in the state protesting against the occupation.[78] Youth protesters have been labeled as "vagabonds" and "slackers" by the official normalized press.[78]

### Australia

[edit]

Oz number 31 cover

Oz magazine was first published as a satirical humour magazine between 1963 and 1969 in Sydney, and, in its second and better known incarnation, became a "psychedelic hippy" magazine from 1967 to 1973 in London. Strongly identified as part of the underground press, it was the subject of two celebrated obscenity trials, one in Australia in 1964 and the other in the United Kingdom in 1971.[81][82]

The Digger was published monthly between 1972 and 1975 and served as a national outlet for many movements within Australia's counterculture with notable contributors—including second-wave feminists Anne Summers and Helen Garner; Californian cartoonist Ron Cobb's observations during a year-long stay in the country; Aboriginal activist Cheryl Buchanan (who was active in the 1972 setup of the Aboriginal Tent Embassy;[83] and later partner of poet and activist Lionel Fogarty[84]) and radical scientist Alan Roberts (1925–2017[85]) on global warming—and ongoing coverage of cultural trailblazers such as the Australian Performing Group (aka Pram Factory), and emerging Australian filmmakers. The Digger was produced by an evolving collective, many of whom had previously produced counterculture newspapers Revolution and High Times, and all three of these magazines were co-founded by publisher/editor Phillip Frazer, who launched Australia's legendary pop music paper Go-Set in 1966, when he was himself a teenager.

### Latin America

[edit]

Main articles: La Onda Chicana, Mexican rock, and La balsa

See also: Tlatelolco massacre, Mexico 68, and Tropicália

Three radical icons of the sixties. Encounter between Simone de Beauvoir, Jean-Paul Sartre and Ernesto "Che" Guevara in Cuba, in 1960.

In Mexico, rock music was tied into the youth revolt of the 1960s. Mexico City, as well as northern cities such as Monterrey, Nuevo Laredo, Ciudad Juárez, and Tijuana, were exposed to US music. Many Mexican rock stars became involved in the counterculture. The three-day Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro, held in 1971, was organized in the valley of Avándaro near the city of Toluca, a town neighboring Mexico City, and became known as "The Mexican Woodstock". Nudity, drug use, and the presence of the US flag scandalized conservative Mexican society to such an extent that the government clamped down on rock and roll performances for the rest of the decade. The festival, marketed as proof of Mexico's modernization, was never expected to attract the masses it did, and the government had to evacuate stranded attendees en masse at the end. This happened during the era of President Luis Echeverría, an extremely repressive era in Mexican history. Anything that could be connected to the counterculture or student protests was prohibited from being broadcast on public airwaves, with the government fearing a repeat of the student protests of 1968. Few bands survived the prohibition, though the ones that did, like Three Souls in My Mind (now El Tri), remained popular due in part to their adoption of Spanish for their lyrics, but mostly as a result of a dedicated underground following. While Mexican rock groups were eventually able to perform publicly by the mid-1980s, the ban prohibiting tours of Mexico by foreign acts lasted until 1989.[86]

In late May 1969, a student-led civil uprising known as the Cordobazo erupted in the city of Córdoba, Argentina. It followed days after the onset of the Rosariazo protests against the military dictatorship of General Juan Carlos Onganía.[87] The Cordobazo occurred one year after the French civil unrest in May 1968 and had similarities to the events in France.[88]

## Social and political movements

[edit]

See also: Timeline of 1960s counterculture

### Ethnic and racial movements

[edit]

Further information: Civil rights movement, Chicano Movement, American Indian Movement, Asian American movement, Nuyorican movement, and Dialoguero

Activist Richard Aoki at a Black Panther Party rally

The civil rights movement, a key element of the larger counterculture movement, involved the use of applied nonviolence to assure that equal rights guaranteed under the US Constitution would apply to all citizens. Many states illegally denied many of these rights to African-Americans, and this was partially successfully addressed in the early and mid-1960s in several major nonviolent movements.[89][90]

The Chicano Movement of the 1960s, also called the Chicano civil rights movement, was a civil rights movement extending the Mexican-American civil rights movement of the 1960s with the stated goal of achieving Mexican American empowerment.

The American Indian Movement (or AIM) is a Native American grassroots movement that was founded in July 1968 in Minneapolis, Minnesota.[91] A.I.M. was initially formed in urban areas to address systemic issues of poverty and police brutality against Native Americans.[92] A.I.M. soon widened its focus from urban issues to include many Indigenous Tribal issues that Native American groups have faced due to settler colonialism of the Americas, such as treaty rights, high rates of unemployment, education, cultural continuity, and preservation of Indigenous cultures.[92][93]

The Asian American movement was a sociopolitical movement in which the widespread grassroots effort of Asian Americans affected racial, social and political change in the US, reaching its peak in the late 1960s to mid-1970s. During this period Asian Americans promoted antiwar and anti-imperialist activism, directly opposing what was viewed as an unjust Vietnam war. The American Asian Movement differs from previous Asian American activism due to its emphasis on Pan-Asianism and its solidarity with US and international Third World movements.

The Nuyorican movement is a cultural and intellectual movement involving poets, writers, musicians and artists who are Puerto Rican or of Puerto Rican descent, who live in or near New York City, and either call themselves or are known as Nuyoricans.[94] It originated in the late 1960s and early 1970s in neighborhoods such as Loisaida, East Harlem, Williamsburg, and the South Bronx as a means to validate Puerto Rican experience in the United States, particularly for poor and working-class people who suffered from marginalization, ostracism, and discrimination.

Young Cuban exiles in the United States would develop interests in Cuban identity and politics.[95] This younger generation had experienced the United States during the rising anti-war movement, civil rights movement, and feminist movement of the 1960s, causing them to be influenced by radicals that encouraged political introspection, and social justice. Figures like Fidel Castro and Che Guevara were also heavily praised among American student radicals at the time. These factors helped push some young Cubans into advocating for different degrees of rapprochement with Cuba.[96] Those most likely to choose this political path were culturally isolated from the Cuban enclave in Miami.[97]

### Free Speech

[edit]

Main article: Free Speech Movement

Much of the 1960s counterculture originated on college campuses. The 1964 Free Speech Movement at the University of California, Berkeley, which had its roots in the Civil Rights Movement of the southern United States, was one early example. At Berkeley a group of students began to identify themselves as having interests as a class that were at odds with the interests and practices of the university and its corporate sponsors. Other rebellious young people, who were not students, also contributed to the Free Speech Movement.[98]

### New Left

[edit]

Main article: New Left

The New Left is a term used in different countries to describe left-wing movements that arose in the 1960s and 1970s in the Western world. They differed from earlier leftist movements that had been more oriented towards labour activism, and instead adopted social activism. The American "New Left" is associated with college campus mass protests and radical leftist movements. The British "New Left" was an intellectually driven movement that attempted to correct the perceived errors of "Old Left" parties in the post–World War II period. The movements began to wind down in the 1970s, when activists either committed themselves to party projects, developed social justice organizations, moved into identity politics or alternative lifestyles, or became politically inactive.[99][100][101]

Herbert Marcuse, associated with the Frankfurt School of critical theory, was a libertarian socialist thinker who influenced the New Left radical student movements of the era.[102]

The emergence of the New Left in the 1950s and 1960s led to a revival of interest in libertarian socialism.[103] The New Left's critique of the Old Left's authoritarianism was associated with a strong interest in personal liberty, autonomy (see the thinking of Cornelius Castoriadis) and led to a rediscovery of older socialist traditions, such as left communism, council communism, and the Industrial Workers of the World. The New Left also led to a revival of anarchism. Journals like Radical America and Black Mask in America, Solidarity, Big Flame and Democracy & Nature, succeeded by The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy,[104] in the UK, introduced a range of left libertarian ideas to a new generation. Social ecology, autonomism and, more recently, participatory economics (parecon), and Inclusive Democracy emerged from this.

A surge of popular interest in anarchism occurred in Western nations during the 1960s and 1970s.[105] Anarchism was influential in the counterculture of the 1960s[106][107][108] and anarchists actively participated in the late 1960s students and workers revolts.[109] During the IX Congress of the Italian Anarchist Federation in Carrara in 1965, a group decided to split off from this organization and created the Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica. In the 1970s, it was mostly composed of "veteran individualist anarchists with a pacifism orientation, naturism, etc, ...".[110] In 1968, in Carrara, Italy the International of Anarchist Federations was founded during an international anarchist conference held there in 1968 by the three existing European federations of France, the Italian and the Iberian Anarchist Federation as well as the Bulgarian federation in French exile.[111][112] During the events of May 68 the anarchist groups active in France were Fédération Anarchiste, Mouvement communiste libertaire, Union fédérale des anarchistes, Alliance ouvrière anarchiste, Union des groupes anarchistes communistes, Noir et Rouge, Confédération nationale du travail, Union anarcho-syndicaliste, Organisation révolutionnaire anarchiste, Cahiers socialistes libertaires, À contre-courant, La Révolution prolétarienne, and the publications close to Émile Armand.

The New Left in the United States also included anarchist, countercultural and hippie-related radical groups such as the Yippies who were led by Abbie Hoffman, The Diggers[113] and Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers. By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts, and performed works of political art.[114] The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley[115] and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.[116] On the other hand, the Yippies employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig ("Pigasus the Immortal") as a candidate for president in 1968, to mock the social status quo.[117] They have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist[118] youth movement of "symbolic politics".[119] Since they were well known for street theater and politically themed pranks, many of the "old school" political left either ignored or denounced them. According to ABC News, "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the 'Groucho Marxists'."[120]

### Anti-war

[edit]

Eugene McCarthy, anti-war candidate for the Democratic nomination for the US presidency in 1968

Main article: Opposition to the Vietnam War

See also: Students for a Democratic Society (1960 organization), Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament, Free Speech Movement, Vietnam Day Committee, National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam, Vietnam Veterans Against the War, and New Zealand's nuclear-free zone

In Trafalgar Square, London in 1958,[121] in an act of civil disobedience, 60,000–100,000 protesters made up of students and pacifists converged in what was to become the "ban the Bomb" demonstrations.[122]

Opposition to the Vietnam War began in 1964 on United States college campuses. Student activism became a dominant theme among the baby boomers, growing to include many other demographic groups. Exemptions and deferments for the middle and upper classes resulted in the induction of a disproportionate number of poor, working-class, and minority registrants. Countercultural books such as MacBird by Barbara Garson and much of the counterculture music encouraged a spirit of non-conformism and anti-establishmentarianism. By 1968, the year after a large march to the United Nations in New York City and a large protest at the Pentagon were undertaken, a majority of people in the country opposed the war.[123]

### Anti-nuclear

[edit]

Main article: History of the anti-nuclear movement

See also: Musicians United for Safe Energy

A sign pointing to an old fallout shelter in New York City

The application of nuclear technology, both as a source of energy and as an instrument of war, has been controversial.[124][125][126][127][128]

Scientists and diplomats have debated the nuclear weapons policy since before the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945.[129] The public became concerned about nuclear weapons testing from about 1954, following extensive nuclear testing in the Pacific. In 1961 and 1962, at the height of the Cold War, about 50,000 women brought together by Women Strike for Peace marched in 60 cities in the United States to demonstrate against nuclear weapons.[130][131] In 1963, many countries ratified the Partial Test Ban Treaty which prohibited atmospheric nuclear testing.[132]

Some local opposition to nuclear power emerged in the early 1960s,[133] and in the late 1960s some members of the scientific community began to express their concerns.[134] In the early 1970s, there were large protests about a proposed nuclear power plant in Wyhl, Germany. The project was cancelled in 1975 and anti-nuclear success at Wyhl inspired opposition to nuclear power in other parts of Europe and North America.[135] Nuclear power became an issue of major public protest in the 1970s.[136]

### Feminism

[edit]

Main article: Second-wave feminism

The role of women as full-time homemakers in industrial society was challenged in 1963, when US feminist Betty Friedan published The Feminine Mystique, giving momentum to the women's movement and influencing what many called Second-wave feminism. Other activists, such as Gloria Steinem and Angela Davis, either organized, influenced, or educated many of a younger generation of women to endorse and expand feminist thought. Feminism gained further currency within the protest movements of the late 1960s, as women in movements such as Students for a Democratic Society rebelled against the "support" role they believed they had been consigned to within the male-dominated New Left, as well as against perceived manifestations and statements of sexism within some radical groups. The 1970 pamphlet Women and Their Bodies, soon expanded into the 1971 book Our Bodies, Ourselves, that was particularly influential in bringing about the new feminist consciousness.[137]

### Free school movement

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Free school movement.[edit]

The free school movement, also known as the new schools or alternative schools movement, was an American education reform movement during the 1960s and early 1970s that sought to change the aims of formal schooling through alternative, independent community schools.

### Environmentalism

[edit]

Main article: Environmentalism

The cover of an early Whole Earth Catalog shows the Earth as seen by astronauts traveling back from the Moon.

The 1960s counterculture embraced a back-to-the-land ethic, and communes of the era often relocated to the country from cities. Influential books of the 1960s included Rachel Carson's Silent Spring[138] and Paul Ehrlich's The Population Bomb. Counterculture environmentalists were quick to grasp the implications of Ehrlich's writings on overpopulation, the Hubbert "peak oil" prediction, and more general concerns over pollution, litter, the environmental effects of the Vietnam War, automobile-dependent lifestyles, and nuclear energy. More broadly they saw that the dilemmas of energy and resource allocation would have implications for geo-politics, lifestyle, environment, and other dimensions of modern life. The "back to nature" theme was already prevalent in the counterculture by the time of the 1969 Woodstock festival, while the first Earth Day in 1970 was significant in bringing environmental concerns to the forefront of youth culture. At the start of the 1970s, counterculture-oriented publications like the Whole Earth Catalog and The Mother Earth News were popular, out of which emerged a back to the land movement. The 1960s and early 1970s counterculture were early adopters of practices such as recycling and organic farming long before they became mainstream. The counterculture interest in ecology progressed well into the 1970s: particularly influential were New Left eco-anarchist Murray Bookchin, Jerry Mander's criticism of the effects of television on society, Ernest Callenbach's novel Ecotopia, Edward Abbey's fiction and non-fiction writings, and E. F. Schumacher's economics book Small Is Beautiful.

Also in these years environmentalist global organizations arose, as Greenpeace and World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).

### Producerist

[edit]

Main article: National Farmers Organization

The National Farmers Organization (NFO) is a producerist movement founded in 1955. It became notorious for being associated with property violence and threats committed without official approval of the organization, from a 1964 incident when two members were crushed under the rear wheels of a cattle truck, for orchestrating the withholding of commodities, and for opposition to co-ops unwilling to withhold. During withholding protests, farmers would purposely destroy food or wastefully slaughter their animals in an attempt to raise prices and gain media exposure. The NFO failed to persuade the US government to establish a quota system as is currently practiced today in the milk, cheese, eggs and poultry supply management programs in Canada.

### Gay liberation

[edit]

Main article: Gay liberation

The Stonewall riots were a series of spontaneous, violent demonstrations against a police raid that took place in the early morning hours of June 28, 1969, at the Stonewall Inn, a gay bar in the Greenwich Village neighborhood of New York City. This is frequently cited as the first instance in US history when people in the gay community fought back against a government-sponsored system that persecuted them, and became the defining event that marked the start of the gay rights movement in the United States and around the world.

## Culture

[edit]

### Mod subculture

[edit]

Further information: Mod (subculture)

Mod is a subculture that began in London and spread throughout Great Britain and elsewhere, eventually influencing fashions and trends in other countries,[139] and continues today on a smaller scale. Focused on music and fashion, the subculture has its roots in a small group of stylish London-based young men in the late 1950s who were termed modernists because they listened to modern jazz.[140] Elements of the mod subculture include fashion (often tailor-made suits); music (including soul, rhythm and blues, ska, jazz, and later splintering off into rock and freakbeat after the peak Mod era); and motor scooters (usually Lambretta or Vespa). The original mod scene was associated with amphetamine-fuelled all-night dancing at clubs.[141]

During the early to mid-1960s, as mod grew and spread throughout the UK, certain elements of the mod scene became engaged in well-publicised clashes with members of rival subculture, rockers. The mods and rockers conflict led sociologist Stanley Cohen to use the term "moral panic" in his study about the two youth subcultures,[142] which examined media coverage of the mod and rocker riots in the 1960s.[143]

By 1965, conflicts between mods and rockers began to subside and mods increasingly gravitated towards pop art and psychedelia. London became synonymous with fashion, music, and pop culture in these years, a period often referred to as "Swinging London". During this time, mod fashions spread to other countries and became popular in the United States and elsewhere—with mod now viewed less as an isolated subculture, but emblematic of the larger youth culture of the era.

### Hippies

[edit]

Further information: History of the hippie movement

After the January 14, 1967, Human Be-In in San Francisco organized by artist Michael Bowen, the media's attention on culture was fully activated.[144] In 1967, Scott McKenzie's rendition of the song "San Francisco (Be Sure to Wear Flowers in Your Hair)" brought as many as 100,000 young people from all over the world to celebrate San Francisco's "Summer of Love". While the song had originally been written by John Phillips of The Mamas & the Papas to promote the June 1967 Monterey Pop Festival, it became an instant hit worldwide (#4 in the United States, No. 1 in Europe) and quickly transcended its original purpose.

San Francisco's flower children, also called "hippies" by local newspaper columnist Herb Caen, adopted new styles of dress, experimented with psychedelic drugs, lived communally and developed a vibrant music scene. When people returned home from "The Summer of Love" these styles and behaviors spread quickly from San Francisco and Berkeley to many US and Canadian cities and European capitals. Some hippies formed communes to live as far outside of the established system as possible. This aspect of the counterculture rejected active political engagement with the mainstream and, following the dictate of Timothy Leary to "Turn on, tune in, drop out", hoped to change society by dropping out of it. Looking back on his own life (as a Harvard professor) prior to 1960, Leary interpreted it to have been that of "an anonymous institutional employee who drove to work each morning in a long line of commuter cars and drove home each night and drank martinis ... like several million middle-class, liberal, intellectual robots."

As members of the hippie movement grew older and moderated their lives and their views, and especially after US involvement in the Vietnam War ended in the mid-1970s, the counterculture was largely absorbed by the mainstream, leaving a lasting impact on philosophy, morality, music, art, alternative health and diet, lifestyle and fashion.

