Decolonisation of Asia

Independence of Asian countries from foreign powers (1642—2002)

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The decolonisation of Asia was the gradual growth of independence movements in Asia, commencing with the formation of the Kingdom of Tungning in the modern-day Republic of China in 1642 and concluding with the independence of the Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste from Indonesia in 2002. It lead ultimately to the retreat of foreign powers and the creation of several nation-states in the region.

## Background

[edit]

See also: Western imperialism in Asia

The decline of Spain and Portugal in the 17th century paved the way for other European powers, namely the Netherlands, France and England. Portugal would lose influence in all but three of its colonies, Portuguese India, Macau and Timor.

By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had taken over much of the old Portuguese colonies, and had established a strong presence in present-day Indonesia, with colonies in Aceh, Bantam, Makassar and Jakarta. The Dutch also had trade links with Siam, Japan, China and Bengal.

The British had competed with Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch for their interests in Asia since the early 17th century and by the mid-19th century held much of India (via the British East India Company), as well as Burma, Ceylon, Malaya and Singapore. After The Indian Rebellion of 1857, Queen Victoria was declared Empress of India, thus solidifying the British rule on the subcontinent. The last British acquisition in Asia was the New Territories of Hong Kong, which was leased from the Qing emperor in 1897, expanding the British colony originally ceded in the Treaty of Nanking in 1842.

The French had little success in India following defeats against the British in the 17th century, though they held onto possessions on the east coast of India (such as Pondicherry and Mahar) until decolonisation. The French established their most lucrative and substantial colony in Indochina in 1862, eventually occupying the present-day areas of Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia by 1887.

Japan's first colony was the island of Taiwan, occupied in 1874 and officially ceded by the Qing emperor in 1894. Japan continued its early imperialism with the annexation of Korea in 1910.

The United States entered the region in 1898 during the Spanish–American War, taking the Philippines as its sole colony after a mock battle in the capital and the later formal acquisition of the Philippines from Spain through the 1898 Treaty of Paris.

## Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of World War II

[edit]

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonization.[1]

* /// China:
* Tibet (1912)
* Jiangxi Soviet (1931)
* Fujian (1933)
* Mongolia (1924/1946)
* People's Republic of China (1949)
* France:
* North Vietnam (1945)
* Lebanon (1946)
* Syria (1946)
* Cambodia (1953)
* Laos (1953)
* French India (1954)
* South Vietnam (1948)
* Indonesia
* East Timor (1999/2002)
* Japan:
* Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946)
* Second Philippine Republic (1945/1946)
* Burma (1945/1948)
* North Korea (1945/1948)
* South Korea (1945/1948)
* Taiwan and Penghu (1945/1952)
* Malaysia
* Singapore (1965)
* Netherlands:
* Taiwan (1642)
* Dutch Malacca (1825)
* Indonesia (1945/1949)
* Dutch New Guinea (1962)
* Portugal:
* Portuguese India (1961)
* East Timor (1975/2002)
* Macau (1999)
* Soviet Union ( Russian Empire prior to 1917/1922)
* Mongolia (1924)
* Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1946)
* North Korea (1948)
* Kyrgyzstan (1991)
* Uzbekistan (1991)
* Tajikistan (1991)
* Turkmenistan (1991)
* Kazakhstan (1991)
* Spain:
* Taiwan (1662)
* Revolutionary Government of the Philippines (1898)
* Turkey
* Kingdom of Yemen (later became the  North Yemen in 1962) (1918)
* United Kingdom:
* Afghanistan (1919)
* Bangladesh (1947) (1971)
* Egypt (1922)
* Iraq (1932)
* Jordan (1946)
* Pakistan (1947)
* India (1947)
* Burma (1948)
* Ceylon (1948)
* Israel (1948)
* Malaya (1957)
* Cyprus (1960)
* Kuwait (1961)
* Sabah (North Borneo) (1963)
* Sarawak (1963)
* Maldives (1965)
* Singapore (1965)
* South Yemen (1967)
* Oman (1970)
* Bahrain (1971)
* Qatar (1971)
* United Arab Emirates (1971)
* Brunei (1984)
* Hong Kong (1997)
* United States:
* Philippines (1946)
* Marshall Islands (1986)
* Federated States of Micronesia (1986)
* Palau (1994)

## Individual countries

[edit]

Country  | Date of acquisition of sovereignty  | Acquisition of sovereignty

|
|

/ Afghanistan | 1919  | Treaty of Rawalpindi ends British control of foreign policy
Bahrain | 15 August 1971 | End of treaties with the United Kingdom
Bangladesh | 26 March 1971 | Independence from Pakistan declared
Bhutan | 1885 | Ugyen Wangchuck ends a period of civil war and unites Bhutan
Brunei | 1 January 1984 | Brunei regains its independence after an agreement with the British on 4 January 1979
Cambodia | 9 September 1953 | France grants Cambodia independence
26 September 1989 | Becomes free from Vietnamese occupation; it gets back its name instead of the People's Republic of Kampuchea
Taiwan | 1 January 1912 | On the first day of January 1912 The Republic of China unilaterally declared their independence.
China | 7 December 1949 | On the 1st of October 1949 the Chinese Communist Party wins against the Kuomintang which then retreats to the island of Taiwan.
India | 15 August 1947 | Independence from the British Empire
Indonesia | 27 December 1949 | Independence from the Kingdom of the Netherlands following their unilateral Proclamation of Indonesian Independence on 17 August 1945 and subsequent Dutch–Indonesian Round Table Conference in The Hague.
Iran | 609 BC | After the fall of Assyria between 616 BC and 609 BC, a unified Median state was formed, which together with Babylonia, Lydia, and ancient Egypt became one of the four major powers of the ancient Near East.
Iraq | 762 | The Abbasid Caliphate built the city of Baghdad along the Tigris in the 8th century as its capital, and the city became the leading metropolis of the Arab and Muslim world for five centuries
3 October 1932 | Kingdom of Iraq
Israel | 14 May 1948 | Upon the end of the British Mandate, Jews declared independence, forming the State of Israel; the remainder of Palestine came under control of Egypt (Gaza Strip) and Transjordan (West Bank)
Japan | 4th century CE | During the subsequent Kofun period, most of Japan gradually unified under a single kingdom
Jordan | 25 May 1946 | End of the British Mandate for Palestine
Kuwait | 1752 | Establishment of the Sheikhdom of Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan | 31 August 1991 | Independence from the Soviet Union
Laos | 22 October 1953 | Independence from France
Lebanon | 26 November 1941 | Independence from France declared
22 November 1943 | Independence from France recognised
Malaysia | 31 August 1957 | Malayan independence from the United Kingdom was declared in Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square)
16 September 1963 | Malaysia was formed by the federation of North Borneo, Sarawak and Singapore with the existing States of the Federation of Malaya.
Maldives | 26 July 1965 | Independence from the United Kingdom
Mongolia | 1206 | Mongol Empire formed
29 December 1911 | Proclamation of Mongolian independence from Manchu's Qing dynasty
Myanmar | 4 January 1948 | Myanmar (Burma) declares independence from the British Empire
Nepal | 25 September 1768 | Nepali unification
Oman | 26 January 1650 | Expulsion of the Portuguese Army from Oman
Pakistan | 14 August 1947 | Independence from British India in the Partition
Palestine | 15 November 1988 | Palestinian Declaration of Independence
Philippines | 12 June 1898 | The evolving revolutionary movement in Philippine revolutionaries declared independence from the Spanish Empire but sovereignty remained with Spain, which ceded the country to the United States.
4 July 1946 | The United States recognises independence under the provisions of the Treaty of Manila (1946). The 1935 Constitution remained in effect until 1973, when the Marcos regime promulgated a newer one, replaced in turn by the present 1987 Constitution.
Qatar | 18 December 1878 | Independence from the Ottoman Empire
Saudi Arabia | 1744 | Establishment of the First Saudi State
Singapore | 3 June 1959 | Self-government under the United Kingdom
9 August 1965 | Malaysia unilaterally expels Singapore from the federation of Malaysian states, creating an independent Singaporean state
Sri Lanka | 4 February 1948 | Independence from the United Kingdom
Syria | 28 September 1961 | End of the United Arab Republic
Tajikistan | 9 September 1991 | Independence from the Soviet Union
Thailand | 6 November 1767 | King Taksin the Great reunifies Thailand, establishing a new kingdom and repelling Burmese invasions
Timor-Leste | 28 November 1975 | East Timor declares its independence but was occupied by Indonesia
20 May 2002 | Independence was recognised by the international community following the UN-sponsored act of self-determination of 1999
Turkmenistan | 27 October 1991 | Independence from the Soviet Union
United Arab Emirates | 2 December 1971 | End of a treaty relationship with the United Kingdom
Uzbekistan | 31 August 1991 | Independence from the Soviet Union declared
Vietnam | 2524 BC | Hùng king established Van Lang, the first kingdom of Vietnam
Yemen | 1 November 1918 | Independence of North Yemen from the Turkish Empire
30 November 1967 | Independence of South Yemen from the United Kingdom

