Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent

Gradual process of replacement of in India, ended around the 13th or 14th century

The Buddhist Nalanda university and monastery was a major institution of higher-learning in ancient India from the 5th century CE until the 12th century.[1] Part of a series on

Buddhism

* Glossary
* Index
* Outline

History

* Timeline
* The Buddha
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism
* Councils
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Decline in the Indian subcontinent
* Later Buddhists
* Buddhist modernism

* Dharma
* Concepts

* Four Noble Truths
* Noble Eightfold Path
* Dharma wheel
* Five Aggregates
* Impermanence
* Suffering
* No-self
* Dependent Origination
* Middle Way
* Mettā
* Emptiness
* Morality
* Karma
* Rebirth
* Saṃsāra
* Cosmology

Buddhist texts

* Buddhavacana
* Early Texts
* Tripiṭaka
* Mahayana Sutras
* Pāli Canon
* Sanskrit literature
* Tibetan canon
* Chinese canon
* Post-canon

Practices

* Three Jewels
* Buddhist paths to liberation
* Five precepts
* Perfections
* Meditation
* Philosophical reasoning
* Devotional practices
* Merit making
* Recollections
* Mindfulness
* Wisdom
* Sublime abidings
* Aids to Enlightenment
* Monasticism
* Lay life
* Buddhist chant
* Pilgrimage
* Vegetarianism

Nirvāṇa

* Awakening
* Four Stages
* Arhat
* Pratyekabuddhayāna
* Bodhisattva
* Buddha

Traditions

* Theravāda
* Pāli
* Mahāyāna
* Hinayana
* Chinese
* Vajrayāna
* Tibetan
* Navayana
* Newar

Buddhism by country

* Bhutan
* Brazil
* Cambodia
* China
* India
* Indonesia
* Japan
* Korea
* Laos
* Malaysia
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* New Zealand
* Russia
* Singapore
* US
* Sri Lanka
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Tibet
* Vietnam

* Buddhism portal

* v
* t
* e

Buddhism, which originated in India, gradually dwindled starting in the 4th-6th century CE, and was replaced by Hinduism approximately in the 12th century,[2][3] in a centuries-long process.[4] Lack of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Hinduism formed in the Hindu synthesis, Turkic invasions and dwindling financial support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.[5][full citation needed]

The total Buddhist population in 2010 in the Indian subcontinent – excluding that of Sri Lanka, Bhutan (both Buddhist majority states), and Nepal – was about 10 million, of which about 92.5% in India, 7.2% lived in Bangladesh and 0.2% in Pakistan.[6]

## Growth of Buddhism

[edit]

Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of Ashoka.

Buddhism expanded in the Indian subcontinent in the centuries after the death of the Buddha, particularly after receiving the endorsement and royal support of the Maurya Empire under Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE. It spread even beyond the Indian subcontinent to Central Asia and China.

The Buddha's period saw not only urbanisation, but also the beginnings of centralised states.[7] The successful expansion of Buddhism depended on the growing economy of the time, together with an increase in the number of centralised political organisations capable of change.[8]

Buddhism spread across ancient India and state support by various regional regimes continued through the 1st millennium BCE.[9] The consolidation of monastic organisations made Buddhism the centre of religious and intellectual life in India.[10] The succeeding Kanva Dynasty had four Buddhist Kanva Kings.[11]

## Gupta Dynasty (4th–6th century)

[edit]

### Religious developments

[edit]

During the Gupta dynasty (4th to 6th century), Vaishnavism, Shaivism and other Hindu religions became increasingly popular, while Brahmins developed a new relationship with the state. The differences between Buddhism and Hinduism blurred, as Mahayana Buddhism adopted more ritualistic practices, while Buddhist ideas were adopted into Vedic schools.[12] As the system grew, Buddhist monasteries gradually lost control of land revenue. In parallel, the Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara,[13][14] and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.[15][16][17]

### Hun invasions (6th century)

[edit]

Chinese scholars travelling through the region between the 5th and 8th centuries, such as Faxian, Xuanzang, Yijing, Hui-sheng, and Sung-Yun, began to speak of a decline of the Buddhist Sangha in the Northwestern parts of Indian subcontinent, especially in the wake of the Hun invasion from central Asia in the 6th century CE.[18] Xuanzang wrote that numerous monasteries in north-western India had been reduced to ruins by the Huns.[18][19]

The Hun ruler Mihirakula, who ruled from 515 CE in north-western region (modern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north India), suppressed Buddhism as well. He did this by destroying monasteries as far away as modern-day Prayagraj.[20] Yashodharman and Gupta Empire rulers, in and after about 532 CE, reversed Mihirakula's campaign and ended the Mihirakula era.[21][22]

According to Peter Harvey, the religion recovered slowly from these invasions during the 7th century, with the "Buddhism of Punjab and Sindh remaining strong".[23] The reign of the Pala Dynasty (8th to 12th century) saw Buddhism in North India recover due to royal support from the Palas who supported various Buddhist centers like Nalanda. By the eleventh century, Pala rule had weakened, however.[23]

## Socio-political change and religious competition

[edit]

During the period of the Tripartite Struggle (7–12th centuries), most major and minor Indian dynasties gradually shifted their support towards various forms of Hinduism or Jainism (with the exception of the Palas).[24]

The regionalisation of India after the end of the Gupta Empire (320–650 CE) led to the loss of patronage and donations.[25] The prevailing view of decline of Buddhism in India is summed by A. L. Basham's classic study which argues that the main cause was the rise of an ancient Hindu religion again, "Hinduism", which focused on the worship of deities like Shiva and Vishnu and became more popular among the common people while Buddhism, being focused on monastery life, had become disconnected from public life and its life rituals, which were all left to Hindu Brahmins.[citation needed]

### Religious competition

[edit]

See also: Buddhism and Hinduism

The growth of new forms of Hinduism (and to a lesser extent Jainism) was a key element in the decline in Buddhism in India, particularly in terms of diminishing financial support to Buddhist monasteries from laity and royalty and also not having any support of kings .[26][27][28] According to Kanai Hazra, Buddhism declined in part because of the rise of the Brahmins and their influence in socio-political process.[29] According to Randall Collins, Richard Gombrich and other scholars, Buddhism's rise or decline is not linked to Brahmins or the caste system, since Buddhism was "not a reaction to the caste system", but aimed at the salvation of those who joined its monastic order.[30][31][32]

The disintegration of central power also led to regionalisation of religiosity, and religious rivalry.[33] Rural and devotional movements arose within Hinduism, along with Shaivism, Vaishnavism, Bhakti and Tantra,[33] that competed with each other, as well as with numerous sects of Buddhism and Jainism.[33][34] This fragmentation of power into feudal kingdoms was detrimental for Buddhism, as royal support shifted towards other communities and Brahmins developed a strong relationship with Indian states.[25][35][26][27][28][29]

Over time the new Indian dynasties which arose after the 7th and 8th centuries tended to support Hinduism, and this conversion proved decisive. These new dynasties, all of which supported Hinduism, include "the Karkotas and Pratiharas of the north, the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan, and the Pandyas and Pallavas of the south" (the Pala Dynasty is one sole exception to these).[citation needed] One of the reasons of this conversion was that the Brahmins were willing and able to aid in local administration, and they provided councillors, administrators and clerical staff.[36] Moreover, Brahmins had clear ideas about society, law and statecraft (and studied texts such as the Arthashastra and the Manusmriti) and could be more pragmatic than the Buddhists, whose religion was based on monastic renunciation and did not recognise that there was a special warrior class that was divinely ordained to use violence justly.[37] As Johannes Bronkhorst notes, Buddhists could give "very little" practical advice in response to that of the Brahmins, and Buddhist texts often speak ill of kings and royalty.[38]

Bronkhorst notes that some of the influence of the Brahmins derived from the fact that they were seen as powerful, because of their use of incantations and spells (mantras) as well as other sciences like astronomy, astrology, calendrics and divination. Many Buddhists refused to use such "sciences" and left them to Brahmins, who also performed most of the rituals of the Indian states (as well as in places like Cambodia and Burma).[39]

Lars Fogelin argues that the concentration of the sangha into large monastic complexes like Nalanda was one of the contributing causes for the decline. He states that the Buddhists of these large monastic institutions became "largely divorced from day-to-day interaction with the laity, except as landlords over increasingly large monastic properties".[40] Padmanabh Jaini also notes that Buddhist laypersons are relatively neglected in the Buddhist literature, which produced only one text on lay life and not until the 11th century, while Jains produced around fifty texts on the life and conduct of a Jaina layperson.[41]

These factors all slowly led to the replacement of Buddhism in the South and West of India by Hinduism and Jainism. Fogelin states that

> While some small Buddhist centers still persisted in South and West India in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, for the most part, both monastic and lay Buddhism had been eclipsed and replaced by Hinduism and Jainism by the end of the first millennium CE.[42]

Buddhist sources also mention violence against Buddhists by Hindu Brahmins and kings. Hazra mentions that the eighth and ninth centuries saw "Brahminical hostilities towards Buddhism in South India"[43]

### Religious convergence and absorption

[edit]

Buddha as Vishnu at Chennakesava Temple (Somanathapura).

