Defense of Azakh

Midyat Rebellion

Part of the Sayfo and the Armenian genocide

Location of modern Azakh (İdil) district
| Date| August 18, 1915 – November 21, 1915 (3 months and 3 days)

|

Location|

Azakh, Ottoman Empire

37°20′30″N 41°53′30″E﻿ / ﻿37.34167°N 41.89167°E﻿ / 37.34167; 41.89167
Result|  Assyrian victory[2]
Belligerents
Assyrian volunteers
Armenian defenders|

Ottoman Empire

* 3rd Division[1]
* Allied Kurdish tribes[1]

Commanders and leaders
Işo Hanna Gabre|  Ömer Naci Bey
Units involved

Azakh National Assembly

* "Christ's Fedayi" (Those who sacrifise for Christ.)[1]

Ottoman army

* Ottoman "mujahideen"
* Allied Kurdish tribes

Strength
4,000 (mostly Assyrians but also including few Armenians)[3][2][1]|  8,000+[4]
Casualties and losses
1,200 Christians were killed during the siege.[1]|  Heavy

The Defense of Azakh was one of the few remaining pockets of resistance during the Sayfo that took place in Azakh (Syriac: ܐܙܟ, romanized: Azakh). Ottoman authorities labeled these pockets of resistance the Midyat Rebellion after Midyat, the largest Assyrian town in Tur Abdin. The Azakh defense was coupled with the Defense of Iwardo, which also took place during the Sayfo.

The story of the defense remains significant to the memory of the survivors of the massacre and their descendants, as it showed the willingness of the Assyrians to defend themselves and their homeland at a dangerous time. Despite the attempts of Ottoman authorities and Kurdish tribes to inflict more death on the Christians of Azakh, they were unsuccessful and were eventually forced to withdraw their forces.[5]

## Background

[edit]

Further information: Persian campaign (World War I), Agha Petros, and Defence of Iwardo

The village of Azakh (modern day İdil) is perched on a hill at 1,000m altitude and is near Cizre as part of the region of Tur Abdin in southeastern Turkey.[6] At the start of the 20th century, the village had a population of only 1,000 people, who were primarily Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholic Christians.[7] The mayor of the village and chief of the village tribe was Hanna Makdisi Amno.

Azakh was victim to violence and killings from Ottoman and Kurdish soldiers during the Sayfo. In April 1915, national assemblyman of the Committee of Union and Progress Aziz Feyzi Pirinççizâde was sent to Cizre to agitate local Kurdish tribes into attacking the non-Muslim population, but this turned out to be slow.[8] Starting in May 1915, many Assyrian families from surrounding villages as well as some Armenians sought protection from massacres, as it became increasingly apparent that an attack was incoming. The conflict began as Kurdish tribes and other local Muslim militias began to raid and destroy small Assyrian villages throughout Tur Abdin throughout the summer of 1915. Most villages were unprepared and fell quickly to the Kurdish raiders into June and July.

The Ottoman Empire was well aware that it was acting against populations who were not Armenian. Through the Ottoman millet system, the members of the Church of the East were called "Nasturi" (i.e. Nestorian), the members of the Syriac Orthodox Church were called "Süryani" and the members of the Chaldean Catholic Church were called "Keldani". Since the campaign wasn't part of the backdrop of the anti-Armenian sentiment of the Ottoman government, it was more likely due to local circumstances that the Assyrians of the area were attacked. As they armed themselves and put up a resistance, Talaat Pasha sent the order to permanently drive them from the Hakkari mountains. Minister of War Enver Pasha ordered the suppression of Azakh using "utmost severity".[9]

By July, more than a thousand determined defenders had gathered in the village of Azakh. A group of 50 volunteers was formed, the "Jesus Fedai", and defense works were built.[7][10] The leader of the Azakh National Assembly who organized the resistance is named Işo Hanna Gabre, other members include: Tuma Abde Kette, Behnan Isko, Murad Hannoush, Andrawos Hanna Eliya, Yaqub Hanna Gabre and Behnam Aqrawi.[11] The village of Azakh was first surrounded in mid-August.[12]

## Defense and battle

[edit]

Azakh was first attacked on August 18 by an assembly of Kurdish tribes, leading into a counterattack by the village Fedayi led by the son of the village leader.[13] On the night of August 26, they managed to capture and destroy strategic positions of the Kurds who withdrew from Azakh on September 9 after suffering heavy casualties. However, this prompted Ottoman authorities to deploy regular troops against the Azakh defense. The case of the conflict of Azakh was then passed from the civil officials and given to the military for them to handle.

