Crab claw sail

Triangular sail with spars along upper and lower edges used by traditional Austronesians

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Traditional Austronesian generalized sail types.[1]

1. Double sprit (Sri Lanka)
2. Common sprit (Philippines)
3. Oceanic sprit (Tahiti)
4. Oceanic sprit (Marquesas)
5. Oceanic sprit (Philippines)
6. Crane sprit (Marshall Islands)
7. Rectangular boom lug (Maluku Islands)
8. Square boom lug (Gulf of Thailand)
9. Trapezial boom lug (Vietnam)

The crab claw sail is a fore-and-aft triangular sail with spars along upper and lower edges. The crab claw sail was first developed by the Austronesian peoples by at least 2000 BCE. [2]: 144 [failed verification][3][failed verification] It is sometimes known as the Oceanic lateen or the Oceanic sprit, even though it is not restricted to Oceania, is neither a lateen sail nor a spritsail, and has an independent older origin.

## History

[edit]

Crab-claw sails were invented by the Austronesians somewhere in Island Southeast Asia by at least 2000 BCE.[2][failed verification] It spread with the Austronesian migration to Micronesia, Island Melanesia, Madagascar, and Polynesia. It may have also caused the unique development of outrigger boat technology due to the necessity for stability once crab claw sails were attached to small watercraft.[3] Crab claw sails can be used for double-canoe (catamaran), single-outrigger (on the windward side), or double-outrigger boat configurations, in addition to monohulls.[4][5]

Crab claw sails are rigged fore-and-aft and can be tilted and rotated relative to the wind. They evolved from "V"-shaped perpendicular square sails (a "double sprit") in which the two spars converge at the base of the hull. The simplest form of the crab claw sail (also with the widest distribution) is composed of a triangular sail supported by two light spars (sometimes erroneously called "sprits") on each side. They were originally mastless, and the entire assembly was taken down when the sails were lowered.[3] There are several distinct types of crab claw rigs, but unlike western rigs, they do not have fixed conventional names.[6]

1846 illustration of a Fijian camakau, a single-outrigger canoe with a canted mast "crane sprit"-type crab claw sail

The need to propel larger and more heavily laden boats led to the increase in vertical sail. However this introduced more instability to the vessels. In addition to the unique invention of outriggers to solve this, the sails were also leaned backwards and the converging point moved further forward on the hull. This new configuration required a loose "prop" in the middle of the hull to hold the spars up, as well as rope supports on the windward side. This allowed more sail area (and thus more power) while keeping the center of effort low and thus making the boats more stable. The prop was later converted into fixed or removable canted masts where the spars of the sails were actually suspended by a halyard from the masthead. This type of sail is most refined in Micronesian proas which could reach very high speeds. These configurations are sometimes known as the "crane sprit" or the "crane spritsail". Micronesian, Island Melanesian, and Polynesian single-outrigger vessels also used this canted mast configuration to uniquely develop shunting, where canoes are symmetrical from front to back and change end-to-end when sailing against the wind.[3][6]

The conversion of the prop to a fixed mast led to the much later invention of the tanja sail (also known variously and misleadingly as the canted square sail, canted rectangular sail, boomed lugsail, or balance lugsail). Tanja sails were rigged similarly to crab claw sails and also had spars on both the head and the foot of the sails; but they were square or rectangular with the spars not converging into a point.[3][6]

Hokule'a in 2009, with crab claw sails where the upper spars also function as fixed masts

Another evolution of the basic crab claw sail is the conversion of the upper spar into a fixed mast. In Polynesia, this gave the sail more height while also making it narrower, giving it a shape reminiscent of crab pincers (hence "crab claw" sail). This was also usually accompanied by the lower spar becoming more curved.[3][6]

Austronesians traditionally made their sails from woven mats of the resilient and salt-resistant pandanus leaves. These sails allowed Austronesians to embark on long-distance voyaging. In some cases, however, they were one-way voyages. The failure of pandanus to establish populations in Easter Island and New Zealand is believed to have isolated their settlements from the rest of Polynesia.[7][8]