Buddhism's distinctiveness also diminished with the rise of Hindu sects. Though Mahayana writers were quite critical of Hinduism, the devotional cults of Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism likely seemed quite similar to laity, and the developing Tantrism of both religions were also similar.[44] Also, "the increasingly esoteric nature" of both Hindu and Buddhist tantrism made it "incomprehensible to India's masses", for whom Hindu devotionalism and the worldly power-oriented Nath Siddhas became a far better alternative.[45][46][note 1] Buddhist ideas, and even the Buddha himself,[47] were absorbed and adapted into orthodox Hindu thought,[48][44][49] while the differences between the two systems of thought were emphasised.[50][51][52][53][54][55]

Elements which medieval Hinduism adopted during this time included vegetarianism, a critique of animal sacrifices, a strong tradition of monasticism (founded by figures such as Shankara) and the adoption of the Buddha as an avatar of Vishnu.[56] On the other end of the spectrum, Buddhism slowly became more and more "Brahmanized", initially beginning with the adoption of Sanskrit as a means to defend their interests in royal courts.[57] According to Bronkhorst, this move to the Sanskrit cultural world also brought with it numerous Brahmanical norms which now were adopted by the Sanskrit Buddhist culture (one example is the idea present in some Buddhist texts that the Buddha was a Brahmin who knew the Vedas).[58] Bronkhorst notes that with time, even the caste system eventually became widely accepted for "all practical purposes" by Indian Buddhists (this survives among the Newar Buddhists of Nepal).[59] Bronkhorst notes that eventually, a tendency developed in India to see Buddhism's past as having been dependent on Brahmanism and secondary to it. This idea, according to Bronkhorst, "may have acted like a Trojan horse, weakening this religion from within".[60]

The political realities of the period also led some Buddhists to change their doctrines and practices. For example, some later texts such as the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra and the Sarvadurgatipariśodhana Tantra begin to speak of the importance of protecting Buddhist teachings and that killing is allowed if necessary for this reason. Later Buddhist literature also begins to see kings as bodhisattvas and their actions as being in line with the dharma (Buddhist kings like Devapala and Jayavarman VII also claimed this).[61] Bronkhorst also thinks that the increase in the use of apotropaic rituals (including for the protection of the state and king) and spells (mantras) by 7th century Indian Buddhism is also a response to Brahmanical and Shaiva influence. These included fire sacrifices, which were performed under the rule of Buddhist king Dharmapala (r. c. 775–812).[62] Alexis Sanderson has shown that Tantric Buddhism is filled with imperial imagery reflecting the realities of medieval India, and that in some ways work to sanctify that world.[63] Perhaps because of these changes, Buddhism remained indebted to the crept in Brahmanical thought and practice now that it had adopted much of its world-view. Bronkhorst argues that these somewhat drastic changes "took them far from the ideas and practices they had adhered to during the early centuries of their religion, and dangerously close to their much-detested rivals."[64] These changes which brought Buddhism closer to Hinduism, eventually made it much easier for it to be absorbed into Hinduism and lose its separate identity for them.[44]

### Patronage

[edit]

In ancient India, regardless of the religious beliefs of their kings, states usually treated all the important sects relatively even-handedly.[9] This consisted of building monasteries and religious monuments, donating property such as the income of villages for the support of monks, and exempting donated property from taxation. Donations were most often made by private persons such as wealthy merchants and female relatives of the royal family, but there were periods when the state also gave its support and protection. In the case of Buddhism, this support was particularly important because of its high level of organisation and the reliance of monks on donations from the laity. State patronage of Buddhism took the form of land grant foundations.[65]

Numerous copper plate inscriptions from India as well as Tibetan and Chinese texts suggest that the patronage of Buddhism and Buddhist monasteries in medieval India was interrupted in periods of war and political change, but broadly continued in Hindu kingdoms from the start of the common era through the early first millennium CE.[66][67][68] The Gupta kings built Buddhist temples such as the one at Kushinagara,[69][14] and monastic universities such as those at Nalanda, as evidenced by records left by three Chinese visitors to India.[15][16][17]

### Internal social-economic dynamics

[edit]

According to some scholars such as Lars Fogelin, the decline of Buddhism may be related to economic reasons, wherein the Buddhist monasteries with large land grants focused on non-material pursuits, self-isolation of the monasteries, loss in internal discipline in the sangha, and a failure to efficiently operate the land they owned.[68][70] With the growing support for Hinduism and Jainism, Buddhist monasteries also gradually lost control of land revenue.

## Turkic invasions and conquest (10th to 12th century)

[edit]

### Invasions

[edit]

The image, in the chapter on India in Hutchison's Story of the Nations edited by James Meston, depicts the Turkic general Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji's massacre of Buddhist monks in Bihar. Khalji destroyed the Nalanda and Vikramshila universities during his raids across North Indian plains, massacring many Buddhist and Brahmin scholars.[71]

According to Peter Harvey:

> From 986 CE, the Turks started raiding northwest India from Afghanistan, plundering western India early in the eleventh century. Forced conversions to Islam were made, and Buddhist images smashed, due to the Islamic dislike of idolatry. Indeed in India, the Islamic term for an 'idol' became 'budd'.

— Peter Harvey, An Introduction to Buddhism[23]

The Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent was the first great iconoclastic invasion into the Indian subcontinent.[72] As early as the 8th century, Arab conquerors invaded present-day Pakistan. In a second wave, from the 11th through the 13th centuries, Turkic, Turkic-Mongolian and Mongolian overtook the northern Indian plains.[73][74] The Persian traveller Al Biruni's memoirs suggest Buddhism had vanished from Ghazni (Afghanistan) and medieval Punjab region (northern Pakistan) by early 11th century.[75] By the end of the twelfth century, Buddhism had further disappeared,[18][76] with the destruction of monasteries and stupas in medieval north-west and western Indian subcontinent (now Pakistan and north India).[77] The chronicler of Shahubuddin Ghori's forces records enthusiastically about attacks on the monks and students and victory against the non-Muslims. The major centers of Buddhism were in north India and the direct path of the armies. As centers of wealth and non-Muslim religions they were targets.[78] Buddhist sources agree with this assessment. Taranatha in his History of Buddhism in India of 1608,[79] gives an account of the last few centuries of Buddhism, mainly in Eastern India. Mahayana Buddhism reached its zenith during the Pala dynasty period, a dynasty that ended with the Islamic invasion of the Gangetic plains.[3]

According to William Johnston, hundreds of Buddhist monasteries and shrines were destroyed, Buddhist texts were burnt by the armies, monks and nuns killed during the 12th and 13th centuries in the Gangetic plains region.[80] The Islamic invasions plundered wealth and destroyed Buddhist images.[23]