### Notes

[edit]

#### Burma

[edit]

Main article: Burma § Colonial era (1886–1948)

Burma was almost completely occupied by the Imperial Japanese Army during the Second World War. Many Burmese fought alongside Japan in the initial stages of the war, though the Burmese Army and most Burmese switched sides in 1945.

A transitional government sponsored by the British government was formed in the years following the Second World War, ultimately leading to Burma's independence in January 1948.

#### Cambodia

[edit]

Main article: Cambodia § Independence and Vietnam War

Following the capitulation of France and the formation of the Vichy regime, France's Indochinese possessions were given to Japan. While there was some argument that Indochina should not be returned to France, particularly from the United States, Cambodia nevertheless remained under French rule after the end of hostilities.

France had placed Norodom Sihanouk on the throne in 1941 and was hoping for a puppet monarch. They were mistaken. However, the King led the way to Cambodian independence in 1953, taking advantage of the background of the First Indochina War being fought in Vietnam.

#### Ceylon

[edit]

Main article: Sri Lanka § Independence

Ceylon was an important base of operations for the Western Allies during the Second World War. The British gave in to popular pressure for independence and in February 1948, the country won its independence as the Dominion of Ceylon.

#### China

[edit]

For some clarification and more detail including the sovereignty status of the Republic of China, see the following articles: History of China, Cross-Strait relations, One-China policy and Political status of Taiwan. Hong Kong was returned to the United Kingdom following its occupation by the Japanese during the Second World War.[2] It was controlled directly by a British governor until the expiry of the ninety-nine-year lease of the New Territories, which occurred in 1997. From that date, the territory was returned to People's Republic of China and controlled as a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China.

#### Philippines

[edit]

Main article: Sovereignty of the Philippines

Philippine revolutionaries unilaterraly declared independence from Spain in 1898, during the Spanish–American War, but sovereignty remained with Spain. Spain ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris that concluded that war. In 1899, Philippine revolutionaries established the First Philippine Republic. Shortly thereafter, the Philippine–American War began, ending in 1901 with a U.S. victory, though isolated fighting continued for several years thereafter.

In 1902, the Philippines became a U.S. territory with the ratification of the Treaty of Paris on April 11, 1899, later becoming a U.S. Commonwealth in 1936. It was occupied by the Japanese during the Second World War. In 1943, with Japan granting it a short-lived nominal independence. In 1944, the Allied invasion of the Philippines by combined U.S. and Filipino troops began, which resulted in Americans and Filipinos regaining full control of the nation. In 1946, the United States recognised Philippine independence in the 1946 Treaty of Manila.

## Timeline

[edit]

The "colonial power" and "colonial name" columns are merged when required to denote territories, where current countries are established, that have not been decolonised but achieved independence in different ways.

Country/ region[a] | Colonial name  | Colonial power[b] | Independence declared and/or achieved[c] | First head of state[d] | Independence won through