Because of the crab claw sail's more ancient origin, there is also a hypothesis that contact between Arabs and Austronesians in their Indian Ocean voyages may have influenced the development of the triangular Arabic lateen sail; and in return Arab square-shaped sails may have influenced the development of the Austronesian rectangular tanja sail of western Southeast Asia.[9] Others, however, believe that the tanja sail was an indigenous invention of Southeast Asian Austronesians, though they also believe that the lateen sail may have been introduced to Arab sailors via contact with Austronesian crab claw sails.[10][11] A third theory however, concludes that lateen sails were originally Mediterranean and that Portuguese sailors introduced the lateen sail to Asian waters, starting with Vasco da Gama's arrival in India in 1500. This means that the development of lateen sails in western sailors were not influenced by the crab claw sail.[12]: 257f

In western Indonesia, the crab claw sail reappeared as a recent development. Traditionally the people from western Indonesian islands had shifted to the tanja sail, but starting in the 19th century the Madurese people developed the lete sail. "Lete" actually means lateen, but the existence of pekaki (lower spar/boom) indicates that the layar lete is crab claw sail.[13]: 28–29 [6]: 88–89

Modern wind tunnel studies of sail types show that crab sail performance improves over Bermuda rigs, as the point of sail deviates from close hauled. The configuration has been considered for modern yachts.[14]

## Construction

[edit]

Crab claw sail being constructed for Hot Buoys trimaran. Notice pocket in right hand edge of sail to hold spar. Second spar in this particular configuration is not required since a bolt-rope holds the sail's upper edge and the mast is located in the back of the sailboat. Note lack of shaping.

The crab claw sail consists of a sail, approximately an isosceles triangle in shape. The equal length sides are usually longer than the third side, with spars along the long sides. Austronesian sails typically have spars along two edges of the sail. This is to distribute the loads of sheets and other point loads on the sail. The traditional and historic mat sails used for Austranesian sails has no reinforcement of the sail material along the edges.[a] Since mat sails are not as strong as other sail materials, such as canvas, it is important that the spars provide the necessary reinforcement of the edges.[15]: 248

The crab claw may also traditionally be constructed with curved spars, giving the edges of the sail along the spars a convex shape, while the leech of the sail is often quite concave to keep it stiff on the trailing edge. These features give it its distinct, claw-like shape. Modern crab claws generally have straighter spars and a less convex leech, which gives more sail area for a given length of spar. Spars may taper towards the leech. The structure helps the sail to spill gusts.[citation needed]

The crab claw characteristically widens upwards, putting more sail area higher above the ocean, where the wind is stronger and steadier. This increases the heeling moment: the sails tend to blow the watercraft over. For this reason, crab claws are typically used on multihulls, which resist heeling more strongly.[citation needed]

* V-shaped square rig from Melanesia, the direct precursor of crab claw sails

* "Crane sprit" type crab claw rig of Micronesia with a loose prop

* "Crane sprit" type crab claw rig of the Philippines with a fixed mast

* Forward-mounted crab claw rig from the Duff Islands

* New Guinea-style crab claw rig with vertical sails

* Hawaiian crab claw rig amalgamating the upper spar into the fixed mast

Shunting manoevre on a kaep

### Shunting

[edit]

Due to the construction of the sail, a symmetrical boat with a crab claw does not tack, and instead the sail is shunted. In a shunt, the sail is unfixed from the bow, the other side of it is fixed to the stern, and the mast rake is also reversed. After this conversion, the bow becomes the stern and vice versa. The vessel therefore always has the ama outrigger (and sidestay, if there is one) to windward, and has no bad tack, traveling equally well in both directions.

### Proa

[edit]

In a proa, the forward intersection of the spars is placed towards the bow. The sail is supported by a short mast attached near the middle of the upper spar, and the forward corner is attached to the hull. The lower spar, or boom, is attached at the forward intersection, but is not attached to the mast. The proa has a permanent windward and leeward side, and exchanges one end for the other when coming about.