In addition to a new style of clothing, philosophy, art, music and various views on anti-war, and anti-establishment, some hippies decided to turn away from modern society and re-settle on ranches, or communes. The very first of communes in the United States was on a seven-acre tract of land in southeastern Colorado, named Drop City. According to Timothy Miller,[145]

> "Drop City brought together most of the themes that had been developing in other recent communities—anarchy, pacifism, sexual freedom, rural isolation, interest in drugs, art—and wrapped them flamboyantly into a commune not quite like any that had gone before"

Many of the inhabitants practiced acts like reusing trash and recycled materials to build geodesic domes for shelter and other various purposes, using various drugs like marijuana and LSD, and creating various pieces of Drop Art. After the initial success of Drop City, visitors would take the idea of communes and spread them. Another commune called "The Ranch" was very similar to the culture of Drop City, as well as new concepts like giving children of the commune extensive freedoms known as "children's rights".[146] There were many hippie communes in New Mexico, including New Buffalo[147] and Tawapa.[148]

### Marijuana, LSD, and other recreational drugs

[edit]

See also: History of lysergic acid diethylamide

During the 1960s, this second group of casual lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) users evolved and expanded into a subculture that extolled the mystical and religious symbolism often engendered by the drug's powerful effects, and advocated its use as a method of expanding consciousness. The personalities associated with the subculture, gurus such as Timothy Leary and psychedelic rock musicians such as the Grateful Dead, Pink Floyd, Jimi Hendrix, the Byrds, Janis Joplin, the Doors, and the Beatles, soon attracted a great deal of publicity, generating further interest in LSD.

The popularization of LSD outside of the medical world was hastened when individuals such as Ken Kesey participated in drug trials and liked what they saw. Tom Wolfe wrote a widely read account of these early days of LSD's entrance into the non-academic world in his book The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test, which documented the cross-country, acid-fueled voyage of Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters on the psychedelic bus Furthur and the Pranksters' later "Acid Test" LSD parties. In 1965, Sandoz laboratories stopped its still legal shipments of LSD to the United States for research and psychiatric use, after a request from the US government concerned about its use. By April 1966, LSD use had become so widespread that Time magazine warned about its dangers.[149] In December 1966, the exploitation film Hallucination Generation was released.[150] This was followed by The Trip in 1967 and Psych-Out in 1968.

#### Psychedelic research and experimentation

[edit]

See also: Fungi in art

As most research on psychedelics began in the 1940s and 1950s, heavy experimentation made its effect in the 1960s during this era of change and movement. Researchers were gaining acknowledgment and popularity with their promotion of psychedelia. This really anchored the change that counterculture instigators and followers began. Most research was conducted at top collegiate institutes, such as Harvard University.

Timothy Leary and his Harvard research team had hopes for potential changes in society. Their research began with psilocybin mushrooms and was called the Harvard Psilocybin Project. In one study known as the Concord Prison Experiment, Leary investigated the potential for psilocybin to reduce recidivism in criminals being released from prison. After the research sessions, Leary did a follow-up. He found that "75% of the turned on prisoners who were released had stayed out of jail."[151] He believed he had solved the nation's crime problem. But with many officials skeptical, this breakthrough was not promoted.

Because of the personal experiences with these drugs, Leary and his many outstanding colleagues, including Aldous Huxley (The Doors of Perception) and Alan Watts (The Joyous Cosmology), believed that these were the mechanisms that could bring peace to not only the nation but the world. As their research continued, the media followed them and published their work and documented their behavior, the trend of this counterculture drug experimentation began.[152]

Leary made attempts to bring more organized awareness to people interested in the study of psychedelics. In 1966, he testified before a Senate subcommittee in Washington, D.C. and recommended that colleges authorize laboratory courses in psychedelics. He predicted such courses "will end the indiscriminate use of LSD by young people, and in addition will be probably the most popular and productive courses ever offered in any educational institution, because here we are opening the mind, not just teaching concepts to students."[153]

Although psychedelic evangelists like Leary were seeking an ultimate enlightenment, reality eventually proved that the potential they thought was there could not be reached, at least not during this time. The change they sought for the world was not permitted by the political systems in the nations in which they pursued their research. Ram Dass states, "Tim and I actually had a chart on the wall about how soon everyone would be enlightened ... We found out that real change is harder. We downplayed the fact that the psychedelic experience isn't for everyone."[151]

#### Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters

[edit]

Ken Kesey and his Merry Pranksters helped shape the developing character of the 1960s counterculture when they embarked on a cross-country voyage during the summer of 1964 in a psychedelic school bus named Furthur.[154] Beginning in 1959, Kesey had volunteered as a research subject for medical trials financed by the CIA's MK ULTRA project. These trials tested the effects of LSD, psilocybin, mescaline, and other psychedelic drugs. After the medical trials, Kesey continued experimenting on his own, and involved many close friends; collectively they became known as the "Merry Pranksters". The Pranksters visited Harvard LSD proponent Timothy Leary at his Millbrook, New York, retreat, and experimentation with LSD and other psychedelic drugs, primarily as a means for internal reflection and personal growth, became a constant during the Prankster trip.

The Pranksters created a direct link between the 1950s Beat Generation and the 1960s psychedelic scene; the bus was driven by Beat icon Neal Cassady, Beat poet Allen Ginsberg was on board for a time, and they dropped in on Cassady's friend, Beat author Jack Kerouac—though Kerouac declined to participate in the Prankster scene. After the Pranksters returned to California, they popularized the use of LSD at so-called "Acid Tests", which initially were held at Kesey's home in La Honda, California, and then at many other West Coast venues. The cross country trip and Prankster experiments were documented in Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool Aid Acid Test, a masterpiece of New Journalism.[155]

#### Other psychedelics

[edit]

Experimentation with LSD, DMT, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, MDA, marijuana, and other psychedelic drugs became a major component of 1960s counterculture, influencing philosophy, art, music and styles of dress. Jim DeRogatis wrote that peyote, a small cactus containing the psychedelic alkaloid mescaline, was widely available in Austin, Texas, a countercultural hub in the early 1960s.[156]

### Sexual revolution

[edit]

Main article: Sexual revolution

The sexual revolution (also known as a time of "sexual liberation") was a social movement that challenged traditional codes of behavior related to sexuality and interpersonal relationships throughout the Western world from the 1960s to the 1980s. Contraception and the pill, public nudity, the normalization of premarital sex, homosexuality and alternative forms of sexuality, and the legalization of abortion all followed.[157][158]

### Alternative media

[edit]

Main article: Alternative media

Underground newspapers sprang up in most cities and college towns, serving to define and communicate the range of phenomena that defined the counterculture: radical political opposition to "The Establishment", colorful experimental (and often explicitly drug-influenced) approaches to art, music and cinema, and uninhibited indulgence in sex and drugs as a symbol of freedom. The papers also often included comic strips, from which the underground comix were an outgrowth.

### Alternative disc sports (Frisbee)

[edit]

See also: Flying disc games

Frisbee and alternative 1960s disc sports icon Ken Westerfield

As numbers of young people became alienated from social norms, they resisted and looked for alternatives. The forms of escape and resistance manifest in many ways including social activism, alternative lifestyles, dress, music and alternative recreational activities, including that of throwing a Frisbee. From hippies tossing the Frisbee at festivals and concerts came today's popular disc sports.[159][160] Disc sports such as disc freestyle, double disc court, disc guts, Ultimate and disc golf became this sport's first events.[161][162]

### Avant-garde art and anti-art

[edit]

See also: Happening

The Situationist International was a restricted group of international revolutionaries founded in 1957, and which had its peak in its influence on the unprecedented general wildcat strikes of May 1968 in France. With their ideas rooted in Marxism and the 20th-century European artistic avant-gardes, they advocated experiences of life being alternative to those admitted by the capitalist order, for the fulfillment of human primitive desires and the pursuing of a superior passional quality. For this purpose they suggested and experimented with the construction of situations, namely the setting up of environments favorable for the fulfillment of such desires. Using methods drawn from the arts, they developed a series of experimental fields of study for the construction of such situations, like unitary urbanism and psychogeography. They fought against the main obstacle on the fulfillment of such superior passional living, identified by them in advanced capitalism. Their theoretical work peaked on the highly influential book The Society of the Spectacle by Guy Debord. Debord argued in 1967 that spectacular features like mass media and advertising have a central role in an advanced capitalist society, which is to show a fake reality to mask the real capitalist degradation of human life. Raoul Vaneigem wrote The Revolution of Everyday Life which takes the field of "everyday life" as the ground upon which communication and participation can occur, or, as is more commonly the case, be perverted and abstracted into pseudo-forms.

Fluxus (a name taken from a Latin word meaning "to flow") is an international network of artists, composers and designers noted for blending different artistic media and disciplines in the 1960s. They have been active in Neo-Dada noise music, visual art, literature, urban planning, architecture, and design. Fluxus is often described as intermedia, a term coined by Fluxus artist Dick Higgins in a famous 1966 essay. Fluxus encouraged a "do-it-yourself" aesthetic, and valued simplicity over complexity. Like Dada before it, Fluxus included a strong current of anti-commercialism and an anti-art sensibility, disparaging the conventional market-driven art world in favor of an artist-centered creative practice. As Fluxus artist Robert Filliou wrote, however, Fluxus differed from Dada in its richer set of aspirations, and the positive social and communitarian aspirations of Fluxus far outweighed the anti-art tendency that also marked the group.

In the 1960s, the Dada-influenced art group Black Mask declared that revolutionary art should be "an integral part of life, as in primitive society, and not an appendage to wealth."[163] Black Mask disrupted cultural events in New York by giving made up flyers of art events to the homeless with the lure of free drinks.[164] After, the Motherfuckers grew out of a combination of Black Mask and another group called Angry Arts. Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers (often referred to as simply "the Motherfuckers", or UAW/MF) was an anarchist affinity group based in New York City.

### Music

[edit]

Main articles: Music history of the United States in the 1960s, Music of the United Kingdom (1960s), 1960s in music, and Album era

> The 60s were a leap in human consciousness. Mahatma Gandhi, Malcolm X, Martin Luther King, Che Guevara, Mother Teresa, they led a revolution of conscience. The Beatles, The Doors, Jimi Hendrix created revolution and evolution themes. The music was like Dalí, with many colors and revolutionary ways. The youth of today must go there to find themselves.

– Carlos Santana[165]

Bob Dylan's early career as a protest singer had been inspired by his hero Woody Guthrie,[166]: 25 and his iconic lyrics and protest anthems helped propel the Folk Revival of the 1960s, which was arguably the first major sub-movement of the Counterculture. Although Dylan was first popular for his protest music, the song Mr. Tambourine Man saw a stylistic shift in Dylan's work, from topical to abstract and imaginative, included some of the first uses of surrealistic imagery in popular music and has been viewed as a call to drugs such as LSD.

The Beach Boys' 1966 album Pet Sounds served as a major source of inspiration for other contemporary acts, most notably directly inspiring the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. The single "Good Vibrations" soared to number one globally, completely changing the perception of what a record could be.[167] It was during this period that the highly anticipated album Smile was to be released. However, the project collapsed and the Beach Boys released a stripped down and reimagined version called Smiley Smile, which failed to make a big commercial impact but was also highly influential, most notably on the Who's Pete Townshend.

The Beatles went on to become the most prominent commercial exponents of the "psychedelic revolution" (e.g., Revolver, Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band and Magical Mystery Tour) in the late 1960s.[168]

The Jimi Hendrix Experience performs for the Dutch television show Fenklup in March 1967.

Detroit's MC5 also came out of the underground rock music scene of the late 1960s. They introduced a more aggressive evolution of garage rock which was often fused with sociopolitical and countercultural lyrics of the era, such as in the song "Motor City Is Burning" (a John Lee Hooker cover adapting the story of the Detroit Race Riot of 1943 to the Detroit riot of 1967). MC5 had ties to radical leftist organizations such as "Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers" and John Sinclair's White Panther Party.[166]: 117

Another hotbed of the 1960s counterculture was Austin, Texas, with two of the era's legendary music venues—the Vulcan Gas Company and the Armadillo World Headquarters—and musical talent like Janis Joplin, the 13th Floor Elevators, Shiva's Headband, the Conqueroo, and, later, Stevie Ray Vaughan. Austin was also home to a large New Left activist movement, one of the earliest underground papers, The Rag, and cutting edge graphic artists like Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers creator Gilbert Shelton, underground comix pioneer Jack Jackson (Jaxon), and surrealist armadillo artist Jim Franklin.[169]

A small part of the crowd of 400,000, after the rain, Woodstock, New York, August 1969

The 1960s was also an era of rock festivals, which played an important role in spreading the counterculture across the US.[170] The Monterey Pop Festival, which launched Hendrix's career in the US, was one of the first of these festivals.[171] The 1969 Woodstock Festival in New York state became a symbol of the movement,[172] although the 1970 Isle of Wight Festival drew a larger crowd.[166]: 58 Some believe the era came to an abrupt end with the infamous Altamont Free Concert held by the Rolling Stones, in which heavy-handed security from the Hells Angels resulted in the stabbing of an audience member, apparently in self-defense, as the show descended into chaos.[173]

The Doors performing for Danish television in 1968

The 1960s saw the protest song gain a sense of political self-importance, with Phil Ochs's "I Ain't Marching Anymore" and Country Joe and the Fish's "I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die-Rag" among the many anti-war anthems that were important to the era.[166]

Promotional poster for the Woodstock music festival, 1969

Free jazz is an approach to jazz music that was first developed in the 1950s and 1960s. Although the music produced by free jazz composers varied widely, the common feature was a dissatisfaction with the limitations of bebop, hard bop, and modal jazz, which had developed in the 1940s and 1950s. Each in their own way, free jazz musicians attempted to alter, extend, or break down the conventions of jazz, often by discarding hitherto invariable features of jazz, such as fixed chord changes or tempos. While usually considered experimental and avant-garde, free jazz has also oppositely been conceived as an attempt to return jazz to its "primitive", often religious roots, and emphasis on collective improv. Free jazz is strongly associated with the 1950s innovations of Ornette Coleman and Cecil Taylor and the later works of saxophonist John Coltrane. Other important pioneers included Charles Mingus, Eric Dolphy, Albert Ayler, Archie Shepp, Joe Maneri and Sun Ra. Although today "free jazz" is the generally used term, many other terms were used to describe the loosely defined movement, including "avant-garde", "energy music" and "The New Thing". During its early and mid-60s heyday, much free jazz was released by established labels such as Prestige, Blue Note and Impulse, as well as independents such as ESP Disk and BYG Actuel. Free improv or free music is improvised music without any rules beyond the logic or inclination of the musician(s) involved. The term can refer to both a technique (employed by any musician in any genre) and as a recognizable genre in its own right. Free improvisation as a genre of music, developed in the US and Europe in the mid- to late 1960s, largely as an outgrowth of free jazz and modern classical musics. None of its primary exponents can be said to be famous within the mainstream; however, in experimental circles, a number of free musicians are well known, including saxophonists Evan Parker, Anthony Braxton, Peter Brötzmann and John Zorn, drummer Christian Lillinger, trombonist George E. Lewis, guitarists Derek Bailey, Henry Kaiser and Fred Frith and the improvising groups the Art Ensemble of Chicago and AMM.

"The whole world is watching" protest chant from the 1968 Democratic National Convention protests was sampled on Chicago's debut studio album Chicago Transit Authority in 1969.

AllMusic Guide states that "until around 1967, the worlds of jazz and rock were nearly completely separate".[174] The term, "jazz-rock" (or "jazz/rock") is often used as a synonym for the term "jazz fusion". However, some make a distinction between the two terms. The Free Spirits have sometimes been cited as the earliest jazz-rock band.[175] In the late 1960s, at the same time that jazz musicians were experimenting with rock rhythms and electric instruments, rock groups such as Cream and the Grateful Dead were "beginning to incorporate elements of jazz into their music" by "experimenting with extended free-form improvisation". Other "groups such as Blood, Sweat & Tears directly borrowed harmonic, melodic, rhythmic and instrumentational elements from the jazz tradition".[176] The rock groups that drew on jazz ideas (like Soft Machine, Colosseum, Caravan, Nucleus, Chicago, Spirit and Frank Zappa) turned the blend of the two styles with electric instruments.[177] Since rock often emphasized directness and simplicity over virtuosity, jazz-rock generally grew out of the most artistically ambitious rock subgenres of the late 1960s and early 70s: psychedelia, progressive rock, and the singer-songwriter movement.[178] Miles Davis' Bitches Brew sessions, recorded in August 1969 and released the following year, mostly abandoned jazz's usual swing beat in favor of a rock-style backbeat anchored by electric bass grooves. The recording "mixed free jazz blowing by a large ensemble with electronic keyboards and guitar, plus a dense mix of percussion."[179] Davis also drew on the rock influence by playing his trumpet through electronic effects and pedals. While the album gave Davis a gold record, the use of electric instruments and rock beats created a great deal of consternation among some more conservative jazz critics.

### Film

[edit]

Main article: 1960s in film

The counterculture was not only affected by cinema, but was also instrumental in the provision of era-relevant content and talent for the film industry. Bonnie and Clyde struck a chord with the youth as "the alienation of the young in the 1960s was comparable to the director's image of the 1930s."[180] Films of this time also focused on the changes happening in the world. A sign of this was the visibility that the hippie subculture gained in various mainstream and underground media. Hippie exploitation films are 1960s exploitation films about the hippie counterculture[181] with stereotypical situations associated with the movement such as marijuana and LSD use, sex and wild psychedelic parties. Examples include The Love-ins, Psych-Out, The Trip, and Wild in the Streets. The musical play Hair, soon to be adapted into film by Milos Forman a decade later, shocked stage audiences with full-frontal nudity. Dennis Hopper's "Road Trip" adventure Easy Rider (1969) became accepted as one of the landmark films of the era.[182] Medium Cool portrayed the 1968 Democratic Convention alongside the 1968 Chicago police riots.[183]

Inaugurated by the 1969 release of Andy Warhol's Blue Movie, the phenomenon of adult erotic films being publicly discussed by celebrities (like Johnny Carson and Bob Hope),[184] and taken seriously by critics (like Roger Ebert),[185][186] a development referred to, by Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times, as "porno chic", and later known as the Golden Age of Porn, began, for the first time, in modern American culture.[184][187][188] According to award-winning author Toni Bentley, Radley Metzger's 1976 film The Opening of Misty Beethoven, based on the play Pygmalion by George Bernard Shaw (and its derivative, My Fair Lady), is considered the "crown jewel" of this 'Golden Age'.[189][190]

In France the New Wave was a blanket term coined by critics for a group of French filmmakers of the late 1950s and 1960s, influenced by Italian Neorealism and classical Hollywood cinema. Although never a formally organized movement, the New Wave filmmakers were linked by their self-conscious rejection of classical cinematic form and their spirit of youthful iconoclasm and is an example of European art cinema. Many also engaged in their work with the social and political upheavals of the era, making their radical experiments with editing, visual style and narrative part of a general break with the conservative paradigm. The Left Bank, or Rive Gauche, group is a contingent of filmmakers associated with the French New Wave, first identified as such by Richard Roud.[191] The corresponding "right bank" group comprises the more famous and financially successful New Wave directors associated with Cahiers du cinéma (Claude Chabrol, François Truffaut, and Jean-Luc Godard).[191] Left Bank directors include Chris Marker, Alain Resnais, and Agnès Varda.[191] Roud described a distinctive "fondness for a kind of Bohemian life and an impatience with the conformity of the Right Bank, a high degree of involvement in literature and the plastic arts, and a consequent interest in experimental filmmaking", as well as an identification with the political left.[191] Other film "new waves" from around the world associated with the 1960s are New German Cinema, Czechoslovak New Wave, Brazilian Cinema Novo and Japanese New Wave. During the 1960s, the term "art film" began to be much more widely used in the United States than in Europe. In the US, the term is often defined very broadly, to include foreign-language (non-English) "auteur" films, independent films, experimental films, documentaries and short films. In the 1960s, "art film" became an euphemism in the US for racy Italian and French B-movies. By the 1970s, the term was used to describe sexually explicit European films with artistic structure such as the Swedish film I Am Curious (Yellow). The 1960s was an important period in art film; the release of a number of groundbreaking films giving rise to the European art cinema which had countercultural traits in filmmakers such as Michelangelo Antonioni, Federico Fellini, Pier Paolo Pasolini, Luis Buñuel and Bernardo Bertolucci.