The Buddhist university of Nalanda was mistaken for a fort because of the walled campus. The Buddhist monks who had been slaughtered were mistaken for Brahmins according to Minhaj-i-Siraj.[81] The walled town, the Odantapuri monastery, was also conquered by his forces. Sumpa basing his account on that of Śākyaśrībhadra who was at Magadha in 1200, states that the Buddhist university complexes of Odantapuri and Vikramshila were also destroyed and the monks massacred.[82] forces attacked the north-western regions of the Indian subcontinent many times.[83] Many places were destroyed and renamed. For example, Odantapuri's monasteries were destroyed in 1197 by Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji and the town was renamed.[84] Likewise, Vikramashila was destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200.[85] Many Buddhist monks fled to Nepal, Tibet, and South India to avoid the consequences of war.[86] Tibetan pilgrim Chöjepal (1179–1264), who arrived in India in 1234,[87] had to flee advancing troops multiple times, as they were sacking Buddhist sites.[88]

The north-west parts of the Indian subcontinent fell to Islamic control, and the consequent take over of land holdings of Buddhist monasteries removed one source of necessary support for the Buddhists, while the economic upheaval and new taxes on laity sapped the laity support of Buddhist monks.[70] Not all monasteries were destroyed by the invasions (Somapuri, Lalitagiri, Udayagiri), but since these large Buddhist monastic complexes had become dependent on the patronage of local authorities, when this patronage dissipated, they were abandoned by the sangha.[89]

In the north-western parts of medieval India, the Himalayan regions, as well as regions bordering central Asia, Buddhism once facilitated trade relations, states Lars Fogelin. With the Islamic invasion and expansion, and central Asians adopting Islam, the trade route-derived financial support sources and the economic foundations of Buddhist monasteries declined, on which the survival and growth of Buddhism was based.[70][90] The arrival of Islam removed the royal patronage to the monastic tradition of Buddhism, and the replacement of Buddhists in long-distance trade eroded the related sources of patronage.[77][90]

### Re-assessing impact of invasions

[edit]

See also: Conversion of Buddhist sites into Hindu temples

However, according to some scholars, fresh re-assesments of evidence from archaeology[91] in addition to historical records[92] have disputed this view of Muslim invasions as the major cause of the decline of Buddhism in India or the destruction of Buddhist sites — arguing, instead, "that Brahmanical hostility toward Buddhists resulted in the destruction of Sarnath and other sites".[93] According to archaeologist Giovanni Verardi: "Contrary to what is usually believed, the great monasteries of Gangetic India, from Sarnath to Vikramaśīla, from Odantapurī to Nālandā, were not destroyed by the Muslims, but appropriated and transformed by the Brahmans with only the occasional intervention of the Muslim forces".[91] According to Verardi, "orthodox" Brahmins — who had been gaining in power and influence during the Gahadavala (11th-12th c.) and Sena dynasties (11th-12th c.), the rival Hindu-revivalist dynasties of northern/eastern India — "accepted Muslim rule in exchange for the extirpation of Buddhism and the repression of the social sectors in revolt."[91] Archaeologist Federica Barba writes that the Gahadavalas built large Hindu temples in traditional Buddhist sites such as Sarnath, and converted Buddhist shrines into Brahmanical ones: Evidence indicates that Buddhists had been expelled from Sarnath during the mid 12th-century, under the Gahadavala rule, and it already was in the process of being converted to a large Shiva temple compound before Muslim invaders arrived.[94][93]

### Decline under Islamic rule

[edit]

Ruins of Vikramashila, it was one of the most important centers of learning, during the Pala Empire, established by Emperor Dharmapala. Atiśa, the renowned pandita, is sometimes listed as a notable abbot.[95]

After the conquest, Buddhism largely disappeared from most of India, surviving in the Himalayan regions and south India.[18][23][96] Abul Fazl stated that there was scarcely any trace of Buddhists left. When he visited Kashmir in 1597, he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however, he "saw none among the learned".[97]

According to Randall Collins, Buddhism was already declining in India by the 12th century, but with the pillage by invaders it nearly became extinct in India in the 1200s.[96] In the 13th century, states Craig Lockard, Buddhist monks in India escaped to Tibet to escape Islamic persecution;[98] while the monks in western India, states Peter Harvey, escaped persecution by moving to south Indian Hindu kingdoms that were able to resist the power.[99]

Brief accounts and the one eye-witness account of Dharmasmavim in wake of the conquest during the 1230s talk about abandoned viharas being used as camps by the Turukshahs.[100] Later historical traditions such as Taranatha's are mixed with legendary materials and summarised as "the Turukshah conquered the whole of Magadha and destroyed many monasteries and did much damage at Nalanda, such that many monks fled abroad" thereby bringing about a demise of Buddhism with their destruction of the Viharas.[100]

While the sacked the Buddhists viharas, the temples and stupas with little material value survived. After the collapse of monastic Buddhism, Buddhist sites were abandoned or reoccupied by other religious orders. In the absence of viharas and libraries, scholastic Buddhism and its practitioners migrated to the Himalayas, China and Southeast Asia.[101] The devastation of agriculture also meant that many laypersons were unable to support Buddhist monks, who were easily identifiable and also vulnerable. As the Sangha died out in numerous areas, it lacked the ability to revive itself without more monks to perform ordinations. Peter Harvey concludes:

> Between the alien, with their doctrinal justification of "holy war" to spread the faith, and Hindus, closely identified with Indian culture and with a more entrenched social dimension, the Buddhists were squeezed out of existence. Lay Buddhists were left with a folk form of Buddhism, and gradually merged into Hinduism, or converted to Islam. Buddhism, therefore, died out in all but the fringes of its homeland, though it had long since spread beyond it.[102]

Fogelin also notes that some elements of the Buddhist sangha moved to the Himalayas, China, and Southeast Asia, or they may have reverted to secular life or become wandering ascetics. In this environment, without monasteries and scholastic centers of their own, Buddhist ascetics and laypersons were eventually absorbed into the religious life of medieval India.[103]

## Survival of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent

[edit]

Entrance to Buddhist Jana Baha, Kel Tol, Kathmandu

Buddhist institutions survived in eastern India right until the Islamic invasion. Buddhism still survives among the Barua (though practising Vaishnavite elements[104][page needed][105]), a community of Bengali Magadh descent who migrated to Chittagong region. Indian Buddhism also survives among Newars of Nepal, who practice unique form of Vajrayana known as Newar Buddhism and among the weavers of the villages of Maniabandha and Nuapatna in the Cuttack District of Odisha, a long-isolated region.

Procession of Jana Baha Dyah Jatra, the Bodhisattva of compassion in Kathmandu

In Bihar and Bengal, many Buddhist shrines and temples have remained intact with the Buddha or Bodhisattva inside being reappropriated and worshipped as a Brahmanical deity. Around the neighbourhood of Nalanda, the remains of votive stupas are worshipped as Shiva lingas. An image of the Buddha in bhūmisparśa mudrā at the village of Telhara receives full-fledged pūjā as Hanuman during Rama Navami. A sculpture of the Buddha has ended up as Vāsudeva at Gunaighar in Comilla.[106]

Mahabodhi Temple, Bodh Gaya, before the 19th century restoration

While the Buddhist monastic centers like Nalanda had been sacked, the temples and stupas at pilgrimage sites (such as Bodh Gaya) didn't receive the same treatment. The reason these were left unharmed was because they were "not material legitimations of rival royal families".[101] The last abbot of Bodh Gaya Mahavihara was Sariputra who was active during the 14th and 15th centuries before he left India for Nepal.[107] Inscriptions at Bodh Gaya show that the Mahabodhi Temple was in some use till 14th century. According to the 17th century Tibetan Lama Taranatha's History of Buddhism in India, the temple was restored by a Bengali queen in the 15th century, later passing on to a landowner and becoming a Shaivite center.[101] Inscriptions at Bodh Gaya mention Buddhist pilgrims visiting it throughout the period of Buddhist decline:[108]