General Halil was deceitfully informed that "one thousand armed Armenians had gathered lately and started an assault destroying Muslim villages nearby and massacred their inhabitants" while he was passing through the area with an army division on its way to Bagdad, similarly to a secret Turkish-German expeditionary force tasked with infiltrating Iran, led by Ömer Naci Bey, with the German contingent led by Max Erwin von Scheubner-Richter. This expeditionary force of 650 cavalry and two pieces of field artillery was also diverted to Azakh as they were traveling in the same direction tasked with suppressing the rebels who were falsely accused of "cruelly massacring the Muslim people in the area.” Naci Bey previously made claims that the villagers of Azakh were "Armenian rebels" that had committed terrible massacres against the Muslim population, though he did not name the villages where Muslims were said to have been massacred.[5] French historian Raymond Kévorkian believes these claims were made to implicate German involvement in the massacres and to legitimize military operations against the Assyrians of Azakh. On October 29, 1915, Naci Bey requested reinforcements to assist with the siege, while Talaat Pasha ordered 500 mujahideen under his command to assist Naci.[14]

The German contingent reacted negatively to this decision as Scheubner-Richter did not permit any of his German forces to participate. According to Paul Leverkuehn (his biographer), Scheubner-Richter was not convinced by the Turkish accusations, and didn't believe that it was a real rebellion. This topic was discussed by General Field Marshal Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz and the ambassador in Constantinople Konstantin von Neurath consulted with Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg on how to react to the targeting of Ottoman Christian subjects in Anatolia. Neurath wrote:

> The request of the Field Marshal was caused by the expedition against a number of Christians of Syriac confession that had been planned for a long time. They are allied with the Armenians and have fortified themselves in difficult terrain between Mardin and Midyat in order to get away from the massacres that the governor of Diyarbakir has organized.

General von der Goltz, as well as the other German military commanders involved, decided to forbid all German military involvement in the siege of Azakh. Later on, Scheubner-Richter reflected that the Turkish allegations had probably been a ruse to get the Germans military involved in the siege.[15] At this time, Naci Bey was also beginning to have his doubts.

On November 7, the Ottoman army began their frontal assault on the village of Azakh, the assault turned out to be a failure with heavy losses. Although negotiations had taken place regarding the non-Armenian Assyrian ethnicity of the villagers, being discussed alongside the events of the siege,[16] this was to no avail.[17] A surprise attack on the Turkish camp took place on November 13–14. A large number of soldiers and officers were killed. This led to chaos among the surviving Turkish soldiers in the camp which led to their flight. With this victory, the Azakh fedayi managed to capture large quantities of modern weapons that the Turkish soldiers left behind. As the Ottoman siege of the small village of Azakh had turned into a military fiasco as the hardened villagers put up a surprising resistance. On November 21 Ömer Naci Bey began to negotiate for a truce.[18]

The Assyrians of Diyarbekir Vilayet made significant resistance. For months, Kurdish tribes and Turkish soldiers commanded by Ömer Naci Bey were unable to subdue the mostly Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Catholic villagers who were joined by Armenian and other Assyrian refugees from surrounding villages, and Naci Bey was eventually forced to declare a truce to restore some form of honor.[6] The leaders of Azakh reportedly swore out, "We all have to die sometime, do not die in shame and humiliation." In November 1915, Kâmil Pasha wrote to Enver Pasha stating that he was forced to abort the village following the defense, and argued for postponing any further engagement until a more opportune moment.[19]

## Aftermath

[edit]

After the end of World War I and the establishment of the Kemalist Turkish Republic, in 1927 the villagers of Azakh decided to hand over their weapons to the Turkish government after receiving reassurance for their security by the state. After the villagers were disarmed, Kemalist agents assassinated and imprisoned members of the Azakh National Assembly while the rest were hunted by the courts of Diyarbakir.[11] Following a Kurdish and Yezidi revolt against the Turkish government, Assyrians from Azakh faced deportations to Baghdad, with mass killing and rape following suit.[20] Some of the population of Azakh emigrated to Brazil from Israel/Palestine following the genocide.[21]

Retrospective accounts of the Defense of Azakh show how the Assyrians of Diyarbekir Vilayet made significant resistance to Ottoman and Kurdish forces. Although other battles and fighting took place in Tur Abdin (Benabil (Bulbul), Beth-Debe, Hah, Hebob, Kerboran (Dergecit), and Zaz), the strongest stand was in the villages of Azakh, Iwardo, and Basibrin.[22][23] Today, the story of the defense survives thanks to an Arabic language vernacular written by a schoolteacher from the village, Gabriyel Tuma-Hëndo, which details the events of the siege before, during, and after.[24]