### Technology

[edit]

External videos

Counterculture technology prodigy and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs' 2005 Commencement Address at Stanford University on YouTube

Cultural historians—such as Theodore Roszak in his 1986 essay "From Satori to Silicon Valley" and John Markoff in his book What the Dormouse Said,[192] have pointed out that many of the early pioneers of personal computing emerged from within the West Coast counterculture. Many early computing and networking pioneers, after discovering LSD and roaming the campuses of UC Berkeley, Stanford, and MIT in the late 1960s and early 1970s, would emerge from this caste of social "misfits" to shape the modern world of technology, especially in Silicon Valley.

### Religion, spirituality and the occult

[edit]

See also: New age and New religious movement

Many hippies rejected mainstream organized religion in favor of a more personal spiritual experience, often drawing on indigenous and folk beliefs. If they adhered to mainstream faiths, hippies were likely to embrace Buddhism, Daoism, Unitarian Universalism and the restorationist Christianity of the Jesus Movement. In Hippies and American Values Timothy Miller described the hippie culture as essentially a "religious movement" whose goal was to transcend the limitations of mainstream religious institutions:

> Like many dissenting religions, the hippies were enormously hostile to the religious institutions of the dominant culture, and they tried to find new and adequate ways to do the tasks the dominant religions failed to perform.[193]

#### Wicca and paganism

[edit]

Some hippies embraced neo-paganism, especially Wicca. Wicca is a witchcraft religion which became more prominent beginning in 1951, with the repeal of the Witchcraft Act 1735, after which Gerald Gardner and then others such as Charles Cardell and Cecil Williamson began publicising their own versions of the Craft. Gardner and others never used the term "Wicca" as a religious identifier, simply referring to the "witch cult", "witchcraft", and the "Old Religion". However, Gardner did refer to witches as "the Wica".[194] During the 1960s, the name of the religion normalised to "Wicca".[195][196]

Gardner's tradition, later termed Gardnerianism, soon became the dominant form in England and spread to other parts of the British Isles. Following Gardner's death in 1964, the Craft continued to grow unabated despite sensationalism and negative portrayals in British tabloids, with new traditions being propagated by figures like Robert Cochrane, Sybil Leek and most importantly Alex Sanders, whose Alexandrian Wicca, which was predominantly based upon Gardnerian Wicca, albeit with an emphasis placed on ceremonial magic, spread quickly and gained much media attention.

#### Hippie "high priests"

[edit]

In his seminal, contemporaneous work, The Hippie Trip, author Lewis Yablonsky notes that those who were most respected in hippie settings were the spiritual leaders, the so-called "high priests" who emerged during that era.[197]

One such hippie "high priest" was San Francisco State College instructor Stephen Gaskin. Beginning in 1966, Gaskin's "Monday Night Class" eventually outgrew the lecture hall, and attracted 1,500 hippie followers in an open discussion of spiritual values, drawing from Christian, Buddhist, and Hindu teachings. In 1970, Gaskin founded a Tennessee community called The Farm, and he still lists his religion as "Hippie".[198][199]

Recording "Give Peace a Chance". Left to right: Rosemary Leary (face not visible), Tommy Smothers (with back to camera), John Lennon, Timothy Leary, Yoko Ono, Judy Marcioni and Paul Williams, June 1, 1969.

Timothy Leary was an American psychologist and writer, known for his advocacy of psychedelic drugs. On September 19, 1966, Leary founded the League for Spiritual Discovery, a religion declaring LSD as its holy sacrament, in part as an unsuccessful attempt to maintain legal status for the use of LSD and other psychedelics for the religion's adherents based on a "freedom of religion" argument. The Psychedelic Experience was the inspiration for John Lennon's song "Tomorrow Never Knows" in The Beatles' album Revolver.[200] He published a pamphlet in 1967 called Start Your Own Religion to encourage just that (see below under "writings") and was invited to attend the January 14, 1967 Human Be-In a gathering of 30,000 hippies in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. In speaking to the group, he coined the famous phrase "Turn on, tune in, drop out".[201]

#### Discordianism

[edit]

The Principia Discordia is the founding text of Discordianism written by Greg Hill (Malaclypse the Younger) and Kerry Wendell Thornley (Lord Omar Khayyam Ravenhurst). It was originally published under the title "Principia Discordia or How The West Was Lost" in a limited edition of five copies in 1965. The title, literally meaning "Discordant Principles", is in keeping with the tendency of Latin to prefer hypotactic grammatical arrangements. In English, one would expect the title to be "Principles of Discord".[202]

#### Hare Krishna

[edit]

When recruiting for the Hare Krishna movement in the United States, The International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON) deliberately devised strategies to align the movement's practices and belief system with the 1960s American counterculture to attract the interest of new recruits. ISKCON established its first temple in New York City in 1966. Most of its members were young people who identified with counter culture. Many had been involved in protest groups and joined ISKCON from other political or religious movements. One survey of ISKCON members in Berkeley and Los Angeles found that most members opposed the Vietnam War, held very negative views on the United States government, educational system and consumer culture.[203]

Members running for political office under instructions from A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada campaigned on presenting Krishna as a solution to America's ongoing moral deterioration. Although the movement was not successful in American politics the campaigns enhanced Krishna's public image as being aligned with the political movements of the counterculture activists and youth. Prabhupada stopped financing candidates in 1974.[203]

## Criticism and legacy

[edit]

The lasting impact (including unintended consequences), creative output, and general legacy of the counterculture era continue to be actively discussed, debated, despised and celebrated.

External videos

2014: 1960s-era counterculture university professors and authors Alice Echols and David Farber discuss the content and legacy of the counterculture on C-SPAN

Even the notions of when the counterculture subsumed the Beat Generation, when it gave way to the successor generation, and what happened in between are open for debate. According to notable UK Underground and counterculture author Barry Miles,[204]

> It seemed to me that the Seventies was when most of the things that people attribute to the sixties really happened: this was the age of extremes, people took more drugs, had longer hair, weirder clothes, had more sex, protested more violently and encountered more opposition from the establishment. It was the era of sex and drugs and rock'n'roll, as Ian Dury said. The countercultural explosion of the 1960s really only involved a few thousand people in the UK and perhaps ten times that in the USA—largely because of opposition to the Vietnam war, whereas in the Seventies the ideas had spread out across the world.

External videos

1968: "Beat" author Jack Kerouac, an early critic of the hippies and the larger counterculture, debates with sociologist Lewis Yablonksy, musician Ed Sanders, and conservative commentator William F. Buckley, Jr. on US TV's Firing Line on YouTube

A Columbia University teaching unit on the counterculture era notes: "Although historians disagree over the influence of the counterculture on American politics and society, most describe the counterculture in similar terms. Virtually all authors—for example, on the right, Robert Bork in Slouching Toward Gomorrah: Modern Liberalism and American Decline (New York: Regan Books,1996) and, on the left, Todd Gitlin in The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1987)—characterize the counterculture as self-indulgent, childish, irrational, narcissistic, and even dangerous. Even so, many liberal and leftist historians find constructive elements in it, while those on the right tend not to."[205]

The plaque honoring the victims of the August 1970 Sterling Hall bombing, University of Wisconsin, Madison

Actor John Wayne equated aspects of 1960s social programs with the rise of the welfare state, "I know all about that. In the late Twenties, when I was a sophomore at USC, I was a socialist myself—but not when I left. The average college kid idealistically wishes everybody could have ice cream and cake for every meal. But as he gets older and gives more thought to his and his fellow man's responsibilities, he finds that it can't work out that way—that some people just won't carry their load ... I believe in welfare—a welfare work program. I don't think a fella should be able to sit on his backside and receive welfare. I'd like to know why well-educated idiots keep apologizing for lazy and complaining people who think the world owes them a living. I'd like to know why they make excuses for cowards who spit in the faces of the police and then run behind the judicial sob sisters. I can't understand these people who carry placards to save the life of some criminal, yet have no thought for the innocent victim."[206]

A small segment of the "Wall" at the Vietnam Veterans Memorial listing the names of the nearly 60,000 American war dead

Former liberal Democrat Ronald Reagan, who later became a conservative Governor of California and 40th President of the US, remarked about one group of protesters carrying signs, "The last bunch of pickets were carrying signs that said 'Make love, not war.' The only trouble was they didn't look capable of doing either."[207][208]

The "generation gap" between the affluent young and their often poverty-scarred parents was a critical component of 1960s culture. In an interview with journalist Gloria Steinem during the 1968 US presidential campaign, soon-to-be First Lady Pat Nixon exposed the generational chasm in worldview between Steinem, 20 years her junior, and herself after Steinem probed Mrs. Nixon as to her youth, role models, and lifestyle. A hardscrabble child of the Great Depression, Pat Nixon told Steinem, "I never had time to think about things like that, who I wanted to be, or who I admired, or to have ideas. I never had time to dream about being anyone else. I had to work. I haven't just sat back and thought of myself or my ideas or what I wanted to do ... I've kept working. I don't have time to worry about who I admire or who I identify with. I never had it easy. I'm not at all like you ... all those people who had it easy."[209]

In economic terms, it has been contended that the counterculture really only amounted to creating new marketing segments for the "hip" crowd.[210]

Even before the counterculture movement reached its peak of influence, the concept of the adoption of socially-responsible policies by establishment corporations was discussed by economist and Nobel laureate Milton Friedman (1962): "Few trends could so thoroughly undermine the very foundation of our free society as the acceptance by corporate officials of a social responsibility other than to make as much money for their stockholders as possible. This is a fundamentally subversive doctrine. If businessmen do have a social responsibility other than making maximum profits for stockholders, how are they to know what it is? Can self-selected private individuals decide what the social interest is?"[211]

External videos

2014-06-14: Stanford Professor Fred Turner discusses 1960s counterculture and urges Class of '14 to embrace technology and politics to improve society. on YouTube

In 2003, author and former Free Speech activist Greil Marcus was quoted, "What happened four decades ago is history. It's not just a blip in the history of trends. Whoever shows up at a march against war in Iraq, it always takes place with a memory of the efficacy and joy and gratification of similar protests that took place in years before ... It doesn't matter that there is no counterculture, because counterculture of the past gives people a sense that their own difference matters."[212]

When asked about the prospects of the counterculture movement moving forward in the digital age, former Grateful Dead lyricist and self-styled "cyberlibertarian" John Perry Barlow said, "I started out as a teenage beatnik and then became a hippie and then became a cyberpunk. And now I'm still a member of the counterculture, but I don't know what to call that. And I'd been inclined to think that that was a good thing, because once the counterculture in America gets a name then the media can coopt it, and the advertising industry can turn it into a marketing foil. But you know, right now I'm not sure that it is a good thing, because we don't have any flag to rally around. Without a name there may be no coherent movement."[213]

During the era, conservative students objected to the counterculture and found ways to celebrate their conservative ideals by reading books like J. Edgar Hoover's A Study of Communism, joining student organizations like the College Republicans, and organizing Greek events which reinforced gender norms.[214]

Free speech advocate and social anthropologist Jentri Anders observed that a number of freedoms were endorsed within a countercultural community in which she lived and studied: "freedom to explore one's potential, freedom to create one's Self, freedom of personal expression, freedom from scheduling, freedom from rigidly defined roles and hierarchical statuses". Additionally, Anders believed some in the counterculture wished to modify children's education so that it did not discourage, but rather encouraged, "aesthetic sense, love of nature, passion for music, desire for reflection, or strongly marked independence."[215][216]

External videos

2009: Peter Coyote on the legacy of the counterculture (excerpt) on YouTube

In 2007, Merry Prankster Carolyn "Mountain Girl" Garcia commented, "I see remnants of that movement everywhere. It's sort of like the nuts in Ben and Jerry's ice cream—it's so thoroughly mixed in, we sort of expect it. The nice thing is that eccentricity is no longer so foreign. We've embraced diversity in a lot of ways in this country. I do think it's done us a tremendous service."[217]

The 1990 Oscar-nominated documentary film Berkeley in the Sixties[218][219] highlighted what Owen Gleiberman from Entertainment Weekly noted:

> The film doesn't shrink from saying that many of the '60s social-protest movements went too far. It demonstrates that by the end of the decade, protest had become a narcotic in itself.[220]

An art exhibition (that originated at the Walker Art Center in 2015[221] before expanding it to California) called Hippie Modernism: The Struggle for Uptopia reframes a more radically meditative story of the counterculture that contrasts to the popular perception for said era.[222]

Research has shown that African American protestors experienced harsher policing compared to their white counterparts when engaged in activism during the 1960s.[223]

### In popular culture

[edit]

Films like Return of the Secaucus 7 and The Big Chill[224] tackled life of the idealistic Boomers from the countercultural 1960s to their older selfs in the 80s alongside the TV series thirtysomething.[225] That generation's nostalgia for said decade was also criticized as well.[226][227]

Panos Cosmatos, director of the 2010 film Beyond the Black Rainbow, admits a dislike for Baby Boomers' spiritual ideals, an issue he addresses in Beyond the Black Rainbow. For him, the Boomers' search for alternative belief systems made them dabble in the dark side of occultism, which in turn corrupted their quest for spiritual enlightenment.[228] The use of psychedelic drugs for mind-expansion purposes is also explored,[229] although Cosmatos' take on it is "dark and disturbing", a "brand of psychedelia that stands in direct opposition to the flower child, magic mushroom peace trip" wrote a reviewer.[230] UGO Networks's Jordan Hoffman noted both elements, stating in his review that in the movie some "up-to-no-good new age scientists have let their experiments with consciousness-altering drugs mutate a young woman"[231] – in this case, Elena. Cosmatos explains why Dr. Arboria's mission to create a superior human ultimately failed:

> I look at Arboria as kind of naïve. He had the best of intentions of wanting to expand human consciousness, but I think his ego got in the way of that and ultimately it turned into a poisonous, destructive thing. Because Arboria is trying to control consciousness and control the mind. There is a moment of truth in the film where the whole thing starts to disintegrate because it stops being about their humanity and becomes about an unattainable goal. That is the "Black Rainbow": trying to achieve some kind of unattainable state that is ultimately, probably destructive.[232]

German film critic Hauke Lehmann,[233] C. H. Newell writing at Father Son Holy Gore,[234] and Mike Lesuer of Flood Magazine[235] summarize Cosmatos's message with both Beyond the Black Rainbow and his next film Mandy as that the progressive social, political, and cultural utopias of the 1960s (as represented by Dr. Arboria and his original plans with his institute) went wrong because they weren't prepared yet for what lay beyond Aldous Huxley and Timothy Leary's doors of perception, thus inviting the counter-movement in the form of the conservative, right-wing 1980s (represented by Barry). Likewise, Simon Abrams and Steven Boone of Hollywood Reporter also note Cosmatos's harsh criticisms of the American conservative right of the 1980s.[236] For this reason Lehmann, in his aforementioned Cinema essay, calls Beyond the Black Rainbow an "even more advanced version" of the social and political themes found in Easy Rider and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas.

## Key figures

[edit]

Jerry Rubin, University at Buffalo, March 10, 1970

The following people are well known for their involvement in 1960s era counterculture. Some are key incidental or contextual figures, such as Beat Generation figures who also participated directly in the later counterculture era. The primary area(s) of each figure's notability are indicated, per these figures' Wikipedia pages.

This section is not intended be exhaustive, but rather a representative cross section of individuals active within the larger movement. Although many of the people listed are known for civil rights activism, some figures whose primary notability was within the realm of the Civil Rights Movement are listed elsewhere. This section is not intended to create associations between any of the listed figures beyond what is documented elsewhere. (see also: List of civil rights leaders; Key figures of the New Left; Timeline of 1960s counterculture).