|
|
|
|
|

Philippines |  Spanish East Indies |  Spain | 12 June 1898 declared  | Emilio Aguinaldo | Philippine Revolution [e]
Philippines |  Empire of Japan
United States | 4 July 1946 | Manuel Roxas | World War II
Republic of the Philippines |  United States | 4 July 1946 achieved  | Manuel Roxas | Treaty of Manila (1946)
Yemen[f] |  Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen |  Ottoman Empire | 1 November 1918 | Yahya I | World War I
Colony and Protectorate of Aden  |  British Empire | 30 November 1967 | Qahtan Mohammed al-Shaabi | Aden Emergency
Afghanistan |  Emirate of Afghanistan |  British Empire | 19 August 1919 | Amanullah Khan | Third Anglo-Afghan War
Egypt[g] |  Sultanate of Egypt | 28 February 1922[h] | Fuad I[i] | Egyptian revolution of 1919
Iraq |  Mandatory Iraq | 3 October 1932[j] | Faisal I of Iraq | -[k]
Lebanon |  Greater Lebanon |  France | 22 November 1943 | Bechara El Khoury[l] | –
Syria |  Mandate of Syria | 30 November 1943 | Shukri al-Quwatli | Syrian Revolution
Indonesia[m] |  Dutch East Indies |  Netherlands | 17 August 1945 | Sukarno | Indonesian National Revolution
Empire of Japan |  Japan | 27 December 1949[n]
Vietnam[o] |  French Indochina
Empire of Japan |  France
Japan | 2 September 1945 | Hồ Chí Minh | August Revolution
Jordan |  Emirate of Transjordan |  British Empire | 25 May 1946 | Abdullah I
Pakistan[p] |  India |  British Empire | 14 August 1947 | Liaquat Ali Khan[q] | -[r]
Bangladesh
as part of  Pakistan | 14 August 1947[s] | Liaquat Ali Khan[t]
India[u] | 15 August 1947[v] | Jawaharlal Nehru[w] | Indian independence movement
Myanmar[x] |  Japan | 1 August 1943 | U Nu |
British Burma | 4 January 1948
Sri Lanka[y] |  British Ceylon | 4 February 1948 | Don Senanayake | \-
22 February 1972
Israel |  Mandatory Palestine |  British Empire
Arab League | 14 May 1948[z] | David Ben-Gurion[aa] | 1948 Palestine war
South Vietnam[ab] |  French Indochina |  France | 28 May 1948 | Ngo Dinh Diem | 1955 State of Vietnam referendum
23 October 1955
South Korea |  Japanese Korea |  Empire of Japan | 15 August 1945 | Syngman Rhee[ac] | Korean independence movement
15 August 1948[ad]
North Korea | 15 August 1945 | Kim Il Sung[ae]
9 September 1948[af]
China[ag] |  Manchukuo | 9 August 1945 | Chiang kai shek[ah] | Second Sino-Japanese War
Nationalist government on Mainland China |  Republic of China | 1 October 1949[ai] | Chinese Civil War
Taiwan and Penghu[aj] |  Taiwan |  Japan | 15 August 1945 | Chen Yi | Second Sino-Japanese War
25 October 1945[ak]
28 April 1952[al]
Laos[am] |  French Indochina |  France | 22 October 1953[an] | Sisavang Vong[ao] | -[ap]
Cambodia | 9 November 1953 | Norodom Sihanouk
Malaysia |  Malaya
Colony of North Borneo
Colony of Sarawak |  British Empire | 31 August 1957 | Tuanku Abdul Rahman | Malayan Emergency[aq]
16 September 1963
Cyprus |  British Cyprus | 16 August 1960[ar] | Makarios III | -[as]
Kuwait |  Sheikhdom of Kuwait | 19 June 1961[at] | Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah | –
Oman |  Muscat and Oman[au] | 9 August 1970  | Qaboos bin Said | Night attack on Muscat
-[av]
Singapore |  Straits Settlements | 31 August 1963 | Yusof Ishak | –
9 August 1965[aw]
Maldives |  Maldives | 26 July 1965 | Muhammad Fareed Didi | –
Qatar |  Qatar | 3 September 1971 | Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani | –
United Arab Emirates |  Trucial States | 2 December 1971[ax] | Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan | –
Bahrain |  Bahrain | 15 August 1971[4][ay] | Isa ibn Salman Al Khalifa[az] | -[ba]
East Timor |  Dutch East Indies |  Dutch East Indies
German Empire |  |  | Under colonial occupation.[bb]
Portuguese Timor |  Portugal
United Kingdom
Empire of Japan |  Japan
Portuguese Timor |  Portugal | 28 November 1975[bc] | Francisco Xavier do Amaral Xanana Gusmão
Timor Timur |  Indonesia | 1999[bd] | Xanana Gusmão
United Nations |  East Timor | 20 May 2002 | UNTAET; 1999 East Timorese crisis
Brunei |  Brunei |  British Empire | 1 January 1984 | Hassanal Bolkiah | -[be]
Hong Kong |  British Hong Kong | 1 July 1997[bf] | Tung Chee-hwa | –
Macau |  Portuguese Macau |  Portugal | 20 December 1999[bf] | Edmund Ho | –
Palestine[bg][bh][bj] |  Mandatory Palestine
West Bank
|  British Empire
Arab League
Jordan
| 14 May 1948
10 June 1967;
15 November 1988;[bk]
independence pending due to territorial dispute with Israel | N/A;
Yasser Arafat;
Mahmoud Abbas | Six-Day War;
Egypt–Israel peace treaty;
Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank;
Israeli–Palestinian conflict

## Soviet Union

[edit]

The 9 states may be divided into the following five regional categories. The distinguishing traits of each region result from geographic and cultural factors as well as their respective historical relations with Russia. Not included in these categories are the several de facto independent states presently lacking international recognition (read below: Separatist conflicts).

Region  | Country name  | First flag  | Current flag  | Capital  | Independence

|
|
|
|
|

Asia  | Russia (Russian Federation) |  |  | Moscow | 12 December 1991
Central Asia | Uzbekistan (Republic of Uzbekistan) |  | Tashkent | 31 August 1991
Kazakhstan (Republic of Kazakhstan) |  |  | Nur-Sultan | 16 December 1991
Kyrgyzstan (Kyrgyz Republic) |  |  | Bishkek | 31 August 1991
Tajikistan (Republic of Tajikistan) |  |  | Dushanbe | 9 September 1991
Turkmenistan |  |  | Ashgabat | 27 October 1991
Transcaucasia | Georgia (formerly the Republic of Georgia) |  |  | Tbilisi | 9 April 1991
Azerbaijan (Republic of Azerbaijan) |  | Baku | 30 August 1991
Armenia (Republic of Armenia) |  | Yerevan | 21 September 1991
Total former Soviet Union

## British colonies, protectorates and mandates

[edit]

Country | Pre-independence
name
(different) | Date | Year of
independence
or first stage | Notes

|
|
|
|

Afghanistan | Northern Persia  | 19 August | 1919  | Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919
Bahrain |  | 15 August | 1971  |
Brunei |  | 1 January | 1984  |
Cyprus |  | 16 August | 1960  | Cyprus Independence Day is commonly celebrated on 1 October.
Egypt |  | 28 February | 1922  | Control over the Suez Canal Zone was maintained until 1952.
India | British India  | 15 August | 1947  | Independence Day (India)
Iraq |  | 3 October | 1932  |
Israel | Mandatory Palestine  | 14 May | 1948  | End of British mandate
Independence Day (Israel)
Palestine declared independence from Israel on 15 November 1988.
Jordan | Transjordan  | 25 May | 1946  |
Kuwait |  | 19 June | 1961  |
Malaysia | Four parts:
Malaya
North Borneo
Singapore
Sarawak  | 31 August | 1957  | As the Federation of Malaya (Federation of Malaya Independence Act 1957). North Borneo (now Sabah), Sarawak and Singapore gained full independence and joined Malaysia on 16 September 1963 under the Malaysia Agreement (Malaysia Act 1963).
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.
Maldives |  | 26 July | 1965  |
Mauritius |  | 12 March | 1968  |
Myanmar | British Burma | 4 January | 1948  | Gained independence as Burma. Renamed Myanmar in 1989, but still officially known by the United Kingdom government as Burma.
Oman | Sultanate of Muscat and Oman  | 20 December | 1951
Pakistan | British India  | 14 August | 1947  | Partition of India
Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan on 26 March 1971.
Qatar | British Qatari Protectorate  | 3 September | 1971  |
Seychelles |  | 29 June | 1976  |
Singapore |  | 3 June | 1959  | Became self-governing on 3 June 1959 and gained independence from Malaysia on 9 August 1965.
Sri Lanka | Ceylon  | 4 February | 1948  | Gained independence as the Dominion of Ceylon. Renamed Sri Lanka in 1972.
United Arab Emirates | Trucial States  | 2 December | 1971  | National Day (United Arab Emirates)
Yemen | Protectorate of South Arabia
Federation of South Arabia  | 30 November | 1967  | South Yemen 1967