To tack, or switch directions across the wind, the forward corner of the sail is loosened and then transferred to the opposite end of the boat, a process called shunting.[16] To shunt, the proa's sheet is let out. The joined corner of the spars is then transferred to the opposite end of the boat. While remaining attached to the top of the mast, the upper spar tilts to vertical and beyond as the forward corner moves past the mast and onward to the other end of the boat. Meanwhile, the mainsheet is detached and used to rotate the rearward end of the boom through a horizontal half circle. The spar join is then re-attached at the new "forward" end of the boat and the mainsheet is re-tightened at the new "rearward" end.[17]

### Tepukei

[edit]

The Maunga Nefe, a te puke or folafolau was built on Taumako and sailed out of Nifiloli; it was used for travel and trading within the Santa Cruz archipelago

Main article: Tepukei

A shunting rig with the sail propped vertically at the bow, very similar to the proa rig described above.

### Non-shunting crab claw

[edit]

* Hokule'a, a bluewater waʻa kaulua, with curved-spar, curved-leech crab claw sails, in 1976.

* Hokule'a with her kaula pe'a (sail lines) tightened to partly close her crab-claw sails.[18]

The term "crab claw sail" is also used for non-shunting sails that widen upwards.[19] The 'ōpe'a, the upper spar, is braced up so high that it is nearly parallel to the mast (as in a gunter rig). The paepae, the lower spar/boom, points well above the horizontal, unlike the boom of most gunter rigs and gaff rigs. The two spars can be brought together or pulled apart with control lines.[20] The mast is fixed and stayed.[18]

## Gallery

[edit]

* Carolinian wa with crab claw sail

* Sandeq boats in Majene, West Sulawesi, Indonesia

* A proa in New Caledonia

* Visayan paraw with a "crane sprit" crab claw sail

* Illustration of a crab claw sail in Tikehau (Louis Choris, 1816)

* Madurese golekan with crab claw sails

* 1750 illustration of crab claw sail by George Anson

## See also

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Crab claw sails.

* Hokule'a
* James Wharram's voyage on Lapita
* Jangada
* Junk rig
* Outrigger canoe
* Proa
* Tanja sail
* Tepukei

### Related rigs

[edit]

* Gaff rig
* Gunter rig
* Lateen rig, modern crabclaw-like variants

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Compare the mat sail construction with that used for the canvas sails in Western maritime technology, and with modern sails in synthetic materials - these tend to have bolt ropes and extra layers of canvas