Many of the Assyrians who were originally from Azakh moved to Al-Malikiyah in northeastern Syria, bringing with them a unique dialect of Arabic. In the city is the Syriac Orthodox Church of Our Lady (Arabic: كنيسة السيدة العذراء للسريان الأرثوذكس), which is dedicated to the story of the Defense of Azakh.[25] In some accounts of the story, the victory of the "Jesus Fedayi" is attributed to the Virgin of Azakh/the Virgin Mary and her protection of the village during the siege,[26] and remains integral to the collective memory of both Sayfo and the defense for differentiating Assyrians from Kurds in Syria.[27] Much like Assyrians in Al-Qahtaniyah, the stories of the defense are often not passed down to newer generations, owing to the formation of a uniquely religious identity.[28]

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e Astourian, Stephan (2020). Collective and State Violence in Turkey The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State. Berghahn Books. p. 85.
2. ^ a b "آغا بطرس: سنحاريب القرن العشرين" (PDF). نينوس نيراري. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 12, 2018.
3. ^ Gaunt, David (2006). Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim–Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. With the assistance of Jan BeʿĀwoce and an appendix of documents prepared by Racho Donef. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-301-3.
4. ^ Gaunt, David (2006). Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim–Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. With the assistance of Jan BeʿĀwoce and an appendix of documents prepared by Racho Donef. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-301-3.
5. ^ a b Kévorkian (2011), p. 377.
6. ^ a b Travis (2017), p. 184.
7. ^ a b "Stiftung Aramäer | Azakh". Foundation for Conservation and Promotion of the Aramaic Cultural Heritage (in German). Retrieved August 11, 2020.
8. ^ Gaunt (2015), p. 89.
9. ^ Gaunt & Bet̲-Şawoce 2017, p. 273.
10. ^ Astourian (2020), p. 86.
11. ^ a b Travis (2017), p. 185.
12. ^ Lingius (2015), p. 48.
13. ^ Gaunt (2015), p. 90.
14. ^ Lingius (2015), p. 49.
15. ^ Gaunt (2015), p. 91.
16. ^ Gaunt, David (January 9, 2022). "Death's End: the General Massacre of Christians in Diyarbekir". SEYFO CENTER. Retrieved April 4, 2025.
17. ^ Astourian (2020), p. 86-87.
18. ^ Gaunt, Atto & Barthoma (2017).
19. ^ Lingius (2015), p. 47.
20. ^ Morris & Ze’evi 2019, p. 373.
21. ^ Atto (2011), p. 187.
22. ^ Morris & Ze’evi 2019, p. 202.
23. ^ Astourian (2020), p. 85.
24. ^ Tuma-Hëndo, ‘Tarix Azax wa Majazërha wa Hërubha’, 93–173
25. ^ Sweeney, Samuel (June 1, 2023). "Our Lady of Azakh". First Things. Retrieved March 25, 2025.
26. ^ DelCogliano (2006), p. 342-343.
27. ^ Sato 2018, p. 318.
28. ^ Sato 2018, pp. 318–319.

## Bibliography

[edit]

* Astourian, Stephan; Kévorkian, Raymond (November 1, 2020). Collective and State Violence in Turkey: The Construction of a National Identity from Empire to Nation-State. Berghahn Books. p. 85\. ISBN 978-1-78920-451-3.
* Atto, Naures (2011). Hostages in the Homeland, Orphans in the Diaspora: Identity Discourses Among the Assyrian/Syriac Elites in the European Diaspora (PDF). Leiden University Press. Retrieved April 5, 2025.
* DelCogliano, Mark (January 7, 2006). Syriac Monasticism in Tur Abdin: A Present-Day Account. Vol. 41\. Cistercian Studies Quarterly. pp. 341–343.
* Gaunt, David; Atto, Naures; Barthoma, Soner O. (May 1, 2017). Let Them Not Return: Sayfo – The Genocide Against the Assyrian, Syriac, and Chaldean Christians in the Ottoman Empire. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78533-499-3.
* Gaunt, David; Bet̲-Şawoce, Jan (May 2017). Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia During World War I. Berghahn Books. ISBN 978-1-78533-499-3.
* Gaunt, David (2015). "The Complexity of the Assyrian Genocide". Genocide Studies International. 9 (1): 83–103\. doi:10.1353/gsp.2015.0002. ISSN 2291-1847.
* Kévorkian, Raymond (March 30, 2011). The Armenian Genocide: A Complete History. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-85771-930-0.
* Lingius, Lars Hillås (2015). "In Times of Genocide, 1915-2015: report from a conference on the Armenian Genocide and Syriac Seyfo" (PDF). search.worldcat.org. Swedish Christian Study Centre. pp. 47–50. Retrieved March 29, 2025.
* Morris, Benny; Ze’evi, Dror (April 24, 2019). The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey's Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-91645-6.
* Sato, Noriko (2018). "THE MEMORY OF SAYFO AND ITS RELATION TO THE IDENTITY OF CONTEMPORARY ASSYRIAN/ARAMEAN CHRISTIANS IN SYRIA". Sayfo 1915: An Anthology of Essays on the Genocide of Assyrians/Arameans during the First World War. Gorgias Press. pp. 305–327\. ISBN 9781463239961. ISSN 1539-1507.
* Travis, Hannibal (July 20, 2017). The Assyrian Genocide: Cultural and Political Legacies. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-98025-8.