## List of European colonies in Asia

[edit]

British colonies in South Asia, East Asia, And Southeast Asia:

* British Burma (1824–1948, merged with India by the British from 1886 to 1937)
* British Ceylon (1833-1948, now Sri Lanka)
* British Hong Kong (1842–1997)
* Colonial India (includes the territory of present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh)

Danish India (1696–1869)
Swedish Parangipettai (1733)
British India (1613–1947)

British East India Company (1757–1858)
British Raj (1858–1947)

French colonies in South and Southeast Asia:

* French India (1769–1954)
* French Indochina (1887–1953), including:

* French Cambodia (1863–1953)
* French Laos (1893–1953)
* French Cochinchine, Annam and Tonkin (1862–1949, now Vietnam)
* Guangzhouwan (1898–1945)

Dutch, British, Portuguese colonies and Russian territories in Asia:

* Dutch India (1605–1825)
* Dutch Bengal
* Dutch Ceylon (1656–1796)
* Portuguese Ceylon (1505–1658)
* Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia) – Dutch colony from 1800 to 1949 (included Netherlands New Guinea until 1962)
* Portuguese India (1510–1961)
* Portuguese Macau – Portuguese colony, the first European colony in China (1557–1999)
* Portuguese Timor (1702–1975, now East Timor)
* Malaya (now part of Malaysia):

Portuguese Malacca (1511–1641)
Dutch Malacca (1641–1824)
British Malaya, included:

* Straits Settlements (1826–1946)
* Federated Malay States (1895–1946)
* Unfederated Malay States (1885–1946)

Federation of Malaya (under British rule, 1948–1963)

* British Borneo (now part of Malaysia), including:

* Labuan (1848–1946)h
* North Borneo (1882–1941)

* Crown Colony of North Borneo (1946–1963)

* Crown Colony of Sarawak (1946–1963)

* Brunei

* British Brunei (1888–1984) (British protectorate)

* Outer Manchuria – ceded to Russian Empire through Treaty of Aigun (1858) and Treaty of Peking (1860)
* Philippines:

Spanish Philippines (1565–1898, 3rd longest European colony in Asia, 333 years),

* Singapore – British colony (1819–1959)
* Insular Government of the Philippine Islands \- U.S. colony (1902-1946)
* Taiwan:

Spanish Formosa (1626–1642)
Dutch Formosa (1624–1662)

* Bahrain

* Portuguese Bahrain (1521–1602)
* British Protectorate (1861–1971)

* Iraq

* Mandatory Iraq (1920–1932) (British protectorate)
* Kingdom of Iraq (1932–1958)

* Israel and Palestine

* Mandatory Palestine (1920–1948) (British Mandate)

* Jordan

* Emirate of Transjordan (1921–1946) (British protectorate)

* Kuwait

* Sheikhdom of Kuwait (1899–1961) (British protectorate)

* Lebanon and Syria

* French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon (1923–1946)

* Oman

* Portuguese Oman (1507–1650)
* Muscat and Oman (1892–1971) (British protectorate)

* Qatar

* British protectorate of Qatar (1916–1971)

* United Arab Emirates

* Trucial States (1820–1971) (British protectorate)

* Yemen

* Aden Protectorate (1869–1963)
* Colony of Aden (1937–1963)
* Federation of South Arabia (1962–1967)
* Protectorate of South Arabia (1963–1967)

### Independent states

[edit]

* Afghanistan – founded by the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 of the United Kingdom and declared independence in 1919

* Emirate of Afghanistan (1879–1919) (British protectorate)

* China – independent, but within European cultures of influence which were largely limited to the colonised ports except for Manchuria.

* Concessions in China
* Shanghai International Settlement (1863–1941)
* Shanghai French Concession (1849–1943)
* Concessions in Tianjin (1860–1947)

* Bhutan – in British sphere of influence
* Iran – in the Russian sphere of influence in the north and British in the south
* Japan – a Great power that had its own colonial empire (including Korea and Taiwan)
* Mongolia – in the Russian sphere of influence and later Soviet controlled
* Nepal – in British sphere of influence
* Saudi Arabia - most of Saudi Arabia has always been independent, including the Sharifate of Mecca in Hejaz which was under the Ottomans but with a dual system of government shared between the Sharif and the Ottoman Wali or governor.
* Thailand – the only independent state in Southeast Asia, but bordered by a British sphere of influence in the north and south and French influence in the northeast and east
* Turkey – successor to the Ottoman Empire in 1923; the Ottoman Empire itself could be considered a colonial empire

## Asian colonies from the 17th century to the end of the Second World War (Japanese)

[edit]

The following list shows the colonial powers following the end of World War II in 1945, their colonial or administrative possessions and the date of decolonisation.

* Japan:
* Manchuria (Manchukuo), Northern China (1945/1946)
* Philippines (1945/1946)
* Burma (1945/1948)
* North Korea (1945/1948)
* South Korea (1945/1948)
* Taiwan (1945/1949)
* Malaysia
* Singapore (1965)
* Taiwan (1642)
* Indonesia (1945/1949)
* Netherlands New Guinea (1962)