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Doran, Edwin B. (1981). Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins. Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 9780890961070.
2. ^ a b Horridge, Adrian (2006). Bellwood, Peter (ed.). The Austronesians : historical and comparative perspectives. Canberra, ACT. ISBN 978-0731521326.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
3. ^ a b c d e f Campbell, I.C. (1995). "The Lateen Sail in World History". Journal of World History. 6 (1): 1–23\. JSTOR 20078617.
4. ^ Horridge A (2008). "Origins and Relationships of Pacific Canoes and Rigs" (PDF). In Di Piazza A, Pearthree E (eds.). Canoes of the Grand Ocean. BAR International Series 1802. Archaeopress. ISBN 9781407302898. Archived (PDF) from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 22 October 2019.
5. ^ Lacsina, Ligaya (2016). Examining pre-colonial Southeast Asian boatbuilding: An archaeological study of the Butuan Boats and the use of edge-joined planking in local and regional construction techniques (PhD). Flinders University.
6. ^ a b c d e Horridge, Adrian (April 1986). "The Evolution of Pacific Canoe Rigs". The Journal of Pacific History. 21 (2): 83–99\. doi:10.1080/00223348608572530. JSTOR 25168892.
7. ^ Kirch, Patrick Vinton (2012). A Shark Going Inland Is My Chief: The Island Civilization of Ancient Hawai'i. University of California Press. pp. 25–26\. ISBN 9780520953833.
8. ^ Gallaher, Timothy (2014). "The Past and Future of Hala (Pandanus tectorius) in Hawaii". In Keawe, Lia O'Neill M.A.; MacDowell, Marsha; Dewhurst, C. Kurt (eds.). ʻIke Ulana Lau Hala: The Vitality and Vibrancy of Lau Hala Weaving Traditions in Hawaiʻi. Hawai'inuiakea School of Hawaiian Knowledge; University of Hawai'i Press. doi:10.13140/RG.2.1.2571.4648. ISBN 9780824840938.
9. ^ Mahdi, Waruno (1999). "The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean". In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts. One World Archaeology. Vol. 34\. Routledge. pp. 144–179\. ISBN 0415100542.
10. ^ Hourani, George Fadlo (1951). Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
11. ^ Johnstone, Paul (1980). The Seacraft of Prehistory. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0674795952.
12. ^ White, Lynn (1978). Medieval Religion and Technology. Collected Essays. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-03566-9.
13. ^ Horridge, Adrian (1981). The Prahu: Traditional Sailingboat of Indonesia. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
14. ^ "Proa Rig Options: Crab Claw". Proafile. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
15. ^ Lape, Peter V.; O’Connor, Sue; Burningham, Nick (31 January 2007). "Rock Art: A Potential Source of Information about Past Maritime Technology in the South-East Asia-Pacific Region: P. V. LAPE ET AL.: ROCK ART OF THE SOUTH-EAST ASIA-PACIFIC REGION". International Journal of Nautical Archaeology. 36 (2): 238–253\. doi:10.1111/j.1095-9270.2006.00135.x. S2CID 28293144.
16. ^ Gross, Jeffrey L. (2016). Waipio Valley: A Polynesian Journey from Eden to Eden. Xlibris Corporation. p. 626\. ISBN 9781479798469.
17. ^ "Proa Rig Options: Crab Claw". proafile.com. Proa File. July 23, 2014. Retrieved 2017-04-21.
18. ^ a b "Parts of the Hawaiian Canoe". archive.hokulea.com. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
19. ^ Star-Bulletin, Honolulu. "starbulletin.com - News - /2007/03/06/". archives.starbulletin.com. Retrieved 17 April 2018.
20. ^ Hōkūle‘a Image Gallery (From 1973) archive.hokulea.com, accessed 12 February 2020

## External links

[edit]

* Video "Hot Buoys" Self-Tacking Crab-Claw Trimaran
* Wind Tunnel results on effects of crabclaw sail orientation - apex position and consistent camber

* v
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Types of sailing vessels and rigs

Overviews|

* Age of Sail
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Sailing rigs|

* Bermuda rig
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By sailing rigs|

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Naval and merchant
sailing ships
and other vessels
(by origin date)|

| Ancient|

* Balangay
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|

Post-classical|

* Balinger
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15th c.|

* Carrack
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16th c.|

* Crommesteven
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17th c.|

* Bermuda sloop
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18th c.|

* Bilander
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* Toop
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* West Indiaman

19th c.|

* Blackwall frigate
* Clipper
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* Golekan
* Iron-hulled sailing ship
* Warship
* Janggolan
* Lambo
* Leti leti
* Palari
* Tamar
* West Country
* Windjammer

20th c.|

* Montagu whaler

Fishing vessels|

* Bagan
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Recreational vessels|

* Dinghy
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* Mast aft rig
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Special terms|

* Inflatable
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Other types|

* Bristol Channel pilot cutter
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* Wherry

Related|

* Nautical operations

* v
* t
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Austronesian ships

Ship types

| Taiwan|

| Kavalan|

* Mangka

|

Thao|

* Ruza

Tao|

* Ipanitika
* Tatara

Island
Southeast Asia|

| Brunei|

* Bajak
* Bangkong
* Gubang
* Jong
* Kakap
* Penjajap
* Tongkang

|

Indonesia|

* Abak
* Bagan
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* Banting
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* Borobudur ship
* Cerucuh
* Chialoup
* Eloha
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* Toop

Malaysia|

* Bajak
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* Jong
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* Lancaran
* Lepa
* Pelang
* Pencalang
* Penjajap
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* Pinas
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* Sampan panjang
* Tongkang

Moken|

* Kabang

Philippines|

* Armadahan
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* Baloto
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* Vinta (Dapang, Pilang)