* v
* t
* e

Assyrian genocide (Sayfo)

Background|

* Assyrian homeland
* 1843 and 1846 massacres in Hakkari
* Hamidian massacres (1894–96)
* Young Turk Revolution (1908)
* Adana (1909)
* Ottoman Empire in World War I
* Armenian genocide
* Midyat

Genocide|

* Iran
* Haftevan
* Hakkari
* Bitlis
* Diyarbekir
* Near East Foundation

| Notable victims|

* Toma Audo
* Flavianus Michael Malke
* Leonard Melki
* Addai Sher
* Ashur Yousif

|

Resistance|

* Defence of Iwardo
* Defense of Azakh

Perpetrators|

* Military of the Ottoman Empire
* Special Organization
* Some Kurdish tribes
* Committee of Union and Progress
* Talaat Pasha
* Enver Pasha
* Djevdet Bey
* Mehmed Reshid
* Halil Kut
* Ömer Naji
* Simko Shikak
* Aziz Feyzi Pirinççizâde
* Çetes

Cultural depictions|

* May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
* Blue Book
* Newspaper documentation of the Assyrian genocide
* Paris Peace Conference
* The Hidden Pearl
* The Last Assyrians

Aftermath|

* Assyrians in Turkey
* Assyrians in Iraq
* Assyrian diaspora
* Assyrian independence movement
* Simele massacre
* Slavery in the Ottoman Empire

* v
* t
* e

Armenian genocide

Background|

* Armenians in the Ottoman Empire
* Armenian question
* Turkish nationalism
* Hamidian massacres (1894–1897)
* Young Turk Revolution (1908)
* Adana massacre (1909)
* Balkan Wars (1912–1913)
* 1914 Armenian reforms
* 1914 Greek deportations
* Congress at Erzerum
* Ottoman Empire in World War I
* Battle of Sarikamish

Genocide|

* Causes
* Deportation of Armenian intellectuals on 24 April 1915
* Tehcir Law
* 20 Hunchakian gallows
* Confiscation
* Forced labour
* Mass rape
* Concentration camps
* Deir ez-Zor
* Ra's al-'Ayn
* Terminology

| By region|

* Adana
* Aleppo
* Bitlis
* Diyarbekir
* Erzurum
* Harput
* Muş
* Sivas
* Trebizond
* Van

|

Demography|

* Pre-genocide population
* Genocide casualties
* Post-genocide population
* Hidden Armenians
* Survivors
* Vorpahavak

Resistance|

* Armenian militia
* By location
* Zeitun
* Van
* Musa Dagh
* Urfa
* Shabin-Karahisar
* Azakh
* Rescue of Armenians
* Turkish opposition

Perpetrators|

* Committee of Union and Progress
* Talaat
* Enver
* Djemal
* Djevdet
* Reshid
* Bahaeddin Şakir
* Special Organization
* Iğdır Millî Cumhuriyeti [tr]
* Kars
* Aras
* Oltu Şura Hükûmeti [tr]

International response|

* May 1915 Triple Entente declaration
* Imperial Germany
* Press coverage
* Foreign aid and relief
* Near East Foundation
* National Armenian Relief Committee

Prosecution|

* Courts-martial
* Malta exiles
* Operation Nemesis
* Assassination of Talaat Pasha
* Treaty of Lausanne

Cultural depictions|

* Ravished Armenia (book, film)
* The Forty Days of Musa Dagh
* The Promise
* others

Aftermath|

* Witnesses and testimonies
* Recognition
* United States
* Reparations
* Denial
* Hidden Armenians
* Armenian Genocide Remembrance Day
* 100th anniversary
* Memorials
* Tsitsernakaberd
* notable visitors

Related|

* Late Ottoman genocides
* Greek genocide
* Assyrian genocide

* Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
* Assassination of Hrant Dink
* Hitler's Armenian reference

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template