Territory  | Date  | Notes

|
|

South Sakhalin | 1905–1945  |
Mainland China | 1931–1945  | Manchukuo 50 million (1940), Jehol, Kwantung Leased Territory, Jiangsu, Shanghai, Shandong, Hebei, Beijing, Tianjin, plus parts of Guangdong, Guangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Fujian, Guizhou, Inner Mongolia
Japan | Prewar–1945  | Present day Japan, Kuril and Ryukyu Islands
Korea | 1910–1945  | Both North and South
Taiwan | 1895–1945  |
Hong Kong | 25 December 1941 – 30 August 1945  | Hong Kong (UK)
:: East Asia (subtotal) | –  |
Vietnam | September 1940 – August 1945  | As French Indochina (FR)
Cambodia | August 1941 – August 1945  | As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Cambodia
Laos | September 1940 - August 1945  | As French Indochina, Japanese occupation of Laos
Thailand | 8 December 1941 – 15 August 1945  | Independent State but Allied with Japan
Malaysia | 8 December 1941 - 2 September 1945 (Malaya), 16 December 1941 – 12 September 1945 (Sarawak, Brunei, Labuan, North Borneo)  | As Malaya (UK), British Borneo (UK), Brunei (UK)
Philippines | 8 May 1942 – 2 September 1945  | Philippines (US)
Dutch East Indies | March 1942 - September 1945  | Dutch East Indies (NL)
Singapore | 15 February 1942 – 9 September 1945  | Singapore (UK)
Myanmar | 28 May 1942 – 1945  | Burma (UK)
East Timor | 19 February 1942 – 11 September 1945  | Portuguese Timor (PT)
:: Southeast Asia (subtotal) | –  |
New Guinea | December 1941 – September 1945  | As New Guinea (AU)
Guam | 10 December 1941 – 10 August 1944  | From Guam (US)
South Seas Mandate | 1919–1945  | From Germany
Nauru | 26 August 1942 – 13 September 1945  | From Nauru (AU, UK, NZ)
Wake Island, US  | 23 December 1941 – 4 September 1945  | US
Kiribati | December 1941 – 1945  | From Gilbert Islands (UK)
:: Pacific Islands (subtotal) | –  |

Disclaimer: Not all areas were considered part of Imperial Japan but rather part of puppet states & sphere of influence, allies, included separately for demographic purposes. Sources: POPULSTAT Asia Oceania

Other occupied World War 2 islands:

* Andaman Islands (India) – 29 March 1942 – 9 September 1945
* Christmas Island (Australia) – March 1942 – October 1945

### Areas attacked but not conquered

[edit]

* Kohima and Manipur (India)
* Dornod (Khalkhin Gol, Mongolia)
* Midway Atoll (United States)

### Raided without immediate intent of occupation

[edit]

* Air raids
* Pearl Harbor (Hawaii, United States)
* Colombo and Trincomalee (Sri Lanka)
* Air raids on Australia, including:
* Broome (Western Australia, Australia)
* Darwin (Northern Territory, Australia)
* Townsville (Queensland, Australia)
* Dutch Harbor (Alaska, United States)
* Lookout Air Raids (Oregon, United States)
* Naval bombardment by submarine
* British Columbia (Canada)
* Santa Barbara (California, United States)
* Fort Stevens (Oregon, United States)
* Newcastle (New South Wales, Australia)
* Gregory (Western Australia, Australia)
* Midget sub attack
* Sydney (New South Wales, Australia)
* Diego Suarez (Madagascar)

### Asia Territorial evolution of the British Empire

[edit]

Name of territory  | Dates  | Status  | Comments

|
|
|

Aden | 1839  | Colony subordinate to Bombay Presidency British India  |
1932  | Separate province of British India |
1937  | Separate Crown colony  |
1963  | Part of Federation of South Arabia |
Afghanistan | 1839–1842  | Protectorate  |
1879  | Protectorate  |
1919  | Independence  |
Assam | 1874–1905  | Province of British India |
1905–1912  | Incorporated into the new province of Eastern Bengal and Assam  |
1912–1947  | Province of British India  | Now a state of the Republic of India
Bahrain | 1880  | Protectorate  |
1961–1971  | Autonomous  |
1971  | Independence  | Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Baluchistan | 1877–1896  | Province  |
1896–1947  | Province of British India |
1947  | Part of Pakistan  | Now part of Balochistan and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas, in Pakistan
Bantam | 1603–1609  | Station  |
1609–1617  | Factory |
1617–1621  | Presidency  |
1621  | Expelled by the Dutch  |
1630–1634  | Subordinated to Surat |
1634–1652  | Presidency  |
1652–1682  | Subordinated to Surat  |
1682  | Expelled by the Dutch  | Now in Indonesia
Bencoolen
("Fort York", later "Fort Marlborough") | 1685–1760  | Coastal settlements of southwestern Sumatra, subordinated to Madras |
1760–1785  | Presidency  |
1785–1825  | Subordinated to Bengal Presidency |
1825  | Part of Dutch East Indies | Now Bengkulu, in Indonesia
Bengal
("Fort William") | 1634–1658  | Factories  |
1658–1681  | Subordinated to Madras |
1681–82  | Agency  |
1682–1694  | Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements  |
1694–1698  | Subordinated to Madras |
1698–1700  | Presidency of Coromandel and Bengal Settlements  |
1700–1774  | Presidency  |
1774–1905  | Presidency of British India |
1905–1912  | Partitioned between [West] Bengal and Eastern Bengal and Assam  |
1912–1937  | Presidency of British India  |
1937–1947  | Province of British India  |
1947  | Divided between India (West Bengal) and Pakistan (East Bengal)  | Now Bangladesh, and part of West Bengal, Bihar, Odisha, and Jharkhand, in India
Brunei | 1888  | Protectorate  |
1967  | Protected state  |
1984  | Independence  |
Burma (now called Myanmar)  | 1824–1852  | Arakan, Tenasserim |
1852–1886  | Lower Burma |
1885–1886  | Upper Burma |
1886  | Lower and Upper Burma United as a province of British India |
1937  | Separate Crown Colony  |
1948  | Independence  | Name changed to Myanmar after a military junta in 1989.
Eastern Bengal and Assam | 1905–1912  | Province of British India | Established upon the partition of Bengal (1905)
1912  | Partition reversed  | Split between the re-established province of Assam and the re-constituted presidency of Bengal
Ceylon | 1795  | Ceded by the Dutch and subordinated to the Madras presidency of British India |
1798  | Separate Crown colony  |
1948  | Independence  | Now the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
Dansborg | 1801–02  | Occupied  |
1808–1815  | Occupied  |
1845 | purchased and incorporated into British India | Now in Tamil Nadu state, India
Frederiksnagore | 1801–02  | Occupied  |
1808–1815  | Occupied  |
1845 | Purchased and incorporated into British India | Now in West Bengal state, India
Hong Kong | 1841  | Hong Kong Island occupied |
1843–1982  | Crown colony  |
1860  | Kowloon and Stonecutters Island ceded by China  |
1898  | New Territories leased from China for 99 years  |
1942–1945  | Occupied by Japan  |
1945–1946  | Military administration  |
1983–1997  | Dependent territory  |
1997  | Handover to China as a special administrative region |
Kuwait | 1899  | Protectorate  |
1961  | Independence  |
Indian Empire (British Raj) | 1613  | Company rule in India |
1858  | Crown rule over the Indian Princely states, the Presidencies and provinces of British India |
1947  | Independent as India & Pakistan after partition |
Mandatory Iraq | 1920–1932  | League of Nations mandate never passed, replaced by Anglo-Iraqi treaty with the Kingdom of Iraq |
Java | 1811–1816  | Territory of the East India Company | restored to the Netherlands
Malaya | 1824  | Transferred following Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 |
1824–1867  | Territory of British East India Company |
1867–1946  | Straits Settlements, Crown colony  |
1895–1946  | Federated Malay States, protectorate  |
1885–1946  | Johor, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)  |
1909–1946  | Kedah, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)  |
1909–1946  | Kelantan, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)  |
1909–1946  | Perlis, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)  |
1909–1946  | Terengganu, protectorate (part of Unfederated Malay States)  |
1942–1945  | Japanese occupation |
1945–1946  | Military Administration |
1946–1948  | Malayan Union |
1948–1957  | Federation of Malaya |
1957–1963  | Independent state  |
1963  | Annex North Borneo and Sarawak forming the renamed federation of Malaysia |
North Borneo | 1882–1946  | Protectorate  |
1945–1946  | Military administration | Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1946–1963  | Crown colony  | Labuan to British N. Borneo on 15 July 1946
1963  | Self-government
1963  | Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia |
Palestine | 1920  | Mandate  |
1948  | British sovereignty relinquished; the proposed partition between a Jewish and an Arab state never fully materialised; the Jewish state – Israel – was established immediately after British withdrawal, with the short-lived All-Palestine government following six months later  |
1949  | Two sections of the former Palestine Mandate outside Israel – the West Bank and the Gaza Strip – were occupied by Jordan and Egypt respectively following the collapse of the All-Palestine government |
1956  | Gaza Strip briefly falls under Israeli occupation during the Suez Crisis |
1967  | West Bank and Gaza Strip fall under Israeli occupation as a consequence of the Six-day War |
1993  | A Palestinian National Authority is declared in the West Bank and Gaza Strip; most matters regarding the day-to-day governance of these territories fell under its jurisdiction, in anticipation of a future Palestinian state  |
2005  | Israel formally withdraws from the Gaza Strip, placing it under full PNA control; despite this, Gazan waters are still under Israeli military control  |
Pulo Condore Island (Côn Đảo)  | 1702  | Possession of British East India Company |
1705  | Abandoned  | Now Côn Đảo, in Vietnam
Sarawak | 1888–1946  | Protected States  |
1945–1946  | Military administration |
1946–1963  | Crown colony  |
1963  | Self-government  |
1963  | Annexed by Malaya into Malaysia |
Straits Settlements | 1826–1858  | Possession under British East India Company |
1858–1867  | Subordinated to British India |
1867–1946  | Crown colony  |
1942–1945  | Occupied by Japan  |
1946  | Dissolved  | Now divided between Malacca and Penang, in Malaysia, and Singapore
Qatar | 1916–1971  | Protectorate  |
1971  | Independence  | Invited to join the Trucial States, but declined
Surat | 1612–1658  | Factory |
1658–1668  | Presidency  |
1668–1685  | Possession under British East India Company |
1685–1703  | Subordinated to Bombay |
1703  | Incorporated into Bombay  | Now in India
Singapore | 1824  | Purchased  |
1824  | Part of Straits Settlements (as residency of the Presidency of Bengal)  |
1867–1946  | Part of Straits Settlements (crown colony)  |
1946–1955  | Crown colony  |
1955–1959  | self-governing colony  |
1959–1963  | State of Singapore  |
1963–1965  | Part of Malaysia |
1965  | Independence  |
Transjordan | 1920  | Part of Palestine Mandate
1923  | Formally separated from Palestine  |
1928  | Emirate independent, except for military and financial control  |
1946  | Formal independence  | Now known as Jordan
Trucial States | 1892  | Protectorate  |
1971  | Formation of Federation of Arab Emirates  | Now part of the United Arab Emirates
Weihaiwei | 1898–1930  | Leased from China |
1930  | Returned to the Republic of China | Now part of the People's Republic of China
West Bengal
("Bengal")  | 1905–1912  | Province of British India  | Established by the partition of Bengal. Abolished with the reversal of the partition and the creation of the new province of Bihar and Orissa.