* 1302–1331: Several groups from Sindh
* 15th or 16th century: a pilgrim from Multan
* 2nd half of the 15th century, monk Budhagupta from South India
* 16th century Abhayaraj from Nepal
* 1773 Trung Rampa, a representative of the Panchen Lama from Tibet, welcomed by Maharaja of Varanasi
* 1877, Burmese mission sent by King Mindon Min

Abul Fazl, the courtier of Mughal emperor Akbar, states, "For a long time past scarce any trace of them (the Buddhists) has existed in Hindustan." When he visited Kashmir in 1597 he met with a few old men professing Buddhism, however, he 'saw none among the learned'. This can also be seen from the fact that Buddhist priests were not present amidst learned divines that came to the Ibadat Khana of Akbar at Fatehpur Sikri.[97]

After the Islamization of Kashmir by sultans like Sikandar Butshikan, much of Hinduism was gone and a little of Buddhism remained. Fazl writes, "The third time that the writer accompanied His Majesty to the delightful valley of Kashmir, he met a few old men of this persuasion (Buddhism), but saw none among the learned."[109]

'Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni mentions, "Moreover samanis and Brahmans managed to get frequent private audiences with His Majesty." The term samani (Sanskrit: Sramana and Prakrit: Samana) refers to a devotee a monk. Irfan Habib states that while William Henry Lowe assumes the Samanis to be Buddhist monks, they were Jain ascetics.[110]

Taranatha's history which mentions Buddhist sangha surviving in some regions of India during his time[111] which includes Konkana, Kalinga, Mewad, Chittor, Abu, Saurastra, Vindhya mountains, Ratnagiri, Karnataka etc. A Jain author Gunakirti (1450–1470) wrote a Marathi text, Dhamramrita,[112] where he gives the names of 16 Buddhist orders. Dr. Johrapurkar noted that among them, the names Sataghare, Dongare, Navaghare, Kavishvar, Vasanik and Ichchhabhojanik still survive in Maharashtra as family names.[113]

Buddhism survived in Gilgit and Baltistan until 13–14th century, perhaps slightly longer in the nearby Swat Valley. In Ladakh region, adjacent to Kashmir valley, Tibetan Buddhism survives to this day. The historic prevalence and history of Tibetan Buddhism in the above mentioned northern regions of Kashmir is reported in the Rajatarangini of Kalhana written in 1150/1 CE. It survived in the Kashmir Valley at least until the introduction of Islam in 1323 by the Ladakhi Rinchana, who as King of Kashmir converted to Islam, and even beyond, into the 15th century, when King Zain ul Abidin (1419–1470) had a Buddhist minister.

In Tamil Nadu and Kerala, Buddhism survived until 15–16th century, as witnessed by the manuscript of the Manjusrimulakalpa. At Nagapattinam, in Tamil Nadu, Buddhist icons were cast and inscribed until this time, and the ruins of the Chudamani Vihara stood until they were destroyed by the Jesuits in 1867.[114] In the South in some pockets, it may have survived even longer.

Buddhism was virtually extinct in British Raj by the end of the 19th century, except its Himalayan region, east and some niche locations. According to the 1901 census of British India, which included modern Bangladesh, India, Burma, and Pakistan, the total population was 294.4 million, of which total Buddhists were 9.5 million. Excluding Burma's nearly 9.2 million Buddhists in 1901, this colonial-era census reported 0.3 million Buddhists in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan in the provinces, states and agencies of British India or about 0.1% of the total reported population.[115]

The 1911 census reported a combined Buddhist population in British India, excluding Burma, of about 336,000 or about 0.1%.[116]

* Thikse Monastery is the largest gompa in Ladakh, built in the 1500s.

* Tawang Monastery in Arunachal Pradesh, was built in the 1600s, is the largest monastery in India and second-largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa, Tibet.

* Rumtek Monastery in Sikkim was built under the direction of Changchub Dorje, 12th Karmapa Lama in the mid-1700s.[117]

## Revival

[edit]

Further information: Buddhism in India, Navayana, and Dalit Buddhist movement

Deekshabhoomi Stupa in Nagpur, a replica of the Sanchi stupa, where B. R. Ambedkar became a Buddhist.

In 1891, the Sri Lankan (Sinhalese) pioneering Buddhist activist Don David Hewavitarane later to known as Anagarika Dharmapala visited India. His campaign, in cooperation with American Theosophists such as Henry Steel Olcott and Madame Blavatsky, led to the revival of Buddhist pilgrimage sites along with the formation of the Maha Bodhi Society and Maha Bodhi Journal. His efforts increased awareness and raised funds to recover Buddhist holy sites in British India, such as the Bodh Gaya in India and those in Burma.[118]

In the 1950s, B. R. Ambedkar pioneered the Dalit Buddhist movement in India for the Dalits (formerly referred to as "untouchables"). Dr. Ambedkar, on 14 October 1956 in Nagpur converted to Buddhism along with his 365,000 followers. Many other such mass-conversion ceremonies followed.[119] Many converted employ the term "Navayana" (also known as "Ambedkarite Buddhism" or "Neo Buddhism") to designate the Dalit Buddhist movement, which started with Ambedkar's conversion.[120] Now Marathi Buddhists are the largest Buddhist community in India.[121]

In 1959, Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama, escaped from Tibet to India along with numerous Tibetan refugees, and set up the government of Tibet in Exile in Dharamshala, India,[122] which is often referred to as "Little Lhasa", after the Tibetan capital city. Tibetan exiles numbering several thousand have since settled in the town. Most of these exiles live in Upper Dharamsala, or McLeod Ganj, where they established monasteries, temples, and schools. The town has become one of the centres of Buddhism in the world.

In India, the most influential representative of Vipassana movement is the Vipassana Research Institute founded by S. N. Goenka (1924–2013) who promoted Buddhist Vipassanā Meditation in a modern and non-sectarian manner. This form of Buddhist meditation is mainly practised by elite and middle class Indians, and the Vipassana movement has also spread to many other countries in Europe, America and Asia.[123] In November 2008, the construction of the Global Vipassana Pagoda was completed on the outskirts of Mumbai. Ten-day Vipassanā meditation courses are regularly conducted free of charge at the Dhamma Pattana Meditation Centre that is part of the Global Vipassana Pagoda complex.[124]

The Buddhist population in the modern era nation of India grew at a decadal rate of 22.5% between 1901 and 1981, due to birth rates and conversions, or about the same rate as Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism, but faster than Christianity (16.8%), and slower than Islam (30.7%).[125]

According to a 2010 Pew estimate, the total Buddhist population had increased to about 10 million in the nations created from British India. Of these, about 7.2% lived in Bangladesh, 92.5% in India and 0.2% in Pakistan.[6]

## See also

[edit]

* Religion portal
* India portal

* Gautama Buddha
* Edicts of Ashoka
* History of Buddhism
* History of Buddhism in India
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism
* Early Buddhist Texts
* Vipassana Movement
* Maha Bodhi Society
* Bengal Buddhist Association
* Bhadant Anand Kausalyayan
* Bengali Buddhists
* Marathi Buddhists
* Buddhist Society of India
* Dalit Buddhist movement
* Lord Buddha TV
* Ambedkar
* Navayana
* Buddhist flag
* Bodh Gaya
* Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India
* Buddhism in Himachal Pradesh
* Buddhism in North Karnataka
* Buddhism in Kashmir
* Bodh Gaya bombings
* Central Tibetan Administration
* Tibetan diaspora
* Tibetan flag
* 14th Dalai Lama
* Annexation of Tibet by the People's Republic of China
* Index of Buddhism-related articles
* List of converts to Buddhism from Hinduism
* Religion in India
* Muslim conquests of the Indian subcontinent
* Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques
* Persecution of Buddhists