Singapore|

* Sampan panjang
* Tongkang

Island
Melanesia|

| Admiralty Islands|

* Endrol
* Kel

|

Fiji|

* Camakau
* Drua (Waqa tabu)
* Takia

Green Islands|

* Kǒp
* Tsǐne

Papua New Guinea|

* Lakatoi

Solomon Islands|

* Binabina
* Lisi (Solima)
* Tepukei
* Tomako (Mon, Ora)

Vanuatu|

* Aka
* Angga
* Wangga

Micronesia|

| Caroline Islands|

* Wa
* Wahr
* Waserak

|

Kiribati|

* Baurua

Marshall Islands|

* Korkor
* Tipnol
* Walap

Northern Marianas|

* Duding
* Duduli
* Galaideʻ (Agaraide)
* Ladjak
* Lelek
* Panga
* Sakman (Flying proa)

Palau|

* Kaep
* Wa

Yap|

* Chugpin
* Popow
* Wa

Polynesia|

| Cook Islands|

* Vaka
* Vaka katea

|

Hawaii|

* Mālia
* Waʻa
* Waʻa kaulua

Marquesas|

* Vaka touʻua

New Zealand|

* Waka
* Waka hourua
* Waka taua
* Waka tīwai

Samoa|

* ʻalia
* Amatasi
* Fautasi
* Laʻau
* Lualua (Foulua)
* Paopao
* Vaʻa
* Vaʻa-alo
* Vaʻa-tele

Society Islands|

* Ivahah
* Pahi
* Tipairua
* Vaʻa

Tonga|

* Hamatafua
* Kalia
* Pōpao
* Tongiaki

Tuvalu|

* Paopao

Madagascar|

| Malagasy|

* Lakana

|

Sakalava|

* Laka fiara

Ipanitika

Wa'a kaulua

Paraw

Padewakang

Ship construction & sailing

| Rigging|

* Crab claw sail
* Junk rig
* Pinisi rig
* Tanja sail

|

Hull|

* Catamaran
* Lashed-lug boat
* Multihull
* Outrigger
* Outrigger boat
* Polynesian multihull terminology
* Proa
* Sewn boat
* Trimaran

Navigation|

* Fanuankuwel
* Fealofani Bruun
* Hipour
* Kafeŕoor
* List of Māori waka
* Makassan contact with Australia
* Māori migration canoes
* Marshall Islands stick chart
* Mau Piailug
* Polynesian navigation
* Rapwi
* Tākitimu
* Weriyeng
* Yapese navigation

Trade|

* Austronesian maritime trade network
* Hiri trade cycle
* Kula ring
* Lapita trade network
* Lingling-o
* Maritime Silk Road
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere
* Sepik Coast exchange
* Spice trade
* Trepanging

Archaeology|

* Balangay (Butuan boats)
* Borobudur ship
* Cirebon shipwreck

Other|

* Apilan
* Burulan
* Daramba
* Kota mara

Ship replicas

| Cook Islands|

* Maire Nui
* Marumaru Atua
* Te Au o Tonga

|

Federated States of Micronesia|

* Halametaw
* Quest
* Sailoam

French Polynesia|

* Faʻafaite
* Tahiti Nui

Guam|

* Saina

Hawaii|

* Alingano Maisu
* Hawaiʻiloa
* Hikianalia
* Hōkūleʻa
* Hokualakai
* Iosepa
* Makali'i

Indonesia|

* Alfred Wallace
* Hati Marege
* Nur Al Marege
* Samudra Raksa
* Spirit of Majapahit

Malaysia|

* Naga Pelangi

New Zealand|

* Aotearoa One
* Haunui
* Ngahiraka Mai Tawhiti
* Pūmaiterangi
* Te Aurere

Philippines|

* Balatik
* Diwata ng Lahi
* Lahi ng Maharlika
* Masawa Hong Butuan
* Raya Kolambu
* Raya Siyagu
* Sama Tawi-Tawi
* Sarimanok
* Sultan sin Sulu

Samoa|

* Gaualofa

* See also:
* Lapita culture
* Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia

* v
* t
* e

Sails, spars and rigging

including limited use*, outdated†

Rigs|

| Textile|

* Bermuda
* B&R
* Cat
* Fore-and-aft
* Gaff
* Gunter
* Junk*
* Ljungström
* Mast-aft
* Pinisi
* Square

|

Other|

* Rotorsail*
* Turbosail*
* Wingsail

Sails
(sailing rigs)|

| Three-sided|

* Asymmetrical spinnaker
* Crab claw*
* Gennaker
* Genoa
* Jib
* Lateen
* Mainsail (Bermuda rig)
* Raffee
* Ringtail*
* Screecher*
* Spinnaker
* Staysail
* Trysail*

|

Four-sided|

* Course
* Fisherman†
* Foresail
* Junk sail*
* Lug sail
* Mainsail (square rig)
* Moonraker*
* Ringtail*
* Royal
* Skysail*
* Spanker
* Spritsail (square-rigged)†
* Spritsail* (Optimist)
* Studding*
* Tanja sail
* Topgallant
* Topsail
* Watersail*

Components|

* Batten
* Bolt rope
* Cringle
* Emblems
* Draft
* Jackline
* Reefing points
* Roach
* Sailcloth
* Spreader patch
* Tell-tale

Spars|

| On bow|

* Bowsprit
* sprit topmast
* Dolphin striker
* Jackstaff
* Jibboom
* Pelican striker

|

On mast|

* Boom
* Boomkin
* Gaff
* Truck
* Crosstrees
* Spinnaker pole
* Spreader
* Sprit
* Yard

Rigging|

| Standing|

* Bobstay
* Lazy jack
* Running backstay
* Shroud
* ratlines
* Stay mouse†
* Stays
* backstay
* forestay

|

Running|

* Boomkicker*
* Boom vang
* Braces
* Buntlines
* Cunningham
* Clewlines
* Downhaul
* Guy
* Halyard
* peak
* throat
* Outhaul
* Preventer
* Sheet
* Tack
* Topping lift

Components|

* Baggywrinkle
* Belaying pin*
* Block
* Cleat
* bitts
* Clevis pin
* Deadeye
* Earing
* Fairlead
* Footrope
* Gasket
* Parrel beads
* Ring bolt
* Roller furling
* Shackle
* Swivel
* gooseneck
* Trapeze
* Traveller
* Turnbuckle
* Winch

* v
* t
* e

Ancient seafaring

Vessels

| Types|

* Balangay
* Bangka
* Beden
* Coracle
* Dhow
* Dragon boat
* Dugout canoe
* Fire ship
* Galley
* Penteconter
* Kunlun ship
* Liburna
* Longship
* Multihull
* Navis lusoria
* Obelisk ship
* Outriggers
* Sakman
* Single-outrigger
* Catamaran
* Trimaran
* Polyremes
* Bireme
* Oared warships
* Trireme
* Quadrireme
* Quinquereme
* Hexareme
* Tessarakonteres
* Raft
* Reed boat
* Sailing ship
* Solar ship
* Tomol
* Tākitimu
* Uru

|

by region|

* Austronesia
* Egypt
* Persia
* Rome

Propulsion|

* Paddling
* Sailing
* Towing
* Poling

Components|

* Anchor
* Bow
* Cabin
* Deck
* Figurehead
* Hull
* Planking
* Keel
* Mast
* Oar
* Paddle
* Rope
* Rudder
* Steering oar
* Sail
* Sail components
* Stem
* Sternpost
* Strake
* Tiller

Construction|

* Boat building
* Careening
* Carvel built
* Clinker built
* Dugout
* Framing
* Frame-first
* Shell-first
* Joinery
* Lashed-lug
* Mortise and tenon
* Phoenician joint
* Scarf joint
* Sewn-plank
* Shipbuilding
* By region:
* Egypt

Rigging|

* Crab claw
* Fore-and-aft
* Lateen
* Settee
* Tanja
* Triangular sail
* Junk
* Mast-aft
* Spritsail
* Square