## Territorial evolution of the French Empire in Asia

[edit]

* French Indochina
* French Indochinese Union (1887–1954)
* Laos (protectorate) (1893–1953)
* Cambodia (protectorate) (1863–1953)
* Vietnam
* Cochinchina (Southern Vietnam) (1858–1949)
* Annam (protectorate) (Central Vietnam) (1883–1949)
* Tonkin (protectorate) (Northern Vietnam) (1884–1949)
* State of Vietnam (1949–1954)
* Democratic Republic of Vietnam
* Spratly Islands (1933–1939)
* Paracel Islands (1933–1939)
* Some territories on the eastern of Thailand. Thailand has lost 3 territories in total in the past 15 years, for example:
* Chanthaburi Province (1893–1905)
* Trat Province (1904–1907)
* Dan Sai District (in the area of the Loei Province: 1903–1907)
* India and Sri Lanka
* French India
* French Establishments of India, composed of Pondichéry (1765–1954); Karikal (1725–1954); Mahé (1721–1954) Yanaon (1723–1954); Chandernagor (1673–1952)
* Taiwan
* The city/port of Keelung (1884–1885)
* Pescadores Islands (1885)
* Basilan (1845)
* China
* The territory of Kouang-Tchéou-Wan (a dependency of French Indochina) (1898–1945)
* The foreign concessions: French Concession of Shanghai (1849–1946), Tianjin (1860–1946) and Hankou (1898–1946)
* The spheres of French influence officially recognised by China in the provinces of Yunnan, Guangxi, Hainan, Guangdong
* Shamian Island (1859–1949) (a fifth of the island)
* Palestine
* Syria or French Syria (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Syria)
* Alawite State (1920–1936)
* State of Aleppo (1920–1924)
* State of Jabal Druze (1921–1936)
* State of Damascus (1920–1924)
* Sanjak of Alexandretta (now part of Turkey)
* State of Greater Lebanon (now it is Lebanon) (1920–1946)
* Lebanon or French Lebanon (1920–1946) (French Mandate of Lebanon)
* Mount Lebanon (An international protocol fixes the autonomy of the mount Lebanon under the protection of France.)
* Yemen
* Cheikh Saïd (Some French atlases and history books claimed the territory was French, but France never occupied it and never claimed jurisdiction or sovereignty over the territory, which therefore was never French, remaining under Turkish, then Yemeni control.)