* Miguel Algarín (1941–2020) (poet, writer)
* Muhammad Ali (1942–2016) (athlete, activist, conscientious objector)
* Saul Alinsky (1909–1972) (author, activist)
* Richard Alpert (1931–2019) (professor, spiritual teacher)
* Bill Ayers (born 1944) (activist, professor)
* Joan Baez (born 1941) (musician, activist)
* David Bailey (born 1938) (photographer)
* Dennis Banks (1937–2017) (activist, teacher, and author)
* Sonny Barger (1938–2022) (Hells Angel)
* Syd Barrett (1946–2006) (musician)
* Walter Bowart (1939–2007) (newspaper publisher)
* Stewart Brand (born 1938) (environmentalist, author)
* Lenny Bruce (1925–1966) (comedian, social critic)
* Eric Burdon (born 1941) (singer)
* William S. Burroughs (1914–1997) (author)
* Jim Cairns (1914–2003) (anti-war politician)
* George Carlin (1937–2008) (comedian, social critic)
* Rachel Carson (1907–1964) (author, environmentalist)
* Neal Cassady (1926–1968) (Merry Prankster, literary inspiration)
* Cesar Chavez (1927–1993) (labor leader, community organizer, and activist)
* Cheech & Chong (comedians, social critics)
* Jesús Colón (1901–1974) (writer)
* Peter Coyote (born 1941) (Digger, actor)
* David Crosby (1941–2023) (musician)
* Robert Crumb (born 1943) (underground comix artist)
* David Dellinger (1915–2004) (pacifist, activist)
* Angela Davis (born 1944) (communist, activist)
* Rennie Davis (born 1941) (activist, community organizer)
* Emile de Antonio (1919–1989) (documentary filmmaker)
* Bernardine Dohrn (born 1942) (activist)
* Bob Dylan (born 1941) (musician)
* Daniel Ellsberg (1931–2023) (whistleblower)
* Sandra María Esteves (born 1948) (poet and graphic artist)
* Bob Fass (1933–2021) (radio host)
* Betty Friedan (1921–2006) (feminist, author)
* Jane Fonda (born 1937) (actress, activist)
* Peter Fonda (1940–2019) (actor, activist)
* Michel Foucault (1926–1984) (philosopher, historian of ideas, writer, scientist, anthropologist, political activist, literary critic)[237][238]
* Jerry Garcia (1942–1995) (musician)
* Stephen Gaskin (1935–2014) (author, activist, hippie)
* Allen Ginsberg (1926–1997) (beat poet, activist)
* Mary Quant (1930–2023) (fashion designer)
* Todd Gitlin (1943–2022) (activist)
* Dick Gregory (1932–2017) (comedian, social critic, author, activist)
* Paul Goodman (1911–1972) (novelist, playwright, poet)
* Wavy Gravy (born 1936) (hippie, activist)
* Bill Graham (1931–1991) (concert promoter)
* Germaine Greer (born 1939) (feminist, author)
* Che Guevara (1928–1967) (Marxist guerilla, revolutionary symbol)
* Alan Haber (born 1936) (activist)
* Tom Hayden (1939–2016) (activist, politician)
* Hugh Hefner (1926–2017) (publisher)
* Chet Helms (1942–2005) (music manager, concert/event promoter)
* Jimi Hendrix (1942–1970) (musician)
* Abbie Hoffman (1936–1989) (Yippie, author)
* John 'Hoppy' Hopkins (1937–2015) (publisher, activist, photographer)
* Dennis Hopper (1936–2010) (actor, director)
* Dolores Huerta (born 1930) (labor leader and activist)
* Yuji Ichioka (1936–2002) (historian and activist)
* Mick Jagger (born 1943) (singer)
* Brian Jones (1942–1969) (musician)
* Janis Joplin (1943–1970) (singer)
* Jack Kerouac (1922–1969) (author, early counterculture critic)
* Ken Kesey (1935–2001) (author, Merry Prankster)
* Yuri Kochiyama (1921–2014) (activist)
* Paul Krassner (1932–2019) (author)
* William Kunstler (1919–1995) (attorney, activist)
* Timothy Leary (1920–1996) (professor, LSD advocate)
* John Lennon (1940–1980) and Yoko Ono (born 1933) (musicians, artists, activists)
* Norman Mailer (1923–2007) (journalist, author, activist)
* Charles Manson (1934–2017) (conspirator to mass murder)
* Eugene McCarthy (1916–2005) (anti-war politician)
* Paul McCartney (born 1942) (Musician)
* Michael McClure (1932–2020) (poet)
* Terence McKenna (1946–2000) (author, Marijuana, Psilocybin, DMT advocate)
* Russell Means (1939–2012) (activist, actor, writer and musician)
* Jesús Papoleto Meléndez (born 1950) (poet, playwright, teacher, and activist)
* Barry Miles (born 1943) (author, impresario)
* Madalyn Murray O'Hair (1919–1995) (atheist, activist)
* Jim Morrison (1943–1971) (singer, songwriter, poet)
* Ralph Nader (born 1934) (consumer advocate, author)
* Graham Nash (born 1942) (musician, activist)
* Paul Newman (1925–2008) (actor, activist)
* Jack Nicholson (born 1937) (screenwriter, actor)
* Phil Ochs (1940–1976) (protest/topical singer)
* John Phillips (1935–2001) (musician)
* Pedro Pietri (1944–2004) (poet and playwright)
* Miguel Piñero (1946–1988) (playwright, actor)
* Richard Pryor (1940–2005) (comedian, social critic)
* Keith Richards (born 1943) (musician)
* Bimbo Rivas (1939–1992) (actor, community activist, director, playwright, poet, and teacher)
* Jerry Rubin (1938–1994) (Yippie, activist)
* Mark Rudd (born 1947) (activist)
* Ed Sanders (born 1939) (musician, activist)
* Mario Savio (1942–1996) (free speech/student rights activist)
* John Searle (born 1932) (professor, free speech advocate)
* Pete Seeger (1919–2014) (musician, activist)
* John Sinclair (1941–2024) (poet, activist)
* Grace Slick (born 1939) (singer, artist)
* Gary Snyder (born 1930) (poet, writer, environmentalist)
* Stephen Stills (born 1945) (musician)
* Smothers Brothers (musicians, TV performers, activists)
* Owsley Stanley (1935–2011) (drug culture chemist)
* Gloria Steinem (born 1934) (feminist, publisher)
* Hunter S. Thompson (1937–2005) (journalist, author)
* Twiggy (born 1949) (model, actress)
* Kurt Vonnegut (1922–2007) (author, pacifist, humanist)
* Andy Warhol (1928–1987) (artist)
* Leonard Weinglass (1933–2011) (attorney)
* Alan Watts (1915–1973) (philosopher)
* Neil Young (born 1945) (musician, activist)
* Jean Shrimpton (born 1942) (supermodel, actress)

## See also

[edit]

* 1960s portal
* Society portal

* Baby boomers
* Beat Generation
* Beatnik
* Bomb Culture
* Flower power
* Freak scene
* Free love
* Jampec
* List of films related to the hippie subculture
* List of underground newspapers of the 1960s counterculture
* Love-in
* Mod (subculture)
* Non-conformists of the 1930s
* Protests of 1968
* Silent Generation
* Timeline of 1960s counterculture
* War on Drugs
* Yé-yé