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Elverskog is quoting David Gordon White (2012), The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, p.7, who writes: "The thirty-six or thirty-seven metaphysical levels of being were incomprehensible to India's masses and held few answers to their human concerns and aspirations." Yet, White is writing here about Hindu tantrism, and states that only the Nath Siddhas remained attractive, because of their orientation on worldly power.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). "From Monasteries to Universities". Education in Ancient India. Brill’s Handbook of Oriental Studies, Section 2: South Asia. Vol. 16\. Leiden and Boston: Brill Publishers. pp. 144–145\. doi:10.1163/9789047401476_010. ISBN 978-90-47-40147-6. ISSN 0169-9377. LCCN 2002018456.
2. ^ Akira Hirakawa; Paul Groner (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early has been Mahāyāna. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 227–240\. ISBN 978-81-208-0955-0.
3. ^ a b Damien Keown (2004). A Dictionary of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 208–209\. ISBN 978-0-19-157917-2.
4. ^ Fogelin 2015, p. 218.
5. ^ Sarao, Decline of Buddhism in India
6. ^ a b Religion population totals in 2010 by Country Archived 25 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine Pew Research, Washington DC (2012)
7. ^ Richard Gombrich, A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 205.
8. ^ Richard Gombrich, A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press, 2000, p. 184.
9. ^ a b Collins 2000, p. 182.
10. ^ Collins 2000, p. 208.
11. ^ Sir Roper Lethbridge. History of India. p. 53.
12. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 207–211.
13. ^ Gina Barns (1995). "An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology". World Archaeology. 27 (2): 166–168.
14. ^ a b Robert Stoddard (2010). "The Geography of Buddhist Pilgrimage in Asia". Pilgrimage and Buddhist Art. 178. Yale University Press: 3–4.
15. ^ a b Hartmut Scharfe (2002). Handbook of Oriental Studies. BRILL Academic. pp. 144–153\. ISBN 90-04-12556-6.
16. ^ a b Craig Lockard (2007). Societies, Networks, and Transitions: Volume I: A Global History. Houghton Mifflin. p. 188\. ISBN 978-0618386123.
17. ^ a b Charles Higham (2014). Encyclopedia of Ancient Asian Civilizations. Infobase. pp. 121, 236. ISBN 978-1-4381-0996-1.
18. ^ a b c d Wendy Doniger (1999). Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. pp. 155–157. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0.
19. ^ "Historical Development of Buddhism in India – Buddhism under the Guptas and Palas". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 12 September 2015.
20. ^ Nakamura, Hajime (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey With Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. p. 146\. ISBN 8120802721.
21. ^ Foreign Influence on Ancient India by Krishna Chandra Sagar p. 216
22. ^ Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1977). Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 242–244\. ISBN 978-81-208-0436-4.
23. ^ a b c d e Harvey 2013, p. 194.
24. ^ Fogelin 2015, pp. 204–205.
25. ^ a b Berkwitz 2012, p. 140.
26. ^ a b Fogelin 2015, pp. 218–219.
27. ^ a b Murthy, K. Krishna (1987). Glimpses of Art, Architecture, and Buddhist Literature in Ancient India. Abhinav Publications. p. 91\. ISBN 978-81-7017-226-0.
28. ^ a b "BUDDHISM IN ANDHRA PRADESH". metta.lk. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 27 June 2006.
29. ^ a b Kanai Lal Hazra (1995). The Rise And Decline of Buddhism in India. Munshiram Manoharlal. pp. 371–385\. ISBN 978-81-215-0651-9.
30. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 205–206.
31. ^ Queen & King 1996, pp. 17–18.
32. ^ Richard Gombrich (2012). Buddhist Precept & Practice. Routledge. pp. 344–345\. ISBN 978-1-136-15623-6.
33. ^ a b c Michaels 2004, p. 42.
34. ^ Inden 1978, p. 67.
35. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 189–190.
36. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 99.
37. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, pp. 99–101.
38. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 103.
39. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 108.
40. ^ Fogelin 2015, p. 210.
41. ^ Jaini, Padmanabh S. (1980): "The disappearance of Buddhism and the survival of Jainism: a study in contrast". Studies in History of Buddhism. Ed. A. K. Narain. Delhi: B. R. Publishing. pp. 81–91. Reprint: Jaini, 2001: 139–153.
42. ^ Fogelin 2015, p. 219.
43. ^ Kanai Lal Hazra (1995). The Rise And Decline of Buddhism in India. Munshiram Manoharlal. p. 356. ISBN 978-81-215-0651-9.
44. ^ a b c Harvey 2013, p. 140.
45. ^ Elverskog 2011, p. 95–96.
46. ^ White 2012, p. 7.
47. ^ "Vinay Lal, Buddhism's Disappearance from India". Archived from the original on 25 May 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
48. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 239–240.
49. ^ Govind Chandra Pande (1994). Life and thought of Śaṅkarācārya. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 978-81-208-1104-1, ISBN 978-81-208-1104-1. Source: [1] (accessed: Friday, 19 March 2010), p.255; "The relationship of Śaṅkara to Buddhism has been the subject of considerable debate since ancient times. He has been hailed as the arch critic of Buddhism and the principal architect of its downfall in India. At the same time, he has been described as a Buddhist in disguise. Both these opinions have been expressed by ancient as well as modern authors—scholars, philosophers, historians, and sectaries."
50. ^ "Shankara's Introduction". Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad. Translated by Edward Roer. 1908. pp. 3–4.
51. ^ "Shankara's Introduction". Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad. Translated by Edward Roer. 1908. p. 3\. OCLC 19373677.
52. ^ KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN 978-81-208-0619-1, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards
53. ^ Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64; Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."
54. ^ "Shankara's Introduction". Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad. Translated by Edward Roer. 1908. pp. 2–4.
Katie Javanaud (2013), "Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?" Archived 13 September 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Philosophy Now
55. ^ John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0158-5, p. 63. "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
56. ^ Harvey 2013, p. 195.
57. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 153.
58. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, pp. 156, 163.
59. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 162.
60. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, pp. 156, 168.
61. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 235.
62. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, pp. 238–241.
63. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 244.
64. ^ Bronkhorst 2011, p. 245.
65. ^ Collins 2000, pp. 180, 182.
66. ^ Hajime Nakamura (1980). Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 145–148 with footnotes. ISBN 978-81-208-0272-8.
67. ^ Akira Shimada (2012). Early Buddhist Architecture in Context: The Great Stūpa at Amarāvatī (ca. 300 BCE-300 CE). BRILL Academic. pp. 200–204\. ISBN 978-90-04-23326-3.
68. ^ a b Gregory Schopen (1997). Bones, Stones, and Buddhist Monks: Collected Papers on the Archaeology, Epigraphy, and Texts of Monastic Buddhism in India. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 259–278\. ISBN 978-0-8248-1870-8.
69. ^ Gina Barns (1995). "An Introduction to Buddhist Archaeology". World Archaeology. 27 (2): 166–168\. doi:10.1080/00438243.1995.9980301.
70. ^ a b c Fogelin 2015, pp. 229–230.
71. ^ Sanyal, Sanjeev (15 November 2012). Land of seven rivers: History of India's Geography. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 130–131\. ISBN 978-81-8475-671-5.
72. ^ Levy, Robert I. Mesocosm: Hinduism and the Organization of a Traditional Newar City in Nepal. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1990 1990.
73. ^ Chandra, Satish (2004). Medieval India: from Sultanat to the Mughals – Part One: Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526). New Delhi: Har-Anand Publications. p. 41.
74. ^ Saunders, Kenneth (1947). A Pageant of India. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 162–163.
75. ^ Muhammad ibn Ahmad Biruni (1888). Alberuni's India: An Account of the Religion, Philosophy, Literature, Geography, Chronology, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India about AD 1030. Translated by Edward C. Sachau. Cambridge University Press. pp. 253–254\. ISBN 978-1-108-04720-3. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
76. ^ "Historical Development of Buddhism in India – Buddhism under the Guptas and Palas". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 13 September 2015.
77. ^ a b McLeod, John, The History of India, Greenwood Press (2002), ISBN 0-313-31459-4, pp. 41–42.
78. ^ Powers, John (5 October 2015). The Buddhist World. Routledge. ISBN 9781317420170.
79. ^ Chap. XXVII-XLIV, Synopsis by Nalinaksha Dutt, Accounts of Pala, Sena kings, Vikramshila, Turushkas and status of Buddhism in India, Sri Lanka, and Indonesia
80. ^ William M. Johnston (2000). Encyclopedia of Monasticism: A–L. Routledge. p. 335\. ISBN 978-1-57958-090-2.
81. ^ Eraly, Abraham (April 2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin UK. ISBN 9789351186588.
82. ^ A Comprehensive History of India, Vol. 4, Part 1, pp. 600–601.
83. ^ C. J. Bleeker, G. Widengren, Historia Religionum: Handbook for the History of Religions p. 381.
84. ^ S. Muthiah. Where the Buddha Walked. p. 41.
85. ^ Sanderson, Alexis. "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In: Genesis and Development of Tantrism, edited by Shingo Einoo. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo, 2009. Institute of Oriental Culture Special Series, 23, pp. 89.
86. ^ Mark W. Walton, George F. Nafziger, Laurent W. Mbanda, Islam at War: A History (p. 226)
87. ^ The Holy Land Reborn: Pilgrimage and the Tibetan Reinvention of Buddhist India. University of Chicago Press. 15 September 2008. ISBN 9780226356501.
88. ^ Roerich, G. 1959. Biography of Dharmasvamin (Chag lo tsa-ba Chos-rje-dpal): A Tibetan Monk Pilgrim. Patna: K. P. Jayaswal Research Institute. pp. 61–62, 64, 98.
89. ^ Fogelin 2015, p. 222.
90. ^ a b André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. BRILL Academic. pp. 348–349\. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
91. ^ a b c Verardi 2011.
92. ^ Auer & Strauch 2019.
93. ^ a b Asher 2020, p. 11.
94. ^ Barba, Federica (2011). "Appendix 2, Sarnath: A Reassessment of the Archaeological Evidence with Particular Reference to the Final Phase of the Site". In Verardi, Giovanni (ed.). Hardships and Downfall of Buddhism in India. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-928-6.
95. ^ Alexis Sanderson (2009). "The Śaiva Age: The Rise and Dominance of Śaivism during the Early Medieval Period". In Einoo, Shingo (ed.). Genesis and Development of Tantrism. Tokyo: Institute of Oriental Culture, University of Tokyo. p. 89.
96. ^ a b Collins 2000, pp. 184–185.
97. ^ a b Ramesh Chandra Majumdar (1951). The History and Culture of the Indian People: The struggle for empire. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p. 426.
98. ^ Craig Lockard (2007). Societies, Networks, and Transitions. Vol. I: A Global History. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 364\. ISBN 978-0-618-38612-3.
99. ^ Harvey 2013, pp. 194–195.
100. ^ a b André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. BRILL Academic. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
101. ^ a b c Fogelin 2015, pp. 223–224.
102. ^ Harvey 2013, p. 196.
103. ^ Fogelin 2015, p. 224.
104. ^ Sukomal Chaudhuri, Contemporary Buddhism in Bangladesh
105. ^ Bimala Churn Law, Indological Studies, p. 180
106. ^ Prasad, Birendra Nath (2021). Archaeology of Religion in South Asia: Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina Religious Centres in Bihar and Bengal, c. AD 600–1200. Routledge. p. 614\. ISBN 9781000416756.
107. ^ McKeown, Arthur P. (2018). Guardian of a Dying Flame: Śāriputra (c. 1335-1426) and the End of Late Indian Buddhism. Harvard University Press. pp. 463 pages. ISBN 9780674984356.
108. ^ Middle Land, Middle Way: A Pilgrim's Guide to the Buddha's India, Shravasti Dhammika, Buddhist Publication Society, 1992, p. 55–56.
109. ^ Kishori Saran Lal (1999). Theory and Practice of Muslim State in India. Aditya Prakashan. p. 110.
110. ^ Irfan Habib (1997). Akbar and His India. Oxford University Press. p. 98.
111. ^ Tharanatha; Chattopadhyaya, Chimpa, Alaka, trans. (2000). History of Buddhism in India. Motilal Books UK, p. 333–338 ISBN 8120806964.
112. ^ Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature: Devraj to Jyoti Archived 31 December 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 2, Amaresh Datta, Jain Literature (Marathi), Sahitya Akademi, 1988 p. 1779
113. ^ Shodha Tippana, Pro. Vidyadhar Joharapurkar, in Anekanta, June 1963, pp. 73–75.
114. ^ "tibetan translation buddhist teachings hindu at buddhistnews.tv". Archived from the original on 9 October 2014. Retrieved 21 June 2006.
115. ^ No. 7.-Distribution of Population according to Religion (Census of 1901) Archived 27 November 2021 at the Wayback Machine, South Asia Library, University of Chicago
116. ^ No. 7.-Distribution of Population according to Religion (Census of 1911) Archived 12 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, South Asia Library, University of Chicago
117. ^ Achary Tsultsem Gyatso; Mullard, Saul & Tsewang Paljor (Transl.): "A Short Biography of Four Tibetan Lamas and Their Activities in Sikkim", in: Bulletin of Tibetology Nr. 49, 2/2005, p. 57.
118. ^ Queen & King 1996, pp. 22–25.
119. ^ Pritchett, Frances. "in the 1950s". Columbia University. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
120. ^ Maren Bellwinkel-Schempp (2004). "Roots of Ambedkar Buddhism in Kanpur" (PDF).
121. ^ "Population by religion community – 2011". Census of India, 2011. The Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 25 August 2015.
122. ^ Sidney Piburn, The Dalai Lama: A Policy of Kindness p. 12
123. ^ "Vipassana pioneer SN Goenka is dead" Archived 21 October 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Zeenews.india.com. 30 September 2013. Retrieved 30 September 2013.
124. ^ "Dhamma Pattana Vipassana Centre website". Retrieved 28 October 2020.
125. ^ Chris Park (2002). Sacred Worlds: An Introduction to Geography and Religion. Routledge. pp. 66–68\. ISBN 978-1-134-87735-5.