## See also

[edit]

* Asia portal

* United Nations list of non-self-governing territories
* List of dependent territories
* List of predecessors of sovereign states in Asia
* Colonialism
* Persian Gulf Residency
* Imperialism in Asia
* Taiwan under Japanese rule
* Decolonisation
* Wars of national liberation

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Timeline list arranged according to current countries. Explanatory notes are added in cases where decolonisation was achieved jointly or where the current state is formed by a merger of previously decolonised states. Former Soviet republics (Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan), as well as Kuwait under Iraqi rule are excluded from this list, as they were not administered as colonies. Countries like Bhutan, China, Iran, and Japan are also excluded, as they were able to maintain their sovereignty despite encroachment by the Western colonial powers.
2. ^ Some territories changed hands multiple times, so in the list is mentioned the last colonial power. In addition to it, the mandatory or trustee powers are mentioned for territories that were League of Nations mandates and United Nations trust territories.
3. ^ A declaration of independence des not necessarily equate with achievement of independence. However, as of 2023, this date is presented as a date of decolonisation in this article even if the polity declaring independence did not achieve independence. Dates for territories annexed by or integrated into previously decolonised independent countries are given in separate notes. Subsequent mergers, secessions and civil and other wars in the period after decolonisation and the resulting states and federations are not part of this list and are only noted- see the list of sovereign states by formation date. Date when a commonwealth realm abolished its monarchy is noted. Any discrepancies between dates listed here and public holidays celebrating the country's independence (and whether the date listed is celebrated as a holiday at all) are noted, as well as the national day if the country does not have an independence day.
4. ^ For countries that became independent either as a Commonwealth realm or as a parliamentary republic the head of government is listed instead.
5. ^ In the 1896-19 period there were the Philippine Revolution and Philippine–American War. Before the American invasion and annexation, the country declared independence from Spain in 1898 nut sovereignty remained with Spain, which ceded the country to the United States.
6. ^ North Yemen and South Yemen were unified into the Republic of Yemen on 22 May 1990.
7. ^ As the Kingdom of Egypt. Transcontinental country, partially located in Africa.
8. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 28 February 1922 the British government issued the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Through this declaration, the British government unilaterally ended its protectorate over Egypt and granted it nominal independence except four "reserved" areas: foreign relations, communications, the military and the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.[3] The Anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1936 reduced British involvement, but still was not welcomed by Egyptian nationalists, who wanted full independence from Britain, which was not achieved until 23 July 1952. The last British troops left Egypt after the Suez Crisis of 1956. For this, the 23 July date, celebrated as Revolution Day, serves as Egypt's national day.
9. ^ Although the leaders of the 1952 revolution (Mohammed Naguib and Gamal Abdel Nasser) became the de facto leaders of Egypt, neither would assume office until 17 September of that year when Naguib became Prime Minister, succeeding Aly Maher Pasha who was sworn in on the day of the revolution. Nasser would succeed Naguib as Prime Minister on 25 February 1954.
10. ^ Celebrated as National Day. (While Iraq does not have a holiday called Independence Day, National Day is celebrated as such).
11. ^ The Iraqi revolt against the British was an armed uprising that failed to prevent the incoming British colonisation.
12. ^ Riad Al Solh was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
13. ^ Transcontinental country, partially located in Oceania.
14. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. Netherlands New Guinea was separated from the Dutch East Indies on 29 December 1949. Following skirmishes with Indonesia in 1961 and the New York Agreement, the Netherlands transferred the authority of Dutch New Guinea to a UN protectorate on 1 October 1962 and it was integrated into Indonesia on 1 May 1963. The date 17 August 1945 (when Sukarno formally proclaimed Indonesia's independence) is celebrated as Indonesia's date of independence.
15. ^ The Democratic Republic of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 2 September 1945 as the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The State of Vietnam declared independence on 14 June 1949 but remained de facto under French rule until 1 August 1954. South Vietnam was the successor state to the State of Vietnam under the name of the Republic of Vietnam. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
16. ^ As the Dominion of Pakistan.
17. ^ Muhammad Ali Jinnah became Governor-General of Pakistan upon independence.
18. ^ See Pakistan Movement.
19. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. On 16 December 1971, after months of fighting starting from 26 March of that year, Bangladesh formally seceded from Pakistan. The 26 March date is celebrated as Bangladesh's date of independence.
20. ^ Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was the President on the date of Bangladesh's secession.
21. ^ As the Dominion of India.
22. ^ Subsequently, a free and sovereign India unilaterally annexed Hyderabad State from Mir Osman Ali Khan in 1948 and Goa from Portugal in 1961; Puducherry was ceded by France in 1954. On 26 January 1950, India formally abolished its Commonwealth monarchy and became a republic.
23. ^ Remained Prime Minister when India abolished it monarchy. Rajendra Prasad became President upon abolition.
24. ^ As the Union of Burma.
25. ^ As the Dominion of Ceylon.
26. ^ 5 Iyar 5708 on the Jewish calendar. As Israel based its holidays on the Jewish calendar, celebrations do not always correspond with the Georgian date. One day after Israel declared its independence, the Arab League launched an attack on Israel that would last until 20 July 1949, ending with Israel securing its sovereignty.
27. ^ Originally as Chairman of the Provisional State Council before becoming Prime Minister three days after independence; Chaim Weizmann succeeded him on that same day. Both remained in office (this time with Weizmann as President) on the date of the armistice.
28. ^ The Provisional Central Government of Vietnam proclaimed independence on 28 May 1948 then established State of Vietnam in 1949 with ex-emperor Bảo Đại as head of state, it was recognised by France as a part of French Union by France government. The Democratic Republic of Vietnam declared independence on 2 September 1945 but de facto a breakaway state without international recognise until Geneva Conference. Republic of Vietnam was the legal successor state to the State of Vietnam after 1955 State of Vietnam referendum. Both parts of Vietnam merged into the Socialist Republic of Vietnam on 30 April 1975, after the Vietnam War.
29. ^ Assumed office on 24 July 1948 as President.
30. ^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the southern half of the Korean peninsula to the United States. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Gwangbokjeol"). American administration lasted exactly three years. Gaecheonjeol ("National Foundation Day") celebrates the date 3 October 2333 BC, which (according to Korean mythology) was when the Gojoseon kingdom was founded.
31. ^ Assumed office as Premier on 9 September 1948. Kim Tu-bong became Chairman of the Standing Committee of the Supreme People's Assembly upon that same date.
32. ^ Date of Japanese surrender and the transfer of the northern half of the Korean peninsula to the Soviet Union. Celebrated as Liberation Day (or "Jogukhaebangŭi nal"). Soviet administration lasted until 9 September 1948; this date, celebrated as Day of the Foundation of the Republic, serves as North Korea's national day.
33. ^ As the  Republic of China.