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Liungman, Carl (1991). Dictionary of Symbols. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-87436-610-5.
2. ^ Westcott, Kathryn (March 20, 2008). "World's best-known protest symbol turns 50". BBC News. Retrieved June 10, 2014.
3. ^ a b c "Where Have All the Rebels Gone?" Ep. 125 of Assignment America. Buffalo, NY: WNET. 1975. (Transcript available via American Archive of Public Broadcasting.)
4. ^ Hirsch, Eric D. 1993\. The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-65597-9. p. 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s ... fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."
5. ^ Anderson, Terry H. (1995). The Movement and the Sixties. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-510457-8.
6. ^ Landis, Judson R., ed. (1973). Current Perspectives on Social Problems (3rd ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Co. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-534-00289-3. "Culture is the "social heritage" of society. It includes the complex set of learned and shared beliefs, customs, skills, habits, traditions, and knowledge common to the members of society. Within a culture, there may be subcultures made up of specific groups that are somewhat separate from the rest of society because of distinct traits, beliefs, or interests."
7. ^ "Counterculture." POLSC301. Saylor Academy.
8. ^ "The Counterculture Hippie Movement of the 1960s and 1970s". TheCollector. September 15, 2022. Retrieved March 24, 2023.
9. ^ Yarwood, Doreen (1986). The encyclopedia of world costume. Internet Archive. New York : Bonanza Books : Distributed by Crown Publishers. ISBN 978-0-517-61943-8.
10. ^ "Birth Rate Chart" (GIF). CNN. August 11, 2011. "Annotated Chart of 20th Century US Birth Rates"
11. ^ "Baby Boom population – U.S. Census Bureau – USA and by state". Boomerslife.org. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
12. ^ Churney, Linda (1979). "Student Protest in the 1960s". Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute: Curriculum Unit 79.02.03. Archived from the original on July 29, 2016. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "This unit focuses on student protest in the 60s"
13. ^ Frank Kidner; Maria Bucur; Ralph Mathisen; Sally McKee; Theodore Weeks (2007). Making Europe: People, Politics, and Culture, Volume II: Since 1550. Cengage Learning. pp. 831–. ISBN 978-0-618-00481-2.
14. ^ Joan Shelley Rubin; Scott E. Casper (2013). The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Cultural and Intellectual History. Oxford University Press. pp. 264–. ISBN 978-0-19-976435-8.
15. ^ Roger Kimball (2013). The Long March: How the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s Changed America. Encounter Books. pp. 82–. ISBN 978-1-59403-393-3.
16. ^ Corera, Gordon (August 5, 2009). "How vital were Cold War spies?". BBC. UK. "The world of espionage lies at the heart of the mythology of the Cold War."
17. ^ "Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics". June 8, 2007. Archived from the original on May 1, 2017. Retrieved October 29, 2013. "This is a review of the book of same name by John Ehrman, a winner of Studies in Intelligence Annual awards. At pub date, Ehrman was an officer in the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence"
18. ^ "Port Huron Statement of the Students for a Democratic Society, 1962". Coursesa.matrix.msu.edu. Archived from the original on July 5, 2009. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
19. ^ Kessler, Glenn. "Presidential deceptions – and their consequences (video)". The Washington Post. Retrieved May 2, 2014.
20. ^ Frum, David. 2000. How We Got Here: The '70s. New York: Basic Books. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-465-04195-4
21. ^ "Avalon Project – The U-2 Incident 1960". Avalon.law.yale.edu. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
22. ^ "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Volume X, Part 1, Eastern Europe Region, Soviet Union, Cyprus May–July 1960: The U-2 Airplane Incident". history.state.gov. US Department of State. Retrieved June 23, 2014.
23. ^ CTBTO. "1955–62: From peace movement to missile crisis". Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "The international Peace Movement played an essential role throughout the Cold War in keeping the public informed on issues of disarmament and pressuring governments to negotiate arms control treaties"
24. ^ CTBTO. "1963–77: Limits on nuclear testing". Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Organization. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "1963–77: Limits on nuclear testing"
25. ^ "Of Treaties & Togas". Time. August 30, 1963. Archived from the original on August 18, 2009. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
26. ^ "A Changing of the Guard" (PDF). womenincongress.house.gov. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 29, 2009. Retrieved June 13, 2009.
27. ^ "1967 Executive Sessions of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee". Fas.org. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
28. ^ Kennan, George F. 1951\. American Diplomacy, 1900–1950, (Charles R. Walgreen Foundation Lectures). New York: Mentor Books. pp. 82–89.
29. ^ Bill Fawcett (2012). Trust Me, I Know What I'm Doing: 100 More Mistakes That Lost Elections, Ended Empires, and Made the World What It Is Today. Penguin Group US. pp. 294–. ISBN 978-1-101-61352-8.
30. ^ Hansen, James. "Soviet Deception in the Cuban Missile Crisis" (PDF). Archived from the original on June 7, 2010. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "Learning from the past"
31. ^ Dobbs, Michael. "Cuban Missile Crisis". Times Topics. The New York Times. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "(JFK's) first reaction on hearing the news from National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy was to accuse the Soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev of a double-cross"
32. ^ "October 18, 2013 Public Trust in Government: 1958–2013" (Press release). Pew Charitable Trusts. www.people-press.org. October 18, 2013. "Sources: Pew Research Center, National Election Studies, Gallup, ABC/Washington Post, CBS/New York Times, and CNN Polls. From 1976 to 2010 the trend line represents a three-survey moving average. For party analysis, selected datasets obtained from searches of the iPOLL Databank provided by the Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut"
33. ^ "American Experience | Oswald's Ghost". PBS. November 22, 1963. Archived from the original on December 28, 2016. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
34. ^ "Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy". www.archives.gov. US Government. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "JFK Assassination Records"
35. ^ Elizabeth Stephens. "Free Speech Movement Chronology". Bancroft.berkeley.edu. Archived from the original on September 27, 2011. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
36. ^ "The Historical Development of Community Organizing". Trincoll.edu. Archived from the original on August 21, 2009. Retrieved July 11, 2009.
37. ^ Smith, Lillian (1964). Our Faces, Our Words (1st (pbk) ed.). New York: Norton & Co. p. 114\. ISBN 9780393002515. "But there is something beyond rights, something not more important but more desperately urgent: bodily need. There are millions of Negroes in such desperate need in every town and country and city that talk of "rights" leaves them dull and dazed. The young protesters who come, in large part, from middle-class families have stumbled on this: to their stunned amazement they have found a primitive misery which pushes the phrase "civil rights" out of their vocabulary." `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
38. ^ "International Data Base World Population Growth Rates: 1950–2050". US Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on February 20, 2014. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "The world population growth rate rose from about 1.5 percent per year from 1950 to 1951, to a peak of over 2 percent in the early 1960s due to reductions in mortality. Growth rates thereafter started to decline due to rising age at marriage as well as increasing availability and use of effective contraceptive methods. Note that changes in population growth have not always been steady. A dip in the growth rate from 1959 to 1960, for instance, was due to the Great Leap Forward in China. During that time, both natural disasters and decreased agricultural output in the wake of massive social reorganization caused China's death rate to rise sharply and its fertility rate to fall by almost half"
39. ^ Muir, Patricia. "History of Pesticide Use". oregonstate.edu. Oregon State College. Retrieved July 7, 2014. "Then, things began to temper the enthusiasm for pesticides. Notable among these was the publication of Rachel Carson's best selling book Silent Spring, which was published in 1962. She (a scientist) issued grave warnings about pesticides, and predicted massive destruction of the planet's fragile ecosystems unless more was done to halt what she called the 'rain of chemicals.' In retrospect, this book really launched the environmental movement."
40. ^ Skrentny, John. 2002. The Minority Rights Revolution. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00899-1.
41. ^ "In Praise of the Counterculture". The New York Times. December 11, 1994. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
42. ^ "American Experience | The Pill". Pbs.org. Archived from the original on March 16, 2017. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
43. ^ Musick, Kelly (April 1999). "Determinants of Planned and Unplanned Childbearing among Unmarried Women in the United States" (PDF). wisconsin.edu. Center for Demography and Ecology, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
44. ^ Thomas Frank (1998). The Conquest of Cool: Business Culture, Counterculture, and the Rise of Hip Consumerism. University of Chicago Press. pp. 132–. ISBN 978-0-226-26012-9.
45. ^ Gary L. Anderson; Kathryn G. Herr (2007). Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice. Sage Publications. pp. 1010–. ISBN 978-1-4522-6565-0.
46. ^ Culbert, David (January 1988). "Television's Vietnam and historical revisionism in the United States". Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television. 8 (3): 253–267\. doi:10.1080/01439688800260371. ISSN 0143-9685.
47. ^ Mondello, Bob (August 8, 2008). "Remembering Hollywood's Hays Code, 40 Years On". npr.org. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "It took just two years ... for Midnight Cowboy to be re-rated from X to R, without a single frame being altered. Community standards had changed—as they invariably do"
48. ^ "Hippie Modernism: Cinema and Counterculture, 1964–1974". BAMPFA. November 15, 2016.
49. ^ "Theater 2 Hippie Modernism Shorts". BAMPFA. February 2, 2017.
50. ^ "Hippie Modernism: The Struggle for Utopia At The Berkeley Art Museum". February 7, 2017.
51. ^ Sterling, Christopher & Keith, Michael (2008). Sounds of Change: A History of FM Broadcasting in America. UNC Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-3215-8
52. ^ "The Quality that Made Radio Popular". US FCC. Retrieved April 18, 2014. "It was not until the 1960s ... that the quality advantage of FM combined with stereo was enjoyed by most Americans"
53. ^ "Flower Power". ushistory.org. ushistory.org/Independence Hall Association. 2014. Retrieved July 28, 2014. "Like the utopian societies of the 1840s, over 2000 rural communes formed during these turbulent times. Completely rejecting the capitalist system, many communes rotated duties, made their own laws, and elected their own leaders. Some were philosophically based, but others were influenced by new religions. Earth-centered religions, astrological beliefs, and Eastern faiths proliferated across American campuses. Some scholars labeled this trend as the Third Great Awakening."
54. ^ "Questions and Answers About Americans' Religion". Gallup.com. December 24, 2007. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
55. ^ "Ask Steve: Generation Gap (Video)". history.com. History Channel/A&E. Retrieved May 1, 2014. "Explore the existence of the generation gap that took place in the 1960s through this Ask Steve video. Steve Gillon explains there was even a larger gap between the Baby Boomers themselves than the Baby Boomers and the Greatest Generation. The massive Baby Boomers Generation was born between 1946 and 1964, consisting of nearly 78 million people. The Baby Boomers were coming of age in the 1960s, and held different cultural values than the Greatest Generation. The Greatest Generation lived in a time of self-denial, while the Baby Boomers were always seeking immediate gratification. However, the Baby Boomers were more divided amongst themselves. Not all of them were considered hippies and protesters. In fact, people under the age of 28 supported the Vietnam War in greater numbers than their parents. These divisions continue to play out today."
56. ^ Edward Macan (1996). Rocking the Classics: English Progressive Rock and the Counterculture. Oxford University Press. pp. 127–. ISBN 978-0-19-988009-6.
57. ^ Patricia Anne Cunningham; Susan Voso Lab (1991). Dress and Popular Culture. Popular Press. pp. 31–. ISBN 978-0-87972-507-5.
58. ^ Freedman, Mervin B.; Powelson, Harvey (January 31, 1966). "Drugs on Campus: Turned On & Tuned Out" (PDF). The Nation. New York: Nation Co. LP. pp. 125–127\. "Within the last five years the ingestion of various drugs has become widespread on the American campus."
59. ^ "A Social History of America's Most Popular Drugs". PBS.org [Frontline]. Retrieved April 23, 2014. "from 1951 to 1956 stricter sentencing laws set mandatory minimum sentences for drug-related offenses. In the 1950s the beatniks appropriated the use of marijuana from the black hepsters and the drug moved into middle-class white America in the 1960s."
60. ^ "Decades of Drug Use: Data From the '60s and '70s". Gallup.com. July 2, 2002. Retrieved August 31, 2013.
61. ^ "1968: Columbia in Crisis". columbia.edu. Columbia University Libraries. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
62. ^ Kifner, John (April 28, 2008). "Columbia's Radicals of 1968 Hold a Bittersweet Reunion". The New York Times. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
63. ^ "Columbia 1968: History". columbia1968.com. Retrieved May 20, 2014.
64. ^ Royko, Mike (1971). Boss: Richard J. Daley of Chicago. New York: New American Library/Signet. pp. 175–188.
65. ^ "The 1968 Democratic National Convention: At the height of a stormy year, Chicago streets become nightly battle zones". chicagotribune.com. Chicago Tribune. August 26, 1968. Retrieved June 5, 2014.
66. ^ "Photos: DNC Convention and Mayhem in 1968". www.chicagotribune.com. Chicago Tribune. April 22, 2014. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
67. ^ Lichterman, Joseph (December 5, 2011). "Ten for Two: Forty years ago, one man's imprisonment would forever change Ann Arbor". www.michigandaily.com. The Michigan Daily. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
68. ^ "The May 4 Shootings at Kent State University: The Search for Historical Accuracy". www.kent.edu. Kent State University. Archived from the original on April 29, 2014. Retrieved April 30, 2014.
69. ^ Colleen Lewis (1999). Complaints Against Police: The Politics of Reform. Hawkins Press. pp. 20–. ISBN 978-1-876067-11-3.
70. ^ "Support for Vietnam War". Seanet.com. November 21, 2002. Archived from the original on February 24, 2009. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
71. ^ "Generations Divide Over Military Action in Iraq – Pew Research Center for the People & the Press". People-press.org. October 17, 2002. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
72. ^ Miles, Barry (January 30, 2011). "Spirit of the underground: the 60s rebel". theguardian.com. Guardian News and Media Limited. Retrieved July 1, 2014.
73. ^ Pas, Nicolas (2005). "Images of a playful revolt. The Dutch Provo movement in France in the sixties". Historical Review. 634: 343–373.
74. ^ Wellburn, Peter (June 13, 2008). "Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands (2nd edition) 2008240Joop W. Koopmans and Arend H. Huussen. Historical Dictionary of the Netherlands (2nd edition). Lanham, MD and Plymouth: Scarecrow Press 2007. lxi + 324 pp., £56/$85 Historical Dictionaries of Europe, No. 55". Reference Reviews. 22 (5): 55–56\. doi:10.1108/09504120810885450. ISBN 978-0-8108-5627-1. ISSN 0950-4125.
75. ^ Mann, Keith (2011). "A Revival of Labor and Social Protest Research in France: Recent Scholarship on May 1968". International Labor and Working-Class History. 80 (1): 203–214\. doi:10.1017/S0147547911000147. ISSN 0147-5479. S2CID 146514944.
76. ^ Keith Richards: The Biography, by Victor Bockris
77. ^ Joseph H. Berke (1969). Counter culture. Owen. ISBN 9780720614039.
78. ^ a b c d e f Pokorná (2010)
79. ^ Faltýnek, Vilém (May 16, 2010). "Háro a Vraťe nám vlasy!". Radio Praha (in Czech). Retrieved August 1, 2010.
80. ^ "Policejní akce Vlasatci – kniha Vraťte nám vlasy přináší nové dokumenty" (in Czech). Czech Television. Retrieved August 3, 2010.
81. ^ Brennan, AnnMarie (2013). Brown, Alexandra; Leach, Andrew (eds.). Strategies of a Counter-Culture Oz Magazine and the Techniques of the Joke (PDF). Vol. 2\. Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand Held on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. p. 595–. ISBN 978-0-9876055-0-4. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 18, 2015. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
82. ^ Iain McIntyre (2006). Tomorrow Is Today: Australia in the Psychedelic Era, 1966–1970. Wakefield Press. pp. 51–. ISBN 978-1-86254-697-4.
83. ^ "Australia Day under a beach umbrella". Collaborating for Indigenous Rights. National Museum Australia. July 22, 2008. Archived from the original on March 17, 2012.
84. ^ Fogarty, Lionel (January 31, 2019). "'The Rally Is Calling': Dashiell Moore Interviews Lionel Fogarty". Cordite Poetry Review (Interview). Interviewed by Moore, Dashiell. p. 1. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
85. ^ Greenland, Hall (January 30, 2018). "Alan Roberts, 1925–2017: A pioneer of radical environmentalism". Climate & Capitalism. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
86. ^ Zolov, Eric (1999). Refried Elvis: The Rise of the Mexican Counterculture. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-21514-6.
87. ^ Brennan, James P.; Gordillo, Mónica B. (Spring 1994). "Working Class Protest, Popular Revolt, and Urban Insurrection in Argentina: The 1969 Cordobazo". Journal of Social History. 27 (3): 477–498\. doi:10.1353/jsh/27.3.477 - via Libcom.org.
88. ^ Bernand, Carmen (June 15, 2008). "D'une rive à l'autre". Nuevo Mundo, Mundos Nuevos. EHESS. Retrieved July 28, 2008 - via OpenEdition Journals. (in French)
89. ^ Bennett D. Hill; John Buckler; Clare Haru Crowston; Merry E. Wiesner-Hanks; Joe Perry (2010). History of Western Society Since 1300 for Advanced Placement. Bedford/St. Martin's. pp. 963–. ISBN 978-0-312-64058-3.
90. ^ R. A. Lawson (2010). Jim Crow's Counterculture: The Blues and Black Southerners, 1890–1945. Louisiana State University Press. pp. 197–. ISBN 978-0-8071-3810-6.
91. ^ Davey, Katie Jean. "LibGuides: American Indian Movement (AIM): Overview". libguides.mnhs.org. Retrieved May 7, 2019.
92. ^ a b Churchill, Ward (1990). The Cointel Pro Papers. Cambridge, MA: South End Press. p. 253\. ISBN 2002106479.
93. ^ Matthiessen, Peter (1980). In the Spirit of Crazy Horse. New York: The Viking Press. pp. 37–38. ISBN 0-670-39702-4.
94. ^ Allatson, Paul (2007). Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural and Literary Studies. Wiley. ISBN 978-1405102506.
95. ^ de los Angeles Torres, Maria (1999). In the Land of Mirrors: Cuban Exile Politics in the United States. University of Michigan Press. pp. 88–91\. ISBN 9780472027293.
96. ^ Arboleya, Jesús (2000). The Cuban Counterrevolution. Ohio Center for International Studies. p. 161\. ISBN 9780896802148.
97. ^ Arboleya 2000, p. 162.
98. ^ "Free Speech Movement Archives Home Page – events from 1964 and beyond". FSM-A. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
99. ^ Herbert Marcuse (2004). The New Left and the 1960s: Collected Papers of Herbert Marcuse. Routledge. pp. 19–. ISBN 978-1-134-77459-3.
100. ^ Dimitri Almeida (2012). The Impact of European Integration on Political Parties: Beyond the Permissive Consensus. Taylor & Francis. pp. 53–. ISBN 978-1-136-34039-0.
101. ^ Tom Buchanan (2012). Europe's Troubled Peace: 1945 to the Present. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-0-470-65578-8.
102. ^ Kellner, Douglas. "American National Biography: Marcuse, Herbert". Illuminations. University of Texas. Archived from the original on February 7, 2012. "During the 1960s, Marcuse achieved world renown as 'the guru of the New Left,' publishing many articles and giving lectures and advice to student radicals all over the world. He travelled widely and his work was often discussed in the mass media, becoming one of the few American intellectuals to gain such attention. Never surrendering his revolutionary vision and commitments, Marcuse continued to his death to defend the Marxian theory and libertarian socialism."
103. ^ Robin Hahnel, Economic Justice and Democracy: From Competition to Cooperation Part II ISBN 0-415-93344-7
104. ^ The International Journal of Inclusive Democracy. Inclusivedemocracy.org. Retrieved on December 28, 2011.
105. ^ Thomas 1985, p. 4
106. ^ Patten, John (October 28, 1968). "Islands of Anarchy: Simian, Cienfuegos, Refract and their support network". Kate Sharpley Library. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2013. "These groups had their roots in the anarchist resurgence of the nineteen sixties. Young militants finding their way to anarchism, often from the anti-bomb and anti-Vietnam war movements, linked up with an earlier generation of activists, largely outside the ossified structures of 'official' anarchism. Anarchist tactics embraced demonstrations, direct action such as industrial militancy and squatting, protest bombings like those of the First of May Group and Angry Brigade – and a spree of publishing activity."
107. ^ "Farrell provides a detailed history of the Catholic Workers and their founders Dorothy Day and Peter Maurin. He explains that their pacifism, anarchism, and commitment to the downtrodden were one of the important models and inspirations for the 60s. As Farrell puts it, 'Catholic Workers identified the issues of the sixties before the Sixties began, and they offered models of protest long before the protest decade.'" "The Spirit of the Sixties: The Making of Postwar Radicalism" by James J. Farrell
108. ^ "While not always formally recognized, much of the protest of the sixties was anarchist. Within the nascent women's movement, anarchist principles became so widespread that a political science professor denounced what she saw as 'The Tyranny of Structurelessness.' Several groups have called themselves 'Amazon Anarchists.' After the Stonewall Rebellion, the New York Gay Liberation Front based their organization in part on a reading of Murray Bookchin's anarchist writings." "Anarchism" by Charley Shively in Encyclopedia of Homosexuality. p. 52
109. ^ "Within the movements of the sixties there was much more receptivity to anarchism-in-fact than had existed in the movements of the thirties ... But the movements of the sixties were driven by concerns that were more compatible with an expressive style of politics, with hostility to authority in general and state power in particular ... By the late sixties, political protest was intertwined with cultural radicalism based on a critique of all authority and all hierarchies of power. Anarchism circulated within the movement along with other radical ideologies. The influence of anarchism was strongest among radical feminists, in the commune movement, and probably in the Weather Underground and elsewhere in the violent fringe of the anti-war movement." "Anarchism and the Anti-Globalization Movement" by Barbara Epstein
110. ^ "Los anarco-individualistas, G.I.A ... Una escisión de la FAI producida en el IX Congreso (Carrara, 1965) se pr odujo cuando un sector de anarquistas de tendencia humanista rechazan la interpretación que ellos juzgan disciplinaria del pacto asociativo" clásico, y crean los GIA (Gruppi di Iniziativa Anarchica) . Esta pequeña federación de grupos, hoy nutrida sobre todo de veteranos anarco-individualistas de orientación pacifista, naturista, etcétera defiende la autonomía personal y rechaza a rajatabla toda forma de intervención en los procesos del sistema, como sería por ejemplo el sindicalismo. Su portavoz es L'Internazionale con sede en Ancona. La escisión de los GIA prefiguraba, en sentido contrario, el gran debate que pronto había de comenzar en el seno del movimiento "El movimiento libertario en Italia" by Bicicleta. Revista de Comunicacciones Libertarias Year 1 No. Noviembre, 1 1977 Archived October 12, 2013, at the Wayback Machine
111. ^ London Federation of Anarchists involvement in Carrara conference, 1968 International Institute of Social History, Accessed January 19, 2010
112. ^ Short history of the IAF-IFA A-infos news project, Accessed January 19, 2010
113. ^ John Campbell McMillian; Paul Buhle (2003). The new left revisited. Temple University Press. pp. 112–. ISBN 978-1-56639-976-0. Retrieved December 28, 2011.
114. ^ Lytle 2006, pp. 213, 215.
115. ^ "Overview: who were (are) the Diggers?". The Digger Archives. Retrieved June 17, 2007.
116. ^ Gail Dolgin; Vicente Franco (2007). American Experience: The Summer of Love. PBS. Archived from the original on March 25, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2007.
117. ^ Holloway, David (2002). "Yippies". St. James Encyclopedia of Pop Culture.
118. ^ Abbie Hoffman, Soon to be a Major Motion Picture, p. 128. Perigee Books, 1980. [ISBN missing]
119. ^ Gitlin, Todd (1993). The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage. New York: Random House. p. 286. ISBN 978-0553372120.
120. ^ "1969: Height of the Hippies – ABC News". Abcnews.go.com. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
121. ^ "Why I'm back to ban the bomb". BBC News. April 11, 2004.
122. ^ "1960: Thousands protest against H-bomb". BBC News. April 18, 1960.
123. ^ Gallup, Alec; Newport, Frank (August 2006). The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 2005. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 315–318\. ISBN 978-0-7425-5258-6.
124. ^ "Sunday Dialogue: Nuclear Energy, Pro and Con". The New York Times. February 25, 2012.
125. ^ Robert Benford. The Anti-nuclear Movement (book review) American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 89, No. 6, (May 1984), pp. 1456–1458.
126. ^ James J. MacKenzie. Review of The Nuclear Power Controversy by Arthur W. Murphy The Quarterly Review of Biology, Vol. 52, No. 4 (December 1977), pp. 467–468.
127. ^ Walker, J. Samuel (2004). Three Mile Island: A Nuclear Crisis in Historical Perspective (Berkeley: University of California Press), pp. 10–11.
128. ^ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press.
129. ^ Jerry Brown and Rinaldo Brutoco (1997). Profiles in Power: The Anti-nuclear Movement and the Dawn of the Solar Age, Twayne Publishers, pp. 191–192.
130. ^ Woo, Elaine (January 30, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson dies at 94; organizer of women's disarmament protesters". Los Angeles Times.
131. ^ Hevesi, Dennis (January 23, 2011). "Dagmar Wilson, Anti-Nuclear Leader, Dies at 94". The New York Times.
132. ^ Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 54–55.
133. ^ Garb, Paula (1999). "Review of Critical Masses". Journal of Political Ecology. 6. Archived from the original on June 1, 2018. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
134. ^ Wolfgang Rudig (1990). Anti-nuclear Movements: A World Survey of Opposition to Nuclear Energy, Longman, p. 52.
135. ^ Stephen Mills and Roger Williams (1986). Public Acceptance of New Technologies Routledge, pp. 375–376.
136. ^ Jim Falk (1982). Global Fission: The Battle Over Nuclear Power, Oxford University Press, pp. 95–96.
137. ^ "The Counterculture of the 1960s". www.cliffsnotes.com. Retrieved June 13, 2017.
138. ^ Bach, Damon Randolph (2013). THE RISE AND FALL OF THE AMERICAN COUNTERCULTURE: A HISTORY OF THE HIPPIES AND OTHER CULTURAL DISSIDENTS (Thesis). pp. 224–225.
139. ^ Grossman, Henry; Spencer, Terrance; Saton, Ernest (May 13, 1966). "Revolution in Men's Clothes: Mod Fashions from Britain are Making a Smash in the U.S." Life. pp. 82–88.
140. ^ Oonagh Jaquest (May 2003). "Jeff Noon on The Modernists". BBC. Archived from the original on January 11, 2009. Retrieved October 11, 2008.
141. ^ Andrew Wilson (2008). "Mixing the Medicine: The Unintended Consequence of Amphetamine Control on the Northern Soul Scene" (PDF). Internet Journal of Criminology. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 13, 2011. Retrieved October 11, 2008.
142. ^ Cohen, Stanley (2002). Folk devils and moral panics: the creation of the Mods and Rockers. London New York: Routledge. ISBN 9780415267120.
143. ^ British Film Commission (BFC) (PDF), Film Education, archived from the original (PDF) on July 4, 2008
144. ^ Martin A. Lee, Acid Dreams The CIA, LSD, and the Sixties Rebellion, Grove Press 1985, pp. 157–163 ISBN 978-0-394-62081-7
145. ^ Matthews, M. (2010) Droppers: America's First Hippie Commune, Drop City. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 56. [ISBN missing]
146. ^ Berger, B. (1981). The Survival of a Counterculture: Ideological work and everyday life among rural communards. University of California Press. p. 64. 9781351472951
147. ^ "Flashbacks". www.newmexicomagazine.org. March 8, 2013. Retrieved March 30, 2024.
148. ^ Scurlock, Dan (1998). From the Rio to the Sierra: An environmental history of the Middle Rio Grande Basin (Report). Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. doi:10.2737/rmrs-gtr-5.
149. ^ "Drugs: The Dangers of LSD". Time. April 22, 1966. Archived from the original on January 27, 2008. Retrieved April 20, 2010.
150. ^ "Hallucination Generation - Release Info". IMDb.
151. ^ a b Lattin, Don. The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil Killed the Fifties and Ushered in a New Age for America. New York: HarperOne, 2010. ISBN 978-0061655937[page needed]
152. ^ Leary, Timothy (1983). Flashbacks: An Autobiography. Los Angeles: J. P. Tarcher. pp. 250–251\. ISBN 0-87477-177-3.
153. ^ The Narcotic Rehabilitation Act of 1966: Hearings Before a Special Subcommittee, Eighty-ninth Congress. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1966. p. 242\. LCCN 67060288.
154. ^ "The harsh reality behind the Merry Pranksters 'Magic Trip'". MPR News. September 2, 2011.
155. ^ Jenkins, Mark (August 4, 2011). "'Magic Trip': High Times With The Merry Pranksters". NPR.
156. ^ DeRogatis, Jim (2003). Turn On Your Mind: Four Decades of Great Psychedelic Rock. Milwaukee, WI: Hal Leonard. p. 68\. ISBN 0-634-05548-8.
157. ^ Germaine Greer and The Female Eunuch
158. ^ "Abc-Clio". Greenwood.com. Archived from the original on July 9, 2011. Retrieved November 5, 2011.
159. ^ Gavin, Tristan (September 19, 2013). "Frisbee Don't Sell Out". Pioneer Opinion. Archived from the original on October 31, 2014. Retrieved October 25, 2014.
160. ^ Jordan Holtzman-Conston (2010). Countercultural Sports in America: The History and Meaning of Ultimate Frisbee. Waltham, Mass. ISBN 978-3838311951.
161. ^ "World Flying Disc Federation". WFDF Official Website. Retrieved October 19, 2014.
162. ^ "World Flying Disc Federation". History of the Flying Disc. Archived from the original on October 19, 2013. Retrieved October 20, 2014.
163. ^ Hinderer, Eve. Ben Morea: art and anarchism Archived April 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
164. ^ Stewart Home. "The Assault on Culture: Utopian currents from Lettrisme to Class War". Introduction to the Lithuanian edition. Ist ed., Aporia Press and Unpopular Books, London, 1988. ISBN 978-0-948518-88-1. "In the sixties Black Mask disrupted reified cultural events in New York by making up flyers giving the dates, times and location of art events and giving these out to the homeless with the lure of the free drink that was on offer to the bourgeoisie rather than the lumpen proletariat; I reused the ruse just as effectively in London in the 1990s to disrupt literary events."
165. ^ Carlos Santana: I'm Immortal interview by Punto Digital, October 13, 2010
166. ^ a b c d Dogget, Peter (2007). There's A Riot Going On: Revolutionaries, Rock Stars, and the Rise and Fall of '60s Counter-Culture. Canongate Books. ISBN 9781847676450. Retrieved December 16, 2016.
167. ^ Gilliland 1969, show 37.
168. ^ "Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band". Rolling Stone. November 1, 2003. Archived from the original on March 16, 2006. Retrieved June 9, 2009.
169. ^ DeRogatis 2003, p. 71.
170. ^ Mankin, Bill (March 4, 2012). "We Can All Join In: How Rock Festivals Helped Change America". Like the Dew: A Journal of Southern Culture and Politics. Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved March 19, 2012.
171. ^ "Monterey Pop". The Criterion Collection.
172. ^ Kilgannon, Corey (March 17, 2009). "3 Days of Peace and Music, 40 Years Later". The New York Times.
173. ^ "Gimme Shelter". The Criterion Collection.
174. ^ "Fusion Music Genre Overview". AllMusic.
175. ^ Unterberger, Richie (1998). Unknown Legends of Rock 'n' Roll: Psychedelic Unknowns, Mad Geniuses, Punk Pioneers, Lo-fi Mavericks & More. Miller Freeman. p. 329\. ISBN 978-0879305345.
176. ^ Garcia, Al. "A History of Jazz-Rock Fusion". The Jazz/Rock Fusion Page.
177. ^ N. Tesser, The Playboy Guide to Jazz, (Plume, 1998), ISBN 0452276489, p. 178
178. ^ "Singer/Songwriter Music Genre Overview". AllMusic.
179. ^ "Jazzitude | History of Jazz Part 8: Fusion". Archived from the original on January 14, 2015.
180. ^ M. A. Jackson and J. E. O'Connor, 1980, p. 237
181. ^ "Mondo Mod Worlds Of Hippie Revolt (And Other Weirdness)". Thesocietyofthespectacle.com. April 5, 2009. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved February 3, 2014.
182. ^ Edge, Simon (October 23, 2013). "Jack Nicholson the original Hollywood bad boy". express.co.uk. Northern & Shell. Retrieved May 1, 2014.
183. ^ "Medium Cool". The Criterion Collection.
184. ^ a b Corliss, Richard (March 29, 2005). "That Old Feeling: When Porno Was Chic". Time. Retrieved January 27, 2016.
185. ^ Ebert, Roger (June 13, 1973). "The Devil In Miss Jones – Film Review". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved February 7, 2015.
186. ^ Ebert, Roger (November 24, 1976). "Alice in Wonderland:An X-Rated Musical Fantasy". RogerEbert.com. Retrieved February 26, 2016.
187. ^ Blumenthal, Ralph (January 21, 1973). "Porno chic; 'Hard-core' grows fashionable-and very profitable". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved January 20, 2016.
188. ^ Porno Chic (Jahsonic.com)
189. ^ Bentley, Toni (June 2014). "The Legend of Henry Paris". Playboy. Archived from the original on February 4, 2016. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
190. ^ Bentley, Toni (June 2014). "The Legend of Henry Paris" (PDF). ToniBentley.com. Retrieved January 26, 2016.
191. ^ a b c d "The Left Bank Revisited: Marker, Resnais, Varda", Harvard Film Archive, [1] Archived September 7, 2015, at the Wayback Machine access-date: August 16, 2008.
192. ^ "From Satori to Silicon Valley" Archived June 8, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – Roszak, Stanford
193. ^ Miller, Timothy (1991). Hippies and American Values (1st ed.). Univ Tennessee Press. ISBN 9780870496943. Retrieved January 14, 2024.
194. ^ Gardner, Gerald B (1999) [1954]. Witchcraft Today. Lake Toxaway, NC: Mercury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-8065-2593-8. OCLC 44936549.
195. ^ Hutton 1999, p. vii.
196. ^ Seims, Melissa (2008). "Wica or Wicca? – Politics and the Power of Words". The Cauldron (129).
197. ^ The Hippie Trip, Lewis Yablonsky, p. 298
198. ^ "New Book Tells Inside Story Of Biggest Hippie Commune In U.S. – Toke of the Town – cannabis news, views, rumor and humor". Toke of the Town. December 23, 2010. Retrieved November 21, 2012.
199. ^ Stephen Gaskin (2005). Monday Night Class. Book Publishing Company. ISBN 9781570671814.
200. ^ Sante, Luc (June 26, 2006). "The Nutty Professor". The New York Times Book Review. Retrieved July 12, 2008.
201. ^ Greenfield, Robert (2006). Timothy Leary: A Biography. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 641. ISBN 9780151005000. Retrieved October 11, 2013.
202. ^ Frauenfelder, Mark (November 1, 2006). "Publisher alters, then copyrights Principia Discordia". Boing Boing.
203. ^ a b Rochford, E. Burke (2018). "Aligning Hare Krishna: Political Activists, Hippies, and Hindus". Nova Religio. 22 (1): 34–58\. doi:10.1525/nr.2018.22.1.34.
204. ^ Miles, Barry. "In the Seventies: Adventures in the Counterculture (Comments from the Author's Website)". barrymiles.co.uk. Barry Miles. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
205. ^ George, Jason (2004). "The Legacy of the Counterculture". columbia.edu. Columbia University. Archived from the original on March 28, 2012. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
206. ^ Roberts, Randy; Olsen, James Stuart (1997). John Wayne: America. Bison Books. p. 580\. ISBN 978-0803289703.
207. ^ Rather, Dan; Vries, Lloyd (June 7, 2004). "Text & Video: Ronald Reagan, Master Storyteller". cbsnews.com. CBS Interactive. Retrieved May 28, 2014.
208. ^ Jarecki, Eugene (2011). "American Idol – Reagan". YouTube. BBC Four. Archived from the original on October 4, 2012. Retrieved June 18, 2014.
209. ^ Halberstam, David (1993). The Fifties (1st ed.). New York: Random House/Villard. p. 324. ISBN 978-0-679-41559-6.
210. ^ "The selling of the counterculture (Book Review: The Rebel Sell)". economist.com. The Economist Newspaper Limited. May 6, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
211. ^ Silk, Leonard; Silk, Mark (1980). The American Establishment. New York: Basic Books. p. 317. ISBN 978-0-465-00134-7.
212. ^ Leland, John (March 23, 2003). "A Movement, Yes, but No Counterculture". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
213. ^ Dickinson, Tim (February 14, 2003). "Cognitive Dissident: John Perry Barlow". utne.com. Mother Jones via Utne Reader. Retrieved May 22, 2014.
214. ^ Rolland-Diamond, Caroline (2016). "Another Side of the Sixties: Festive Practices on College Campuses and the Making of a Conservative Youth Movement". Revue Française d'Études Américaines. 1 (146): 39–53\. doi:10.3917/rfea.146.0039. Retrieved October 24, 2016 - via Cairn.info.
215. ^ Anders, Jentri (1990). Beyond Counterculture: The Community of Mateel. Washington State University Press. p. 197\. ISBN 978-0-87422-060-5.
216. ^ Kitchell, Mark (1990). "Berkeley in the Sixties". YouTube.
217. ^ Selvin, Joel (May 23, 2007). "Summer of Love: 40 Years Later". San Francisco Chronicle. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
218. ^ "Documentary Winners: 1991 Oscars". March 2, 2016 - via www.youtube.com.
219. ^ "1991 | Oscars.org | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences". www.oscars.org. October 4, 2014.
220. ^ "Berkeley in the Sixties". Entertainment Weekly. November 30, 1990. Retrieved May 19, 2020.
221. ^ Hoberman, J. (January 1, 2021). "HIPPIE MEDIUM".
222. ^ Davis, Erik (February 28, 2017). "'Hippie Modernism'". Frieze. No. 187 - via www.frieze.com.
223. ^ Davenport, Christian; Soule, Sarah A.; Armstrong, David A. (February 2011). "Protesting While Black?: The Differential Policing of American Activism, 1960 to 1990". American Sociological Review. 76 (1): 152–178\. doi:10.1177/0003122410395370. ISSN 0003-1224.
224. ^ Lingan, John (August 30, 2010). "Take Two – 3: Return of the Secaucus 7". Slant Magazine. Brooklyn. Retrieved August 18, 2013.
225. ^ Emmanuel, Susan. "Thirtysomething". Museum of Broadcast Communications. Archived from the original on February 16, 2008. Retrieved May 8, 2008.
226. ^ Dullea, Georgia (April 30, 1989). "Life Style; Sick of the 60's, 3 Men Of the 80's Try to Give Nostalgia a Bad Name". The New York Times.
227. ^ Dullea, Georgia (June 4, 1989). "3 Men of the '80s Say No to Nostalgia". Orlando Sentinel.
228. ^ Nelson, Noah (November 15, 2011). "Journey 'Beyond the Black Rainbow' with director Panos Cosmatos". Turnstyle. Archived from the original on April 28, 2012. Retrieved December 13, 2012.
229. ^ Marsh, James (September 25, 2011). "Fantastic Fest 2011: Beyond the Black Rainbow – Review". Film School Rejects. Archived from the original on May 26, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
230. ^ Beggs, Scott (November 9, 2011). "Fantastic Review: 'Beyond The Black Rainbow' is the Best Example of Whatever The Hell It Is". twitch. Archived from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
231. ^ Hoffman, Jordan (April 25, 2011). "Can You Handle the Trip Beyond the Black Rainbow?". UGO – Daily Geek News Videos. Archived from the original on September 30, 2013. Retrieved December 23, 2012.
232. ^ Reid, Joseph (May 12, 2011). "Panos Cosmatos "Beyond the Black Rainbow"". COOL -Creator's Infinite Links-. Archived from the original on November 12, 2013. Retrieved April 14, 2013.
233. ^ Cinema, issue #60 (dedicated to "Intoxication in Cinema"), 2015, pp. 117–129. (Cinema is an annual Swiss academic cinema studies magazine, not to be confused with the purely entertainment-oriented German tabloid monthly of the same name.)
234. ^ C. H. Newell (2018). Trip Into a Horror of ’80s Fears with Mandy, Father Son Holy Gore, September 14, 2018
235. ^ Lesuer, Mike (November 1, 2018). "Mandy Is Metal". Flood Magazine. "If you squint, Panos Cosmatos's latest psychedelic feature is actually a lonesome martyr's fantasy to save heavy metal from the Reagan administration's threatening anti-pornography policies."
236. ^ Simon Abrams, Steven Boone (2018). Nicolas Cage’s ‘Mandy’ and the Weight of Expectations Archived August 5, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Hollywood Reporter, September 18, 2018
237. ^ "Comme pas deux: France in the Sixties".
238. ^ "Foucalt News". 2010. Retrieved April 5, 2023.