## Sources

[edit]

* Anand, Ashok Kumar (1996), "Buddhism in India", Gyan Books, ISBN 978-81-212-0506-1
* Asher, Frederick M. (2020). Sarnath: A Critical History of the Place Where Buddhism Began. Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute. ISBN 978-1606066164.
* Auer, Blain; Strauch, Ingo (19 August 2019). Encountering Buddhism and Islam in Premodern Central and South Asia. Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. ISBN 978-3-11-062986-6.
* Berkwitz, Stephen C. (2012), South Asian Buddhism: A Survey, Routledge
* Bhagwan, Das (1988), Revival of Buddhism in India and Role of Dr. Baba Saheb B.R. Ambedkar, Dalit Today Prakashan, Lucknow -226016, India. ISBN 8187558016
* Bronkhorst, Johannes (2011). Buddhism in the Shadow of Brahmanism. BRILL.
* Collins, Randall (2000). The Sociology of Philosophies: A Global Theory of Intellectual Change. Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00187-7.
* Dhammika, S. (1993). The Edicts of King Ashoka (PDF). Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0104-6. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 December 2013.
* Doniger, Wendy (2000). Merriam-Webster Encyclopedia of World Religions. Merriam-Webster. p. 1378. ISBN 978-0-87779-044-0. `{{cite book}}`: `|work=` ignored (help)
* Elverskog, Johan (2011), Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road, University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812205312
* Fogelin, Lars (2015). An Archaeological History of Indian Buddhism. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-994823-9. ISBN 978-0-19-994822-2. (p. 219) (p. 223 Archived 5 December 2022 at the Wayback Machine)
* Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4.
* Inden, Ronald (1978). "Ritual, Authority, and Cycle Time in Hindu Kingship". In John F. Richards (ed.). Kingship and Authority in South Asia. New Delhi: South Asian Studies.
* Inden, Ronald B. (2000), Imagining India, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers
* Michaels, Axel (2004), Hinduism. Past and present, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press
* Queen, Christopher S.; King, Sallie B. (1996). Engaged Buddhism: Buddhist Liberation Movements in Asia. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-2844-3.
* Verardi, Giovanni (2011). Hardships and Downfall of Buddhism in India. Manohar Publishers & Distributors. ISBN 978-81-7304-928-6.
* White, David Gordon (2012), The Alchemical Body: Siddha Traditions in Medieval India, University of Chicago Press
* Willemen, Charles; Dessein, Bart; Cox, Collett (1998). Sarvastivada Buddhist Scholasticism. Brill Academic Publishers. ISBN 978-9-004-10231-6.
* Wink, André (2004), "Al-Hind, the Making of the Indo-Islamic World", BRILL, ISBN 90-04-10236-1

## External links

[edit]

* Archaeology and Protestant Presuppositions in the Study of Indian Buddhism, Gregory Schopen (1991), History of Religions.
* Commerce and Culture in South Asia: Perspectives from Archaeology and History, Kathleen D. Morrison (1997), Annual Reviews.