34. ^ Chairman of the National Government of the Republic of China at "2"hat time. After the Japanese surrender, communists soon took most of North-Eastern China because of the Soviets' transfer occupation zone, then the civil war begin and both communists and nationalists began to compete for Northeast China.
35. ^ Date of establishment of the People's Republic by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The central government of the Republic of China evacuated to Taiwan on 7 December 1949 and continued to contested its claim of the sovereignty of all of China with the People's Republic. See also One-China policy.
36. ^ After World War II, the islands of Taiwan and Penghu were placed under the administration of the Republic of China under General Order No. 1, although they nominally remained part of Japan. Before the post-war treaties were to be signed by the ROC and Japan, the ROC government was defeated in the Chinese Civil War to the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and decamped to the island of Taiwan. Japan relinquished the claims to Taiwan and Penghu in the Treaty of San Francisco on 28 April 1952, but the sovereignty of the islands remained undetermined to this day. Taiwan and Penghu are still today governed by the Republic of China in a post-war capacity recognised by a few states as the sole legitimate government of "China". See also Political status of Taiwan and Theory of the Undetermined Status of Taiwan.
37. ^ Date when Taiwan and Penghu were returned to the Republic of China.
38. ^ Date when the San Francisco Peace Treaty takes effect.
39. ^ As the Kingdom of Laos.
40. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 2 December 1975, which was when the Pathet Lao established the Lao People's Democratic Republic and ended both the monarchy and the decades-long civil war.
41. ^ Souvanna Phouma was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
42. ^ Although the First Indochina War occurred throughout French Indochina, most of the fighting was between the Việt Minh and France with occasional resistance from Laos and Cambodia. (The Kingdoms of Laos and Cambodia were nominal allies with France.)
43. ^ The Malayan Communist Party fought in the Malayan Emergency between June 1948 – 12 July 1960.
44. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. For reasons unknown, Cyprus celebrates 1 October 1960, as its date of independence.
45. ^ Armed struggles by the EOKA (Greek) and TMT (Turkish) organisations.
46. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 25 February 1950, which was when Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah was crowned.
47. ^ Muscat and Oman was de facto a British protectorate. On 4 June 1856, the Sultan who ruled from Stone Town, Zanzibar, died without appointing an heir. With British intervention on 6 April 1861, Zanzibar and Oman were divided into two separate principalities. Zanzibar later became a formal British protectorate, but the British influence over Muscat and Oman remained informal. In 1962 Britain declared Muscat and Oman an independent nation.
48. ^ See the Dhofar Rebellion defeated with British help.
49. ^ Between 16 September 1963 and 9 August 1965 Singapore was part of the Federation of Malaysia.
50. ^ The independent UAE was joined by Ras al-Khaimah on 11 February 1972.
51. ^ Not celebrated as a holiday. National Day celebrates the date 16 December 1961, which was when Isa ibn Salman was crowned.[5]
52. ^ Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa was Prime Minister on the date of independence.
53. ^ The Bahraini independence survey, 1970 was a United Nation-run survey asking Bahrainis if they would rather be independent or under Iran's control. Although a non-binding survey that makes no mention of the United Kingdom, the results (which showed an overwhelming majority supporting independence) led Iran to denounce its claims over Bahrain, which in turn led to the United Kingdom ending its protectorate.
54. ^ The colonial history of East Timor is too complex to summarize here. See the article on that country and related detail articles.
55. ^ Independence from Portugal declared on 28 November 1975. but not recognized.
56. ^ The Indonesians left in 1999 and East Timor came under the administration of the United Nations.
57. ^ The Brunei Revolt was a rebellion against the sultan suppressed with British assistance in 1966.
58. ^ a b Date of transfer to the People's Republic of China.
59. ^ Also referred to as Judea and Samaria Area or West Bank and Gaza Strip.
60. ^ In the aftermath of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War the Palestinian territories were divided between Israel, Egypt and Jordan. After the Egypt–Israel peace treaty (1982) and Jordanian disengagement from the West Bank (1988), following decades of Arab–Israeli conflict, the Palestine Liberation Organisation declared independence for a State of Palestine, but its control over the West Bank and Gaza (through the Palestinian National Authority) is still limited due to continued conflict with Israel.
61. ^ [6]Map of Gaza fishing limits, "security zones".
62. ^ Israel allows the PNA to execute some functions in the Palestinian territories, depending on the area classification. It maintains minimal interference (retaining control of borders: air,[6] sea beyond internal waters,[bi] land[7]) in the Gaza Strip (its interior and Egypt portion of the land border are under Hamas control), and varying degrees of interference elsewhere.[8][9][10][11][12] See also Israeli-occupied territories.
63. ^ It is unclear here how these dates relate to the other columns of is table row.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ "List of former Trust and Non-Self-Governing Territories | the United Nations and Decolonization". Archived from the original on 9 November 2019. Retrieved 19 November 2019.
2. ^ "HONG KONG HARBOR IN HANDS OF BRITISH; Fleet Speeds Reoccupation-- Wedemeyer Sees U.S. Men Out of China by Spring". New York Times. Associated Press. 31 August 1945. Archived from the original on 20 March 2024. Retrieved 29 May 2017.
3. ^ King, Joan Wucher (1989) [First published 1984]. Historical Dictionary of Egypt. Books of Lasting Value. American University in Cairo Press. pp. 259–260\. ISBN 978-977-424-213-7.
4. ^ "The World Factbook: Field Listing: Independence". Archived from the original on 27 February 2013. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
5. ^ "National Day 2022, 2023 and 2024 in Bahrain". Archived from the original on 21 October 2023. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
6. ^ a b Israel's control of the airspace and the territorial waters of the Gaza Strip Archived 5 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
7. ^ Israel's Disengagement Plan: Renewing the Peace Process Archived 2 March 2007 at the Wayback Machine: "Israel will guard the perimeter of the Gaza Strip, continue to control Gaza air space, and continue to patrol the sea off the Gaza coast. ... Israel will continue to maintain its essential military presence to prevent arms smuggling along the border between the Gaza Strip and Egypt (Philadelphi Route), until the security situation and cooperation with Egypt permit an alternative security arrangement."
8. ^ "Israel: 'Disengagement' Will Not End Gaza Occupation". Human Rights Watch. 29 October 2004. Archived from the original on 1 November 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
9. ^ Gold, Dore; Institute for Contemporary Affairs (26 August 2005). "Legal Acrobatics: The Palestinian Claim that Gaza Is Still 'Occupied' Even After Israel Withdraws". Jerusalem Issue Brief. 5 (3). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.`{{cite journal}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
10. ^ Bell, Abraham (28 January 2008). "International Law and Gaza: The Assault on Israel's Right to Self-Defense". Jerusalem Issue Brief. 7 (29). Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived from the original on 21 June 2010. Retrieved 16 July 2010.
11. ^ Transcript (22 January 2008). "Address by FM Livni to the 8th Herzliya Conference". Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Archived from the original on 26 October 2011. Retrieved 26 September 2011.
12. ^ Salih, Zak M. (17 November 2005). "Panelists Disagree Over Gaza's Occupation Status". University of Virginia School of Law. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 26 September 2011.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Panikkar, K. M. (1953) Asia and Western Dominance, 1498–1945, London: G. Allen and Unwin.

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