### Works cited

[edit]

* Gilliland, John (1969). "The Acid Test: Psychedelics and a sub-culture emerge in San Francisco" (audio). Pop Chronicles. University of North Texas Libraries.
* Hutton, Ronald (1999). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820744-3. OCLC 41452625.
* Lytle, Mark H. (2006), America's Uncivil Wars: The Sixties Era from Elvis to the Fall of Richard Nixon, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-517496-0.
* Thomas, Paul (1985). Karl Marx and the Anarchists. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. ISBN 978-0-7102-0685-5.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Jackson, Rebecca. "The 1960s: A Bibliography". Iowa State University Library. Archived from the original on March 15, 2018. Retrieved June 20, 2009.
* Kitchell, Mark, Berkeley in the Sixties (1990 Film Documentary), Libra Films.
* Lemke-Santangelo, Gretchen (2009). Daughters of Aquarius: Women of the Sixties Counterculture. University Press of Kansas. ISBN 978-0-7006-1633-6.
* Miller, Richard J. (2013). "Timothy Leary's liberation, and the CIA's experiments! LSD's amazing, psychedelic history". Salon.com.
* "American Experience: Primary Resources: Truth about Indochina, 1954". PBS. Archived from the original on March 11, 2017. Retrieved August 26, 2017.
* Perrone, James E. (2004). Music of the Counterculture Era. Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-313-32689-9.
* Rasmussen, Cecilia (August 5, 2007). "Closing of club ignited the 'Sunset Strip riots'". Los Angeles Times.
* Reich, Charles A. (1995) [1970]. The Greening of America (25th anniversary ed.). Three Rivers Press. ISBN 978-0-517-88636-6.
* Roberts, Sam (September 21, 2008). "A Spy Confesses, and Still Some Weep for the Rosenbergs". The New York Times.
* Roche, Nancy McGuire, "The Spectacle of Gender: Representations of Women in British and American Cinema of the Nineteen-Sixties" (PhD dissertation. Middle Tennessee State University, 2011). DA3464539.
* Roszak, Theodore (1968). The Making of a Counter Culture. University of California.
* Shribman, David (November 9, 2013). "If JFK had lived". Pittsburgh Post-Gazette.
* Street, Joe (June 2012). "Dirty Harry's San Francisco". The Sixties: A Journal of History, Politics and Culture. 5 (1): 1–21\. doi:10.1080/17541328.2012.674850.
* Weber, Bruce (March 24, 2011). "Leonard I. Weinglass, Lawyer, Dies at 77; Defended Renegades and the Notorious". The New York Times.
* Weekes, Julia Ann (October 31, 2008). "Warhol's Pop Politics". Smithsonian. Archived from the original on September 27, 2009. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
* Young, Warren R.; Hixson, Joseph R. (1966). LSD on Campus. New York: Dell Publishing. LCCN 66031329.

## External links

[edit]

Wikiquote has quotations related to Counterculture of the 1960s.

* Lisa Law Photographic Exhibition at Smithsonian Institution (with commentary)
* John Hoyland, Power to the People, The Guardian, 15 March 2008
* 1960s archive with photographs of be-ins and protests (archived 8 March 2014)
* The 1960s: Years that Shaped a Generation
* Online archive of underground publications from the 1960s counterculture (archived 19 July 2014)
* Scott Stephenson (2014) LSD and the American Counterculture, Burgmann Journal
* The Peanuts Club – a small part of the Sixties counter-culture
* Collection: "U.S. Civil Rights Movement" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art

* v
* t
* e

Counterculture of the 1960s (timeline)

Arts|

* Black Arts Movement
* Psychedelic art
* Psychedelic music
* Youthquake

Cultural events|

* San Francisco Renaissance
* Beatlemania
* British Invasion
* Mods and rockers
* Swinging Sixties
* Hippie movement
* Human Be-In
* Summer of Love
* Bed-Ins for Peace
* Woodstock

Social and political
movements|

* American Indian Movement
* Anti-nuclear movement
* Back-to-the-land movement
* Black Power movement
* Civil rights movement
* Dialoguero
* Free school movement
* Free Speech Movement
* Gay liberation
* Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
* protests
* Second-wave feminism
* Women's liberation movement
* Sexual revolution
* United States

Media|

* Underground press
* newspapers

Subcultures|

* Discordianism
* Freak scene
* Hippie
* Mod
* Rocker
* Rude boy
* UK underground
* Yippies

* v
* t
* e

Civil rights movement (1954–1968)

Events
(timeline)|

| Prior to 1954|

* Journey of Reconciliation
* Executive Order 9981
* Murders of Harry and Harriette Moore
* Sweatt v. Painter (1950)
* McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950)
* Baton Rouge bus boycott

|

1954–1959|

* Brown v. Board of Education
* Bolling v. Sharpe
* Briggs v. Elliott
* Davis v. Prince Edward County
* Gebhart v. Belton
* Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company
* Emmett Till
* Montgomery bus boycott
* Browder v. Gayle
* Tallahassee bus boycott
* Mansfield school desegregation
* 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom
* "Give Us the Ballot"
* Royal Ice Cream sit-in
* Little Rock Nine
* Cooper v. Aaron
* Civil Rights Act of 1957
* Ministers' Manifesto
* Katz Drug Store sit-in
* Kissing Case
* Biloxi wade-ins

1960–1963|

* New Year's Day March
* Sit-in movement
* Greensboro sit-ins
* Nashville sit-ins
* Sibley Commission
* Atlanta sit-ins
* Savannah Protest Movement
* Greenville Eight
* Civil Rights Act of 1960
* Ax Handle Saturday
* New Orleans school desegregation
* Gomillion v. Lightfoot
* Boynton v. Virginia
* University of Georgia desegregation riot
* Rock Hill sit-ins
* Robert F. Kennedy's Law Day Address
* Freedom Rides
* Anniston and Birmingham bus attacks
* Garner v. Louisiana
* Albany Movement
* Cambridge movement
* University of Chicago sit-ins
* "Second Emancipation Proclamation"
* Meredith enrollment, Ole Miss riot
* Atlanta's Berlin Wall
* "Segregation now, segregation forever"
* Stand in the Schoolhouse Door
* 1963 Birmingham campaign
* Letter from Birmingham Jail
* Children's Crusade
* Birmingham riot
* 16th Street Baptist Church bombing
* John F. Kennedy's speech to the nation on Civil Rights
* Detroit Walk to Freedom
* March on Washington
* "I Have a Dream"
* Big Six
* St. Augustine movement

1964–1968|

* Twenty-fourth Amendment
* Chester school protests
* Bloody Tuesday
* 1964 Monson Motor Lodge protests
* Freedom Summer
* workers' murders
* Civil Rights Act of 1964
* Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States
* Katzenbach v. McClung
* 1964–1965 Scripto strike
* 1965 Selma to Montgomery marches
* "How Long, Not Long"
* SCOPE Project
* Voting Rights Act of 1965
* Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections
* March Against Fear
* White House Conference on Civil Rights
* Chicago Freedom Movement/Chicago open housing movement
* Loving v. Virginia
* Memphis sanitation strike
* King assassination
* funeral
* riots
* Civil Rights Act of 1968
* Poor People's Campaign
* Green v. County School Board of New Kent County
* Jones v. Alfred H. Mayer Co.
* 1968 Olympics Black Power salute

Activist
groups|

* Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights
* American Friends Service Committee
* Atlanta Negro Voters League
* Atlanta Student Movement
* Black Panther Party
* Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters
* Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)
* Committee for Freedom Now
* Committee on Appeal for Human Rights
* An Appeal for Human Rights
* Council for United Civil Rights Leadership
* Council of Federated Organizations
* Dallas County Voters League
* Deacons for Defense and Justice
* Georgia Council on Human Relations
* Highlander Folk School
* Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights
* Lowndes County Freedom Organization
* Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party
* Montgomery Improvement Association
* NAACP
* Youth Council
* Nashville Student Movement
* Nation of Islam
* Northern Student Movement
* National Council of Negro Women
* National Urban League
* Operation Breadbasket
* Regional Council of Negro Leadership
* Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)
* Southern Regional Council
* Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)
* The Freedom Singers
* United Auto Workers (UAW)
* Wednesdays in Mississippi
* Women's Political Council