* v
* t
* e

Religious persecution and discrimination

By group|

* Religious exemption
* Persecution of non-believers
* Atheism
* Blasphemy law
* Religious censorship
* In Islam
* Apostasy
* Religious police
* Jizya
* Religious persecution
* In China
* Exclusivism

* Baháʼí Faith
* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Persecution
* Catholicism
* Eastern Orthodoxy
* Coptic Christianity
* Jehovah's Witnesses
* LDS or Mormon
* Protestantism
* Tewahedo Orthodoxy
* post–Cold War era
* Falun Gong
* Hinduism
* Persecution
* Untouchability
* Islam
* Persecution
* Ahmadiyya
* Shi'ism
* Sufism
* Sunnism
* minority Muslim
* Judaism
* Persecution
* Neopaganism
* Rastafari
* Serers
* Sikhism
* Yazidism
* Zoroastrianism

Methods|

* Censorship
* Blasphemy law
* Blood libel
* Communal violence
* Cultural genocide
* Deprogramming
* Desecration
* Domicide
* Discrimination
* Ethnic cleansing
* Ethnic conflict
* Extrajudicial killing
* Extrajudicial punishment
* Exclusivism
* Forced conversion
* Forced displacement
* Hate crime
* Iconoclasm
* Intolerance
* Pogrom
* Police
* Political violence
* Population cleansing
* Population transfer
* Sectarian violence
* Social cleansing
* Segregation
* State atheism
* State religion
* Terrorism
* Violence
* War

Events|

* Golden calf massacre (c.1250 BC)
* Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire (64–313)
* Persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire (c. 324–c. 491)
* Decline of Buddhism in the Indian subcontinent (c.550–c. 1200)
* Yellow Turban Rebellion (c.184–c. 205)
* Battle of Tours (732)
* Rhineland massacres (1096)
* Jerusalem massacre (1099)
* Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent (643–1526)
* Inquisition (1184–1908)
* Massacre at Ayyadieh (1191)
* Northern Crusades (12th–16th cent.)
* Crusades against Christians (13th–15th cent.)
* Forced conversions of Muslims in Spain (1500–1526)
* European wars of religion (1522–1712)
* Ottoman–Habsburg wars (1526–1791)
* Goa Inquisition (1561–1812)
* French Wars of Religion (1562–1598)
* Expulsion of the Moriscos (1609–1614)
* Test Acts (1673–1829)
* Persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction (1683–1922)
* Christianization of the Sámi people (1700s)
* French Revolutionary dechristianisation (1789–1801)
* Utah War (1857–1858)
* 1860 Mount Lebanon civil war (1860)
* Circassian genocide (1864)
* Dungan Revolt (1862–1877)
* Adana massacre (1909)
* Massacres of Albanians in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
* Greek genocide (1913–1922)
* Pontic Greek genocide
* Assyrian genocide (1914–1924)
* Armenian genocide (1915–1923)
* Persecution of Christians in the Eastern Bloc (1917–1990)
* Soviet persecution (1922–1991)
* 1917–1921
* 1921–1928
* 1928–1941
* 1958–1964
* 1970–1987
* legislation
* Šahovići massacre (1924)
* White Terror (Spain) (1936–1975)
* Nazi boycott of Jewish businesses (1933)
* The Holocaust (1939–1945)
* Genocide of Serbs in the Independent State of Croatia (1941–1945)
* Communist Polish persecution (1945–1989)
* Communist Romanian persecution (1945–1989)
* Noakhali riots (1946)
* Direct Action Day (1946)
* 1946 Bihar riots (1946)
* Rawalpindi massacres (1947)
* Persecution of Hindus in Pakistan (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Muslims in India (1947–ongoing)
* Violence against Hindus in independent India (1947–ongoing)
* 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight (1948)
* Jewish exodus from the Muslim world (1948–1980)
* Antireligious campaigns in China (1949–ongoing)
* Persecution of Tibetans (1950–ongoing)
* Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950)
* Religious violence in Nigeria (1953–ongoing)
* Istanbul pogrom (1955)
* Persecution of Papuans (1962–ongoing)
* Buddhist crisis (1963)
* Huế Phật Đản shootings (1963)
* Thích Quảng Đức (1963)
* Xá Lợi Pagoda raids (1963)
* Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)
* Four Olds (1966)
* Famen Temple (1966)
* Bangladesh genocide (1971)
* Persecution of Hindus in Bangladesh (1971–ongoing)
* Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990)
* Cambodian genocide (1975–1979)
* East Timor genocide (1975–1999)
* 1984 anti-Sikh riots (1984)
* Revival Process (1984–1989)
* 1989 expulsion of Turks from Bulgaria (1989)
* Exodus of Kashmiri Hindus (1990)
* Yugoslav Wars (1991–2001)
* Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War (1992–1996)
* Bosnian genocide (1995)
* War crimes in the Kosovo War (1999)
* Walisongo school massacre (2000)
* Kosheh massacres (2000)
* September 11 attacks (2001)
* 2002 Gujarat riots (2002)
* South Thailand insurgency (2004–ongoing)
* Boko Haram insurgency (2009–ongoing)
* Maspero demonstrations (2011)
* Attacks by Islamic extremists in Bangladesh (2013–2016)
* Yazidi genocide (2014–2017)
* Genocide of Christians by ISIL (2014–ongoing)
* Iraqi Turkmen genocide (2014–2017)
* Persecution of Uyghurs in China (2014–ongoing)
* Rohingya genocide (2016–ongoing)
* Christchurch mosque shootings (2019)
* 2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings (2019)
* 2020 Delhi riots (2020)
* 2024 Istanbul church shooting
* Crocus City Hall attack (2024)
* Mar Elias Church attack (2025)

Religion

* v
* t
* e

Topics in Buddhism

* Outline
* Glossary
* Index

Foundations|

* Four Noble Truths
* Three Jewels
* Buddha
* Dharma
* Sangha
* Noble Eightfold Path
* Nirvana
* Middle Way

The Buddha|

* Tathāgata
* Birthday
* Four sights
* Eight Great Events
* Great Renunciation
* Physical characteristics
* Life of Buddha in art
* Footprint
* Relics
* Iconography in Laos and Thailand
* Films
* Miracles
* Family
* Suddhodāna (father)
* Māyā (mother)
* Mahapajapati Gotamī (aunt, adoptive mother)
* Yaśodharā (wife)
* Rāhula (son)
* Ānanda (cousin)
* Devadatta (cousin)
* Bodhi tree
* Places where the Buddha stayed
* Buddha in world religions

Bodhisattvas|

* Avalokiteśvara
* Guanyin
* Mañjuśrī
* Mahāsthāmaprāpta
* Ākāśagarbha
* Kṣitigarbha
* Samantabhadra
* Vajrapāṇi
* Skanda
* Tārā
* Metteyya/Maitreya

Disciples|

* Kaundinya
* Assaji
* Sāriputta
* Mahamoggallāna
* Ānanda
* Mahākassapa
* Aṅgulimāla
* Anuruddha
* Mahākaccana
* Nanda
* Subhūti
* Puṇṇa Mantānīputta
* Upāli
* Mahapajapati Gotamī
* Khema
* Uppalavanna
* Asita
* Channa
* Yasa