Armaments|

* Ballista
* Catapult
* Corvus
* Dolphin
* Fire ship
* Harpax
* Ram
* Sambuca

Wrecks
and relics|

| Earliest|

* Pesse canoe
* Dufuna canoe
* Abydos
* Moor Sand
* Dokos
* Khufu ship
* Ferriby Boats
* Dover Bronze Age Boat
* Uluburun
* Canaanite
* Cape Gelidonya
* Zambratija
* Rochelongue

|

Austronesia|

* Pontian boat
* Butuan boats

Black Sea‎|

* Sinop D

Greek|

* Kyrenia
* Leontophoros
* Syracusia
* Ashkelon
* Antikythera

Canaanite
and Phoenician|

* Bajo de la Campana
* Canaanite shipwreck
* Gozo
* Ma'agan Michael
* Mazarrón

Punic|

* Marsala Punic shipwreck

Roman|

* Alkedo
* Arles Rhône 3
* Blackfriars I
* Caligula's Giant Ship
* De Meern ships
* Isis
* Madrague de Giens
* Nemi ships
* Marausa
* Yassi Ada

Nordic|

* Hjortspring boat
* Nydam boat

Lists|

* Oldest surviving
* Museum ships
* Surviving ancient ships

Navigation, and ports and harbors

| Navigation|

* Celestial
* Charts
* Coastal
* Lighthouses
* History
* Ocean swell
* Stick chart
* Periplus
* Piloting
* Pilot boat
* Maritime pilot
* By region:
* Inuit
* Micronesian
* Polynesia

|

Ports and
harbors|

* Actium
* Aden
* Adulis
* Alexandria
* Apollonia
* Aradus
* Arikamedu
* Arsinoe
* Avalites
* Barbarikon
* Barygaza
* Basra
* Berenice Troglodytica
* Bosphorus
* Byblos
* Caesarea Maritima
* Canopus
* Carthage
* Centumcellae
* Charmutha
* Chittagong
* Delos
* Essina
* Giao Chỉ
* Godavaya
* Guangzhou
* Jambukola
* Jeddah
* Kaveri Poompattinam
* Kedah
* Korkai
* Leptis Magna
* Lothal
* Manthai
* Madurai
* Malao
* Mersa Gawasis
* Myos Hormos
* Martaban
* Mueang Phra Rot
* Muscat
* Muziris
* Narbonne
* Nesis
* Óc Eo (Cattigara)
* Opone
* Ostia Antica
* Palembang
* Piraeus
* Portus Augusti
* Portus Pisanus
* Prosphorion
* Ptolemais Theron
* Puteoli
* Qal'at al-Bahrain
* Qandala
* Quilon
* Rhacotis
* Sarapion
* Satingpra
* Sidon
* Socotra
* Sounagoura
* Thapsus
* Trincomalee
* Tulum
* Tyndis
* Tyre
* Wadi al-Jarf
* Zanzibar

History

| Prehistory|

* Timeline
* Britain
* Oceania
* Remote
* Near
* Ubaid period
* Indus Valley

|

Civilizations|

* Ancient Egypt
* Old Kingdom
* Austronesia
* Sa Huỳnh
* Lapita
* Micronesia
* Langkasuka
* Kedah
* Champa
* Kutai
* Tarumanagara
* Kalingga
* Srivijaya
* Sunda
* Polynesia
* Minoan
* Indus Valley
* Tamilakam
* Chola
* Chera
* Pandya
* Somalia
* Dilmun
* Maya
* Nuragic
* Mycenaean
* Phoenicia
* Olmecs
* Carthage
* Greece
* Archaic
* Classical
* Rome
* Achaemenid
* Nabatea
* Aksum

Migration and
exploration|

* Peopling of Australia
* Peopling of Micronesia
* Austronesian Expansion
* Greeks in pre-Roman Gaul
* Ocean exploration
* Phoenician maritime expansion
* Sardinia
* Circumnavigation of Africa
* Pytheas' voyage to Britain
* Roman circumnavigation of Britain
* Timeline

Mariners and
explorers|

* Henenu
* Euthymenes
* Hanno the Navigator
* Himilco
* Sataspes
* Androsthenes of Thasos
* Archias of Pella
* Alexander the Great
* Nearchus
* Pytheas
* Megasthenes
* Xu Fu
* Hippalus
* Julius Caesar
* Eudoxus of Cyzicus
* Maes Titianus