Activists|

* Juanita Abernathy
* Ralph Abernathy
* Victoria Gray Adams
* Zev Aelony
* Mathew Ahmann
* Muhammad Ali
* William G. Anderson
* Gwendolyn Armstrong
* Arnold Aronson
* Ella Baker
* James Baldwin
* Marion Barry
* Daisy Bates
* Harry Belafonte
* James Bevel
* Claude Black
* Gloria Blackwell
* Randolph Blackwell
* Unita Blackwell
* Ezell Blair Jr.
* Joanne Bland
* Julian Bond
* Joseph E. Boone
* William Holmes Borders
* Amelia Boynton
* Bruce Boynton
* Raylawni Branch
* Stanley Branche
* Ruby Bridges
* Aurelia Browder
* H. Rap Brown
* Ralph Bunche
* John H. Calhoun
* Guy Carawan
* Stokely Carmichael
* Johnnie Carr
* James Chaney
* J. L. Chestnut
* Shirley Chisholm
* Colia Lafayette Clark
* Ramsey Clark
* Septima Clark
* Xernona Clayton
* Eldridge Cleaver
* Kathleen Cleaver
* Josephine Dobbs Clement
* Charles E. Cobb Jr.
* Annie Lee Cooper
* Dorothy Cotton
* Claudette Colvin
* Vernon Dahmer
* Jonathan Daniels
* Abraham Lincoln Davis
* Angela Davis
* Joseph DeLaine
* Dave Dennis
* Annie Bell Robinson Devine
* John Wesley Dobbs
* Patricia Stephens Due
* Joseph Ellwanger
* Charles Evers
* Medgar Evers
* Myrlie Evers-Williams
* Chuck Fager
* James Farmer
* Walter Fauntroy
* James Forman
* Marie Foster
* Golden Frinks
* Andrew Goodman
* Robert Graetz
* Fred Gray
* Jack Greenberg
* Dick Gregory
* Lawrence Guyot
* Prathia Hall
* Fannie Lou Hamer
* Fred Hampton
* William E. Harbour
* Vincent Harding
* Dorothy Height
* Audrey Faye Hendricks
* Lola Hendricks
* Aaron Henry
* Oliver Hill
* Donald L. Hollowell
* James Hood
* Myles Horton
* Zilphia Horton
* T. R. M. Howard
* Ruby Hurley
* Cecil Ivory
* Jesse Jackson
* Jimmie Lee Jackson
* Richie Jean Jackson
* T. J. Jemison
* Esau Jenkins
* Barbara Rose Johns
* Vernon Johns
* Frank Minis Johnson
* Clarence Jones
* J. Charles Jones
* Matthew Jones
* Vernon Jordan
* Tom Kahn
* Clyde Kennard
* A. D. King
* C.B. King
* Coretta Scott King
* Martin Luther King Jr.
* Martin Luther King Sr.
* Bernard Lafayette
* James Lawson
* Bernard Lee
* Sanford R. Leigh
* Jim Letherer
* Stanley Levison
* John Lewis
* Viola Liuzzo
* Z. Alexander Looby
* Joseph Lowery
* Clara Luper
* Danny Lyon
* Malcolm X
* Mae Mallory
* Vivian Malone
* Bob Mants
* Thurgood Marshall
* Benjamin Mays
* Franklin McCain
* Charles McDew
* Ralph McGill
* Floyd McKissick
* Joseph McNeil
* James Meredith
* William Ming
* Jack Minnis
* Amzie Moore
* Cecil B. Moore
* Douglas E. Moore
* Harriette Moore
* Harry T. Moore
* Queen Mother Moore
* William Lewis Moore
* Irene Morgan
* Bob Moses
* William Moyer
* Elijah Muhammad
* Diane Nash
* Charles Neblett
* Huey P. Newton
* Edgar Nixon
* Jack O'Dell
* James Orange
* Rosa Parks
* James Peck
* Charles Person
* Homer Plessy
* Adam Clayton Powell Jr.
* Fay Bellamy Powell
* Rodney N. Powell
* Al Raby
* Lincoln Ragsdale
* A. Philip Randolph
* George Raymond
* George Raymond Jr.
* Bernice Johnson Reagon
* Cordell Reagon
* James Reeb
* Frederick D. Reese
* Walter Reuther
* Gloria Richardson
* David Richmond
* Bernice Robinson
* Jo Ann Robinson
* Angela Russell
* Bayard Rustin
* Bernie Sanders
* Michael Schwerner
* Bobby Seale
* Pete Seeger
* Cleveland Sellers
* Charles Sherrod
* Alexander D. Shimkin
* Fred Shuttlesworth
* Modjeska Monteith Simkins
* Glenn E. Smiley
* A. Maceo Smith
* Kelly Miller Smith
* Mary Louise Smith
* Maxine Smith
* Ruby Doris Smith-Robinson
* Charles Kenzie Steele
* Hank Thomas
* Dorothy Tillman
* A. P. Tureaud
* Hartman Turnbow
* Albert Turner
* C. T. Vivian
* A. T. Walden
* Wyatt Tee Walker
* Hollis Watkins
* Walter Francis White
* Roy Wilkins
* Hosea Williams
* Kale Williams
* Robert F. Williams
* Q. V. Williamson
* Andrew Young
* Whitney Young
* Sammy Younge Jr.
* Bob Zellner
* James Zwerg

By region|

* Omaha, Nebraska
* South Carolina

Movement
songs|

* "Ain't Gonna Let Nobody Turn Me 'Round"
* "If You Miss Me at the Back of the Bus"
* "Kumbaya"
* "Keep Your Eyes on the Prize"
* "Oh, Freedom"
* "This Little Light of Mine"
* "We Shall Not Be Moved"
* "We Shall Overcome"
* "Woke Up This Morning (With My Mind Stayed On Freedom)"

Influences|

* Nonviolence
* Padayatra
* Sermon on the Mount
* Mahatma Gandhi
* Ahimsa
* Satyagraha
* The Kingdom of God Is Within You
* Frederick Douglass
* W. E. B. Du Bois
* Mary McLeod Bethune

Related|

* Lyndon B. Johnson
* Jim Crow laws
* Lynching in the United States
* Plessy v. Ferguson
* Separate but equal
* Buchanan v. Warley
* Hocutt v. Wilson
* Powell v. Alabama
* Smith v. Allwright
* Hernandez v. Texas
* Loving v. Virginia
* African-American women in the movement
* Jews in the civil rights movement
* Fifth Circuit Four
* 16th Street Baptist Church
* Kelly Ingram Park
* A.G. Gaston Motel
* Bethel Baptist Church
* Brown Chapel
* Dexter Avenue Baptist Church
* Holt Street Baptist Church
* Edmund Pettus Bridge
* March on Washington Movement
* African-American churches attacked
* List of lynching victims in the United States
* Freedom Schools
* Freedom songs
* Spring Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Voter Education Project
* 1960s counterculture
* African American founding fathers of the United States
* Eyes on the Prize

Legacy|

* In popular culture
* Birmingham Civil Rights Institute
* Birmingham Civil Rights National Monument
* Civil Rights Memorial
* Civil Rights Movement Archive
* Emmett Till and Mamie Till-Mobley National Monument
* Medgar and Myrlie Evers Home National Monument
* Freedom Rides Museum
* Freedom Riders National Monument
* King Center for Nonviolent Social Change
* Martin Luther King Jr. Day
* Martin Luther King Jr. Memorial
* other King memorials
* Mississippi Civil Rights Museum
* National Civil Rights Museum
* National Voting Rights Museum
* St. Augustine Foot Soldiers Monument
* Olympic Black Power Statue

Noted
historians|

* Taylor Branch
* Clayborne Carson
* John Dittmer
* Michael Eric Dyson
* Chuck Fager
* Adam Fairclough
* David Garrow
* David Halberstam
* Vincent Harding
* Steven F. Lawson
* Doug McAdam
* Diane McWhorter
* Charles M. Payne
* Thomas E. Ricks
* Timothy Tyson
* Akinyele Umoja
* Movement photographers

Civil rights movement portal

* v
* t
* e

Recreational drug use

Major recreational drugs

| Depressants|

* Barbiturates
* Benzodiazepines
* Carbamates
* Ethanol (alcohol)
* Alcoholic beverage
* Beer
* Wine
* Gabapentinoids
* GHB
* Inhalants
* Medical
* Nitrous oxide (recreational use)
* Hazardous solvents
* contact adhesives
* Gasoline
* nail polish remover
* Paint thinner
* Other
* Freon
* Kava
* Nonbenzodiazepines
* Quinazolinones
* Quaaludes

|

Opioids|

* Buprenorphine
* Suboxone
* Subutex
* Codeine
* Lean
* Desomorphine
* Krokodil
* Dextropropoxyphene
* Darvocet
* Darvon
* Fentanyl
* Diamorphine
* Heroin
* Hydrocodone
* Hydromorphone
* Dilaudid
* Methadone
* Mitragyna speciosa
* Kratom
* Morphine
* Opium
* Oxycodone
* /paracetamol
* Tramadol

Stimulants|

* Amphetamine
* Arecoline
* Areca
* Betel
* Caffeine
* Coffee
* Energy drinks
* Tea
* Cathinone
* Khat
* Cocaine
* Coca
* Cocaine paste
* Crack
* Ephedrine
* Ephedra
* MDPV
* Mephedrone
* Methamphetamine
* Methylone
* Methylphenidate
* Modafinil
* Nicotine
* Polacrilex
* Salt
* Tobacco
* Theobromine
* Cocoa
* Chocolate

Entactogens|

* 2C series
* 6-APB
* Benzofury
* AMT
* MDA
* MDMA
* Ecstasy
* Molly

Hallucinogens|

| Psychedelics|

* 2C-B
* 25I-NBOMe
* 4-AcO-DMT
* 5-MeO-DMT
* Psychoactive toads
* Bufotenin
* Vilca
* Yopo
* DMT
* Ayahuasca
* LSA and iso-LSA
* Morning glory
* Ergot
* LSD
* Mescaline
* Peruvian torch
* Peyote
* San Pedro
* Psilocybin and psilocin
* Psilocybin mushrooms

|

Dissociatives|

* DXM (recreational use)
* Inhalants
* Nitrous oxide (recreational use)
* Ketamine
* MXE
* PCP

Deliriants|

* Atropine and Scopolamine
* Atropa belladonna
* Datura
* Hyoscyamus niger
* Mandragora officinarum
* Dimenhydrinate
* Diphenhydramine

Cannabinoids|

* THC
* Cannabis (Marijuana)
* Hashish
* Hash oil
* Synthetic cannabinoids
* JWH-018
* APICA
* APINACA
* Spice

Others|

* Ibogaine
* Tabernanthe iboga
* Muscimol
* Amanita muscaria
* Oneirogens
* Calea zacatechichi
* Silene capensis
* Salvinorin A
* Salvia divinorum

Drug culture

| Cannabis culture|

* 420
* Cannabis consumption
* Cannabis cultivation
* Cannabis edible
* Cannabis rights
* Cannabis rights leaders
* List of cannabis rights organizations
* Cannabis smoking
* Cannabis Social Club
* Cannabis tea
* Cannabis vaping
* Head shop
* Legal history of cannabis in the United States
* Legality of cannabis
* Marijuana Policy Project
* Medical cannabis
* NORML
* Cannabis and religion
* Stoner film

|

Coffee culture|

* Coffee break
* Coffeehouse
* Latte art
* Teahouse

Drinking culture|

* Bartending
* Beer culture
* Beer festival
* Binge drinking
* Diethyl ether
* Drinking games
* Drinking song
* Happy hour
* Hip flask
* Nightclub
* Oktoberfest
* Pub
* Pub crawl
* Sommelier
* Sports bar
* Tailgate party
* Wine bar
* Wine tasting

Psychedelia|

* Psychonautics
* Art
* Drug
* Era
* Experience
* Literature
* Music
* Microdosing
* Smart shop
* Therapy
* Trip report

Smoking culture|

* Cigarette card
* Fashion cigarettes
* Cloud-chasing
* Loosie
* Smokeasy
* Smoking fetishism
* Tobacco smoking

Other|

* Chasing the dragon
* Club drug
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Dance party
* Drug paraphernalia
* Drug tourism
* Entheogen
* Hippie
* Needle sharing
* Nootropic
* Party and play
* Poly drug use
* Rave
* Religion and drugs
* Self-medication
* Sex and drugs
* Urban legends about drugs
* Whoonga

Legality of drug use

| International|

* International drug control conventions
* 1961 Narcotic Drugs
* 1971 Psychotropic Substances
* 1988 Drug Trafficking
* Other treaties addressing drugs
* Law of the Sea Convention
* Convention Against Doping
* Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

|

State level|

* Drug policy
* Decriminalization
* Legalization
* Prohibition
* Regulation
* Supply reduction
* Policy reform
* Demand reduction
* Drug Policy Alliance
* Harm reduction
* Law Enforcement Action Partnership
* Liberalization
* Latin America
* Students for Sensible Drug Policy

Drug policy
by country|

* Australia
* Canada
* China
* Czech Republic
* Germany
* India
* Laos
* Netherlands
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* South Korea
* Soviet Union
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United States
* Just Say No
* Office of National Drug Control Policy
* School district drug policies
* California
* Colorado
* Maryland
* Oregon
* Virginia
* United Kingdom

Drug legality|

* Alcohol legality
* Anabolic steroid legality
* Cannabis legality
* Cocaine legality
* Methamphetamine legality
* Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.
* Psilocybin mushrooms legality
* Salvia legality

Other|

* Arguments for and against drug prohibition
* Cannabis rights
* Capital punishment for drug trafficking
* Cognitive liberty
* Designer drug
* Drug court
* Drug possession
* Drug test
* Narc
* Politics of drug abuse
* War on drugs
* Mexican drug war
* Plan Colombia
* Philippine drug war
* Zero tolerance

Other

| Drug
production
and trade|

| Drug
production|

* Coca production in Colombia
* Drug precursors
* Opium production in Afghanistan
* Rolling meth lab

|

Drug trade|

* Illegal drug trade
* Afghanistan
* Aruba
* Australia
* Bangladesh
* Belize
* Benin
* Bhutan
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Burma
* Cambodia
* Chile
* China
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Cyprus
* Dominican Republic
* El Salvador
* Estonia
* Finland
* Germany
* Haiti
* Honduras
* India
* Indian Ocean region
* Iran
* Italy
* Japan
* Kenya
* Kosovo
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Latin America
* Latvia
* Malaysia
* Mauritius
* Moldova
* Nigeria
* Norway
* Oman
* Panama
* Papua New Guinea
* Paraguay
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Puerto Rico
* Russia
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Seychelles
* Slovakia
* South Africa
* South Korea
* Spain
* Suriname
* Switzerland
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Turks and Caicos Islands
* United Arab Emirates
* United States
* Venezuela
* Darknet market
* Pharmaceutical distribution
* Beer shop
* Cannabis shop
* Liquor store
* Liquor license

Issues with
drug use|

* Abuse
* Addiction
* Date rape drug
* Dependence
* Driving impaired
* Drug harmfulness
* Effects of cannabis
* Drug-related crime
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
* Long-term effects of cannabis
* Neurotoxicity
* Overdose
* Passive smoking
* of tobacco or other substances

Harm reduction|

* Drug checking
* Drug legalization
* Drug rehabilitation
* Needle and syringe programmes
* Opioid replacement therapy
* Pharmacovigilance
* Reagent testing
* Regulation of therapeutic goods
* Responsible drug use
* Substance abuse prevention
* Supervised injection site
* Trip killer

Countries by
drug use|

* Alcohol consumption
* Cocaine use
* Cannabis
* Annual use
* Lifetime use
* Opiates use
* Tobacco consumption

* v
* t
* e

Hippies

History of the
hippie movement|

* Etymology
* Beat Generation/Beatniks
* Central Park be-ins
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Red Dog Experience
* San Francisco sound
* Drop City
* Sunset Strip curfew riots
* Love Pageant Rally
* Haight-Ashbury
* Human Be-In
* Mantra-Rock Dance
* Summer of Love
* Fantasy Fair
* Monterey Pop Festival
* Newport Pop Festival
* Sky River Rock Festival
* People's Park
* Woodstock
* Glastonbury Festival
* The Farm
* Piedra Roja
* Festival Rock y Ruedas de Avándaro
* Nambassa

People and groups|

* Ken Kesey and the Merry Pranksters
* Acid Tests
* Furthur bus
* Electrohippies
* Diggers
* San Francisco Oracle
* Haight Ashbury Free Clinic
* Haight-Ashbury Switchboard
* Yippies
* Wavy Gravy
* Hog Farm
* The Brotherhood of Eternal Love
* Rainbow Family

Politics and ethics|

* Back-to-the-land movement
* Free love
* Anti-authoritarianism
* Simple living
* Environmentalism
* Pacifism
* Communalism
* Counterculture
* Bohemianism
* Make love, not war
* Turn on, tune in, drop out
* Vegetarianism
* Veganism

Culture and fashion|

* Psychedelia
* Flower power
* Hippie trail
* Hippie exploitation films
* Happening
* Peace symbols
* Bell-bottoms
* Love beads
* Long hair
* Tie-dye
* Intentional community
* communal living
* Free festival
* Music festival
* Flower child

Music|

* Folk music
* Folk rock
* Protest song
* Psychedelic music
* Psychedelic folk
* Psychedelic rock
* Psychedelic soul
* Psychedelic pop
* Psychedelic trance
* Acid rock
* Space rock
* Progressive rock
* Raga rock
* World music
* New-age music
* Jam bands
* List of jam band music festivals
* List of historic rock festivals

Psychedelics
and other drugs|

* Cannabis
* DMT
* LSD
* Psilocybin mushroom
* Mescaline
* Peyote

Hippie related
subcultures|

* Deadhead
* Feral
* Flower child
* Freak scene
* Housetrucker
* Jesus freak
* Jipitecas
* La Onda
* Lebensreform
* Mánička
* New Age
* New Age travellers
* Radical Faeries
* Rave
* UK underground
* Woodstock Nation
* Zippie

Related|

* List of films
* List of books and other publications
* Subculture
* Cannabis culture
* Cyberdelic
* Head shop
* Underground press
* press syndicate
* list
* Legend of the Rainbow Warriors
* Free Speech Movement
* Anti-war movement
* Civil rights movement
* Protests of 1968
* Chicago Seven
* New Left
* New social movements
* Postmaterialism
* Neotribalism
* Hungry generation
* Sexual revolution
* Second Summer of Love
* Neo-psychedelia
* Baby boomers