Key concepts|

* Avidyā (Ignorance)
* Bardo
* Bodhicitta
* Buddha-nature
* Dhamma theory
* Dharma
* Enlightenment
* Five hindrances
* Indriya
* Karma
* Kleshas
* Mental factors
* Mindstream
* Parinirvana
* Pratītyasamutpāda
* Rebirth
* Saṃsāra
* Saṅkhāra
* Skandha
* Śūnyatā
* Taṇhā (Craving)
* Tathātā
* Ten Fetters
* Three marks of existence
* Anicca
* Dukkha
* Anattā
* Two truths doctrine

Cosmology|

* Ten spiritual realms
* Six Paths
* Deva realm
* Human realm
* Asura realm
* Hungry Ghost realm
* Animal realm
* Naraka
* Three planes of existence

Branches|

* Mahayana
* Zen
* Chinese Chan
* Japanese Zen
* Korean Seon
* Vietnamese Thiền
* Pure Land
* Tiantai
* Huayan
* Risshū
* Nichiren
* Madhyamaka
* Yogachara
* Vajrayana
* Tibetan Buddhism
* Chinese Esoteric Buddhism
* Shingon
* Dzogchen
* Theravada
* Southern Esoteric Buddhism
* Navayana
* Early Buddhist schools
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism
* Basic points unifying Theravāda and Mahāyāna
* Southern, Eastern and Northern Buddhism

Practices|

* Bhavana
* Bodhipakkhiyādhammā
* Brahmavihara
* Mettā
* Karuṇā
* Mudita
* Upekkha
* Buddhābhiṣeka
* Dāna
* Devotion
* Deity yoga
* Dhyāna
* Faith
* Five Strengths
* Iddhipada
* Meditation
* Mantras
* Kammaṭṭhāna
* Recollection
* Smarana
* Anapanasati
* Samatha-vipassanā (Vipassana movement)
* Shikantaza
* Zazen
* Tukdam
* Koan
* Ganana
* Mandala
* Tonglen
* Tantra
* Tertön
* Terma
* Merit
* Mindfulness
* Mindful Yoga
* Satipatthana
* Nekkhamma
* Nianfo
* Pāramitā
* Paritta
* Puja
* Offerings
* Prostration
* Music
* Refuge
* Sādhu
* Satya
* Sacca
* Seven Factors of Enlightenment
* Sati
* Dhamma vicaya
* Pīti
* Passaddhi
* Śīla
* Five precepts
* Eight precepts
* Bodhisattva vow
* Pratimokṣa
* Threefold Training
* Śīla
* Samadhi
* Prajñā
* Vīrya
* Four Right Exertions
* Twenty-two vows of Ambedkar
* Yujia Yankou
* Shuilu Fahui

Nirvana|

* Bodhi
* Bodhisattva
* Buddhahood
* Pratyekabuddhayāna
* Four stages of awakening
* Sotāpanna
* Sakadagami
* Anāgāmi
* Arhat

Monasticism|

* Bhikkhu
* Bhikkhunī
* Śrāmaṇera
* Śrāmaṇerī
* Anagārika
* Ajahn
* Sayadaw
* Zen master
* Rōshi
* Lama
* Rinpoche
* Geshe
* Tulku
* Western tulku
* Kappiya
* Donchee
* Householder
* Upāsaka and Upāsikā
* Achar
* Śrāvaka
* Ten principal disciples
* Shaolin Monastery

Major figures|

* The Buddha
* Nagasena
* Aśvaghoṣa
* Nagarjuna
* Asanga
* Vasubandhu
* Kumārajīva
* Buddhaghosa
* Buddhapālita
* Dignāga
* Bodhidharma
* Zhiyi
* Emperor Wen of Sui
* Songtsen Gampo
* Xuanzang
* Shandao
* Padmasambhava
* Saraha
* Atiśa
* Naropa
* Karmapa
* Hōnen
* Shinran
* Dōgen
* Nichiren
* Shamarpa
* Dalai Lama
* Panchen Lama
* Ajahn Mun
* B. R. Ambedkar
* Ajahn Chah
* Thích Nhất Hạnh

Texts|

* Early Buddhist texts
* Tripiṭaka
* Mahayana sutras
* Pali Canon
* Chinese Buddhist canon
* Tibetan Buddhist canon
* Dhammapada
* Sutra
* Vinaya
* Madhyamakālaṃkāra
* Abhidharmadīpa

Countries|

*     * Afghanistan
* Argentina
* Armenia
* Australia
* Austria
* Bangladesh
* Belgium
* Bhutan
* Brazil
* Brunei
* Bulgaria
* Cambodia
* Canada
* China
* Costa Rica
* Croatia
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* England
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Germany
* Greece
* Hong Kong
* Hungary
* Iceland
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Israel
* Italy
* Japan
* Kazakhstan
* Korea
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Libya
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Maldives
* Malaysia
* Mexico
* Middle East
* Mongolia
* Morocco
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Netherlands
* New Zealand
* North Korea
* Norway
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Russia
* Buryatia
* Kalmykia
* Tuva
* Scotland
* Senegal
* Singapore
* Slovenia
* South Africa
* South Korea
* Spain
* Sri Lanka
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Taiwan
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Tibet
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* United States
* Uruguay
* Uzbekistan
* Venezuela
* Vietnam
* Wales
* Zimbabwe

History|

* Timeline
* Ashoka
* Kanishka
* Buddhist councils
* History of Buddhism in India
* Decline of Buddhism in India
* Huichang persecution of Buddhism
* Greco-Buddhism
* Gandharan Buddhism
* Texts
* Menander I
* Buddhism and the Roman world
* Buddhism in the West
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Persecution of Buddhists
* In Afghanistan
* In Vietnam
* Rimé movement
* Banishment of Buddhist monks from Nepal
* Dalit Buddhist movement
* Chinese invasion of Tibet
* 1959 Tibetan uprising
* Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism
* Buddhist modernism
* Vipassana movement
* 969 Movement
* Engaged Buddhism
* Women in Buddhism

Philosophy|

* Abhidharma
* Atomism
* Buddhology
* Creator
* Buddhism and democracy
* Economics
* Eight Consciousnesses
* Engaged Buddhism
* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Evolution
* Humanism
* Logic
* Reality
* Secular Buddhism
* Socialism
* The unanswerable questions

Culture|

* Architecture
* Temple
* Vihāra
* Kyaung
* Wat
* Ordination hall
* Stupa
* Pagoda
* Burmese pagoda
* Candi
* Dzong architecture
* List of Buddhist architecture in China
* Japanese Buddhist architecture
* Buddhist temples in Korea
* Thai temple art and architecture
* Tibetan Buddhist architecture
* Art
* Greco-Buddhist
* Budai
* Buddha in art
* Calendar
* Cuisine
* Funeral
* Holidays
* Vesak
* Uposatha
* Māgha Pūjā
* Asalha Puja
* Vassa
* Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi
* Kasaya
* Mahabodhi Temple
* Mantra
* Om mani padme hum
* Mudra
* Music
* Pilgrimage
* Lumbini
* Maya Devi Temple
* Bodh Gaya
* Sarnath
* Kushinagar
* Poetry
* Prayer beads
* Hama yumi
* Prayer wheel
* Symbolism
* Dharmachakra
* Flag
* Bhavacakra
* Swastika
* Thangka
* Temple of the Tooth
* Vegetarianism

Miscellaneous|

* Abhijñā
* Amitābha
* Brahmā
* Dharma talk
* Hinayana
* Iddhi
* Kalpa
* Koliya
* Lineage
* Māra
* Siddhi
* Sacred languages
* Pāḷi
* Sanskrit

Comparison|

* Baháʼí Faith
* Christianity
* Influences
* Comparison
* East Asian religions
* Gnosticism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Judaism
* Psychology
* Science
* Theosophy
* Violence
* Western philosophy

Lists|

* Bodhisattvas
* Buddhas
* Buddhists
* American
* Korean
* Indian
* Suttas
* Sutras
* Temples
* Festivals

* Category
* Buddhism portal

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template