Military|

| Navies|

* Egyptian
* Achaemenid
* Greek
* Roman

|

Battles|

* Mediterranean: Alashiya
* Nile Delta
* Salamis
* Artemisium
* Eurymedon
* Naupactus
* Olpae
* Syracuse
* Cynossema
* Arginusae
* Mytilene
* Hellespont
* Echinades
* Salamis II
* Mylae
* Cape Hermaeum
* Ecnomus
* Drepana
* Aegates
* Lake Trasimene
* Chios
* Myonessus
* Nile
* Naulochus
* Mycale
* Actium

Tactics|

* Boarding
* Grappling
* Incendiaries
* Oared vessels
* Sailing ships
* Greek navy
* Ramming

By region|

* China
* India
* Odisha
* Japan
* Rome
* South America
* Rafts

Economy and trade

* Whaling
* Fishing
* Egypt
* Land of Punt
* Indo–Mesopotamia relations
* Meluhha
* Tin
* Spice trade
* Austronesian network
* Sa Huynh-Kalanay
* Incense trade
* Maritime Silk Road
* Periplus of the Erythraean Sea
* Maya
* Greece
* Greco–Indian
* shipping
* Rome
* Indo–Roman

Piracy

* History
* Mediterranean piracy
* Ameinias the Phocian
* Cilician pirates
* Jewish pirates
* Kidnapping of Julius Caesar
* Pompey's campaign against the pirates

Research and education

| Scholars|

| Historians|

* David Blackman
* Lionel Casson
* Fik Meijer
* John Sinclair Morrison
* William L. Rodgers
* Chester G. Starr

|

Archaeologists|

* George Bass
* Jean-Yves Empereur
* Boris Rankov
* J. Richard Steffy
* Peter Throckmorton
* Shelley Wachsmann

Topics
and theories|

* Coastal defence and fortification
* Grave goods
* Lighthouses
* Alexandria
* Marine art
* Marine navigation
* Maritime archaeology
* Naval warfare
* Maritime temples
* Temple of Isthmia
* Temple of Poseidon, Sounion
* Samothrace temple complex
* Nusantao network
* Phoenician discovery of America
* Pre-Columbian theories
* Sea Peoples
* Shipbuilding
* Shell middens
* Ship burial
* Tacking
* Thalassocracy
* Underwater archaeology
* Underwater exploration

Sites|

* H3
* Qal'at al-Bahrain

Experimental
archaeology|

* Ship replica
* Heyerdahl expeditions
* Kon-Tiki
* Ra and Ra II
* Austronesian replicas
* Hōkūleʻa
* Sarimanok
* Te Au o Tonga
* Hawaiʻiloa canoe
* Samudra Raksa
* Alingano Maisu
* Saina
* Balangay Voyage
* Faʻafaite
* Gaualofa
* Marumaru Atua
* Mediterranean
* Olympias
* Regina
* Phoenician Ship Expedition
* Viking replicas
* Viking
* Others
* Vital Alsar
* Ivlia
* Abora
* Viracocha
* Tangaroa
* Oakleaf
* Morgawr

Institutes and
conferences|

* Advisory Council on Underwater Archaeology
* Archaeological Institute of America
* European Association of Archaeologists
* Institute of Nautical Archaeology
* International Congress of Maritime Museums
* Nautical Archaeology Society
* RPM Nautical Foundation
* Sea Research Society
* Society for American Archaeology

Museums and
memorials|

* Boat Museum, Kolkata
* Bodrum Museum of Underwater Archaeology
* Giza Solar boat museum
* Grand Egyptian Museum
* Ancient Shipwreck Museum at Kyrenia Castle
* Museum of Ancient Seafaring
* Museum of Ancient Ships, Pisa
* National Museum of Subaquatic Archaeology
* Viking ship museums:
* Oslo
* Roskilde

Legend and literature

| Legend|

* Ark of bulrushes
* Flood myths
* Genesis
* Gilgamesh
* Greek

|

Literature|

* Odyssey
* Histories (Herodotus)
* On the Ocean
* Argonautica
* Histories (Polybius)
* Metamorphoses
* Geography
* Aeneid

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