* v
* t
* e

Chicago Seven

Defendants|

* Rennie Davis
* David Dellinger
* John Froines
* Tom Hayden
* Abbie Hoffman
* Jerry Rubin
* Bobby Seale
* Lee Weiner

Lawyers/Judge|

* William Kunstler (defense lawyer)
* Leonard Weinglass
* Julius Hoffman (judge)
* Tom Foran (prosecutor)
* Richard Schultz

Supporters|

* Center for Constitutional Rights
* Stew Albert
* Noam Chomsky
* Judy Collins
* Bernardine Dohrn
* Allen Ginsberg
* Judy Gumbo
* Anita Hoffman
* Paul Krassner
* Nancy Kurshan
* Timothy Leary
* Norman Mailer
* Country Joe McDonald
* Graham Nash
* Phil Ochs
* Pigasus
* Ed Sanders

Context|

* Youth International Party (Yippies)
* 1968 Democratic National Convention protests
* "The whole world is watching"
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* Mayor Richard J. Daley
* Vietnam War
* opposition
* Miami and the Siege of Chicago (1968 book)
* Weather Underground

Media|

* "Chicago" (1970 song)
* Conspiracy: The Trial of the Chicago 8 (1987 film)
* Steal This Movie! (2000 film)
* Chicago 10 (2007 film)
* William Kunstler: Disturbing the Universe (2009 documentary)
* The Chicago 8 (2011 film)
* The Trial of the Chicago 7 (2020 film)

* v
* t
* e

Sexual revolution

Main topics|

* Birth control
* Male contraceptive
* Free love
* Gay liberation
* Die Sexualität im Kulturkampf

Milestones|

* Abortion law
* Boys in the Sand
* Blue Movie
* Myra Breckinridge
* Deep Throat
* Divorce law by country
* Freedom of speech
* Freedom of the press
* Golden Age of Porn
* Loving v. Virginia
* Miller Test
* Obergefell v. Hodges
* "Porno chic"
* Pornography
* Pornography in the United States
* Swinging
* The Pill (1965)

Slogans|

* "Make love, not war"
* "The personal is political"

Events|

* AIDS epidemic
* Kinsey Reports
* Masters and Johnson Institute
* Playboy
* Protests of 1968
* Stonewall riots
* Summer of Love

People|

* Pat Califia
* Marilyn Chambers
* Aleister Crowley
* Gerard Damiano
* Betty Dodson
* Larry Flynt
* Sigmund Freud
* Ralph Ginzburg
* Al Goldstein
* Bob Guccione
* Terri Hall
* Fred Halsted
* Nina Hartley
* Hugh Hefner
* Magnus Hirschfeld
* David Hurles
* Virginia Johnson
* Alfred Kinsey
* Linda Lovelace
* Robert Mapplethorpe
* William Margold
* William Masters
* Radley Metzger
* Bettie Page
* Wilhelm Reich
* Marquis de Sade
* Margaret Sanger
* Annie Sprinkle
* Andy Warhol
* Ruth Westheimer
* Oscar Wilde

Places|

* 55th Street Playhouse
* Caldron (sex club)
* Catacombs (sex club)
* Club Baths
* The Factory
* Gay bathhouse
* LGBT culture
* Dallas-Fort Worth
* Houston
* Miami
* New York City
* San Francisco
* Mineshaft (gay club)
* New Andy Warhol Garrick Theatre
* Plato's Retreat
* Sandstone retreat
* South of Market

Related|

* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Feminist views of pornography
* Freudo-Marxism
* Hippie
* Inside Deep Throat (2005 film)
* Kinsey (2004 film)
* LGBT
* Lust
* Lovelace (2013 film)
* Make Love, Not War: The Sexual Revolution: An Unfettered History (2001 book)
* The Notorious Bettie Page (2005 film)
* Peace movement
* Slut-shaming
* Whatever (1994 novel)

* v
* t
* e

Youth empowerment

Elements|

* Evolving capacities
* Free-range parenting
* Future generations
* Intergenerational equity
* Leaving the nest
* Student voice
* Youth-adult partnership
* Youth mainstreaming
* Youth rights
* Youth voice

Types|

* Anarchistic free school
* Community youth development
* Democratic education
* Popular education
* Positive youth development
* Student activism
* Student-centered learning
* Student rights
* Teen court
* Youth activism
* Youth council
* Youth engagement
* Youth leadership
* Youth-led media
* Youth organizations
* Youth participation
* Youth philanthropy
* Youth politics
* Youth service
* Youth suffrage
* Youth vote
* Youth work

Barriers|

* Adultcentrism
* Adultism
* Age restrictions
* Ageism
* Control freak
* Eleutherophobia
* Ephebiphobia
* Fear of children
* Gerontocracy
* Grounding
* Helicopter parent
* Infantilization
* Intrusiveness
* Narcissism
* Parental respect
* Paternalism
* Patriarchy
* School-to-prison pipeline
* Vicariousness
* Youth control complex
* Youth exclusion

Related topics|

* Age of candidacy
* Age of consent
* Age-of-consent reform
* Age of criminal responsibility
* Beat Generation
* Beatnik
* The Catcher in the Rye
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Greaser
* Hippies
* Hungry generation
* International Youth Year
* LGBTQ student movement
* Subcultures of the 1950s
* Taking Children Seriously
* The Teenage Liberation Handbook
* Teenage rebellion
* UK underground
* Voting age

* Index of youth rights–related articles

* v
* t
* e

Anti-war and peace movement

Peace advocates|

* Anti-nuclear organizations
* Anti-war movement
* Anti-war organizations
* Boycott, Divestment and Sanctions
* Coalition of Women for Peace
* Code Pink
* Conscientious objectors
* Counterculture
* Culture of Peace
* ECOPEACE Party
* Greenham Common Women's Peace Camp
* Iraq War resisters in Canada
* List of pacifist organisations
* List of peace activists
* New Socialist Party of Japan
* Pacifist Socialist Party
* Peace and conflict studies
* Peace camp
* Peace churches
* Peace commission
* Peace conference
* Peace congress
* Peace education
* Peace movement
* Peace psychology
* Peace treaty
* Peaceworker
* React, Include, Recycle
* Social Democratic Party (Japan)
* Unity
* The Women's Peace Crusade
* War resisters
* Women's International League for Peace and Freedom

Ideologies|

* Ahimsa
* Anarchism
* Anarcho-pacifism
* Anarcho-punks
* Christian anarchism
* Anti-imperialism
* Anti-nuclear movement
* Antimilitarism
* Appeasement
* Christian pacifism
* Deterrence theory
* Direct action
* Finvenkismo
* Green politics
* Hippie
* Isolationism
* Modern-war pacifism
* Non-interventionism
* Nonkilling
* Nonviolence
* Pacificism
* Pacifism
* Peace
* Satyagraha
* Soviet influence on the peace movement
* Testimony of peace
* World peace

Media and cultural|

* Art
* Books
* Concert Yutel for Peace
* Dances of Universal Peace
* Festival for Peace
* Films
* Imagine Piano Peace Project
* International Day of Non-Violence
* International Day of Peace
* Dialogue Among Civilizations
* List of peace prizes
* List of places named Peace
* Monuments and memorials
* Mother's Day Proclamation
* Nobel Peace Prize Concert
* Museums
* Peace & Love (festival)
* Peace journalism
* Peace News
* Promoting Enduring Peace
* Peace One Day
* Plays
* Promoting Enduring Peace
* Show of Peace Concert
* Songs
* Symbols
* The Non-Violence Project
* University for Peace
* World Peace Bell Association
* Japanese Peace Bell
* Women in Black
* World March for Peace and Nonviolence

Slogans and tactics|

* Bed-in
* Central Park be-ins
* Civil disobedience
* Conflict resolution
* Counter-recruitment
* De-escalation
* Demilitarisation
* Department of Peace
* Desertion
* Draft evasion
* Die-in
* Economic sanctions
* Flower power
* Global Day of Action on Military Spending
* Human Be-In
* Lesson of Munich
* "Make love, not war"
* Non-aggression principle
* Nonviolent resistance
* Non Violent Resistance (psychological intervention)
* Peace walk
* Peacebuilding
* Refusal to serve in the Israel Defense Forces
* "Soldiers are murderers"
* Swords to ploughshares
* Teach-in
* "The whole world is watching"
* Third Party Non-violent Intervention
* "Turn the other cheek"
* "Violence begets violence"
* War tax resisters

Opposition to specific
wars or their aspects|

* War of 1812 (UK; US)
* American Civil War
* Second Boer War
* World War I
* World War II
* Vietnam War
* list of protests
* War on Terror
* Iraq War
* Criticism
* Protests
* Afghanistan War
* Military action in Iran
* Sri Lankan Civil War
* 2011 intervention in Libya
* Anti-war protests in Russia (2014)
* 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine
* in Russia
* in Russian Far East
* Gaza War in the U.S.
* Calls for a ceasefire
* Landmines
* Military taxation
* Nuclear disarmament
* International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons
* Nuclear weapons convention

Countries|

* Canada
* Costa Rica
* Germany
* Israel
* Japan
* Netherlands
* Spain
* Sudan
* Switzerland
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Peacebuilding in Jammu and Kashmir

* Category

* v
* t
* e

Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War

Protests
and events|

| General|

* 1960s Berkeley protests
* Central Park be-ins
* Draft evasion in the Vietnam War
* Draft-card burning

|

Before 1967|

* Edmonton aircraft bombing
* 1965 March against the Vietnam War
* Alice Herz, Donald W. Duncan, Norman Morrison, Roger Allen LaPorte 1965 political self-immolations
* Fort Hood Three
* Human Be-In

1967|

* Angry Arts week
* "Beyond Vietnam: A Time to Break Silence"
* Court-martial of Howard Levy
* April 15, 1967 Anti-Vietnam war demonstrations
* March on the Pentagon
* Flower Power photo
* The Ultimate Confrontation
* Nhat Chi Mai self-immolation

1968|

* 1968 Democratic National Convention protests
* "The whole world is watching"
* Columbia University protests of 1968
* Court-martial of Susan Schnall
* Presidio mutiny

1969|

* Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District
* Bed-in
* Chicago Seven
* Weather High School Jailbreaks
* Days of Rage
* Moratorium to End the War in Vietnam

1970|

* Greenwich Village townhouse explosion
* Free The Army tour
* Kent State shootings
* Fort Lewis Six
* Student strike of 1970
* Hard Hat Riot
* Sterling Hall bombing

1971|

* Winter Soldier Investigation
* 1971 May Day protests
* Clay v. United States
* FTA Show
* Pentagon Papers

People and
organizations|

* Chicago Seven
* Chicano Moratorium
* Concerned Officers Movement
* Donald W. Duncan
* Fifth Avenue Vietnam Peace Parade Committee
* Fort Hood Three
* GI's Against Fascism
* G.I. coffeehouses
* Intrepid Four
* Movement for a Democratic Military
* National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam
* Pacific Counseling Service
* Stop Our Ship (SOS)
* Students for a Democratic Society
* Terry Whitmore
* The Newsreel
* United States Servicemen's Fund
* Vietnam Veterans Against the War
* Weather Underground
* Yippies

Related|

* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Anti-war movement
* Protests of 1968
* Vietnam stab-in-the-back myth

* v
* t
* e

Modernism

Movements|

* Acmeism
* Art Deco
* Art Nouveau
* Ashcan School
* Constructivism
* Cubism
* Dada
* Expressionism
* Der Blaue Reiter
* Die Brücke
* Music
* Fauvism
* Functionalism
* Bauhaus
* Futurism
* Imagism
* Lettrism
* Neoplasticism
* De Stijl
* Orphism
* Surrealism
* Symbolism
* Synchromism
* Tonalism

Literary arts|

| Literature|

* Apollinaire
* Barnes
* Beckett
* Bely
* Breton
* Broch
* Bulgakov
* Chekhov
* Conrad
* Döblin
* Forster
* Faulkner
* Flaubert
* Ford
* Gide
* Hamsun
* Hašek
* Hemingway
* Hesse
* Joyce
* Kafka
* Koestler
* Lawrence
* Mann
* Mansfield
* Marinetti
* Musil
* Dos Passos
* Platonov
* Porter
* Proust
* Stein
* Svevo
* Unamuno
* Woolf

|

Poetry|

* Akhmatova
* Aldington
* Auden
* Cendrars
* Crane
* H.D.
* Desnos
* Eliot
* Éluard
* Elytis
* George
* Jacob
* Lorca
* Lowell (Amy)
* Lowell (Robert)
* Mallarmé
* Moore
* Owen
* Pessoa
* Pound
* Rilke
* Seferis
* Stevens
* Thomas
* Tzara
* Valéry
* Williams
* Yeats

Works|

* In Search of Lost Time (1913–1927)
* The Metamorphosis (1915)
* Ulysses (1922)
* The Waste Land (1922)
* The Magic Mountain (1924)
* Mrs Dalloway (1925)
* The Sun Also Rises (1926)
* The Master and Margarita (1928–1940)
* The Sound and the Fury (1929)

Visual arts|

| Painting|

* Albers
* Arp
* Balthus
* Bellows
* Boccioni
* Bonnard
* Brâncuși
* Braque
* Calder
* Cassatt
* Cézanne
* Chagall
* Chirico
* Claudel
* Dalí
* Degas
* Delaunay
* Delaunay
* Demuth
* Dix
* Doesburg
* Duchamp
* Dufy
* Ensor
* Ernst
* Gauguin
* Giacometti
* Goncharova
* Gris
* Grosz
* Höch
* Hopper
* Kahlo
* Kandinsky
* Kirchner
* Klee
* Kokoschka
* Kooning
* Lawrence
* Léger
* Magritte
* Malevich
* Manet
* Marc
* Matisse
* Metzinger
* Miró
* Modigliani
* Mondrian
* Monet
* Moore
* Munch
* Nolde
* O'Keeffe
* Picabia
* Picasso
* Pissarro
* Ray
* Redon
* Renoir
* Rodin
* Rousseau
* Schiele
* Seurat
* Signac
* Sisley
* Soutine
* Steichen
* Stieglitz
* Toulouse-Lautrec
* Van Gogh
* Vuillard
* Wood

|

Film|

* Akerman
* Aldrich
* Antonioni
* Avery
* Bergman
* Bresson
* Buñuel
* Carné
* Cassavetes
* Chaplin
* Clair
* Cocteau
* Dassin
* Deren
* Dovzhenko
* Dreyer
* Edwards
* Eisenstein
* Epstein
* Fassbinder
* Fellini
* Flaherty
* Ford
* Fuller
* Gance
* Godard
* Hitchcock
* Hubley
* Jones
* Keaton
* Kubrick
* Kuleshov
* Kurosawa
* Lang
* Losey
* Lupino
* Lye
* Marker
* Minnelli
* Murnau
* Ozu
* Pabst
* Pudovkin
* Ray (Nicholas)
* Ray (Satyajit)
* Resnais
* Renoir
* Richardson
* Rossellini
* Sirk
* Sjöström
* Sternberg
* Tarkovsky
* Tati
* Trnka
* Truffaut
* Varda
* Vertov
* Vigo
* Welles
* Wiene
* Wood

Architecture|

* Breuer
* Bunshaft
* Gaudí
* Gropius
* Guimard
* Horta
* Hundertwasser
* Johnson
* Kahn
* Le Corbusier
* Loos
* Melnikov
* Mendelsohn
* Mies
* Nervi
* Neutra
* Niemeyer
* Rietveld
* Saarinen
* Steiner
* Sullivan
* Tatlin
* Wright

Works|

* A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte (1886)
* Mont Sainte-Victoir (1887)
* The Starry Night (1889)
* Les Demoiselles d'Avignon (1907)
* The Dance (1909–1910)
* Nude Descending a Staircase, No. 2 (1912)
* Black Square (1915)
* The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920)
* Ballet Mécanique (1923)
* Battleship Potemkin (1925)
* Metropolis (1927)
* Un Chien Andalou (1929)
* Villa Savoye (1931)
* Fallingwater (1936)
* Citizen Kane (1941)
* Meshes of the Afternoon (1943)

Performing
arts|

| Music|

* Antheil
* Bartók
* Berg
* Berio
* Boulanger
* Boulez
* Copland
* Debussy
* Dutilleux
* Falla
* Feldman
* Górecki
* Hindemith
* Honegger
* Ives
* Janáček
* Ligeti
* Lutosławski
* Milhaud
* Nono
* Partch
* Russolo
* Satie
* Schaeffer
* Schoenberg
* Scriabin
* Stockhausen
* Strauss
* Stravinsky
* Szymanowski
* Varèse
* Villa-Lobos
* Webern
* Weill

|

Theatre|

* Anderson
* Anouilh
* Artaud
* Beckett
* Brecht
* Chekhov
* Ibsen
* Jarry
* Kaiser
* Maeterlinck
* Mayakovsky
* O'Casey
* O'Neill
* Osborne
* Pirandello
* Piscator
* Strindberg
* Toller
* Wedekind
* Wilder
* Witkiewicz

Dance|

* Balanchine
* Cunningham
* Diaghilev
* Duncan
* Fokine
* Fuller
* Graham
* Holm
* Laban
* Massine
* Nijinsky
* Shawn
* Sokolow
* St. Denis
* Tamiris
* Wiesenthal
* Wigman

Works|

* Don Juan (1888)
* Ubu Roi (1896)
* Verklärte Nacht (1899)
* Pelléas et Mélisande (1902)
* Salome (1905)
* The Firebird (1910)
* Afternoon of a Faun (1912)
* The Rite of Spring (1913)
* Fountain (1917)
* Six Characters in Search of an Author (1921)
* The Threepenny Opera (1928)
* Waiting for Godot (1953)

Related|

* American modernism
* Armory Show
* Avant-garde
* Ballets Russes
* Bloomsbury Group
* Buddhist modernism
* Classical Hollywood cinema
* Degenerate art
* Ecomodernism
* Experimental film
* Film noir
* Fin de siècle
* Fourth dimension in art
* Fourth dimension in literature
* Grosvenor School of Modern Art
* Hanshinkan Modernism
* High modernism
* Hippie modernism
* Impressionism
* Music
* Literature
* Post-
* Incoherents
* International Style
* Late modernism
* Late modernity
* List of art movements
* List of avant-garde artists
* List of modernist poets
* Maximalism
* Metamodernism
* Modernity
* Neo-primitivism
* Neo-romanticism
* New Hollywood
* New Objectivity
* Poetic realism
* Pop Art
* Pulp noir
* Reactionary modernism
* Remodernism
* Second Viennese School
* Structural film
* Underground film
* Vulgar modernism

← Romanticism

Postmodernism →

Category
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template
*[c.]: circa