Delhi Sultanate

1206–1526 empire in the Indian subcontinent

Not to be confused with Sultanate of Deli.

Sultanate of Delhi

سلطنت دهلی (Persian)
Salṭanat-i-Dihlī

1206–1526

Flag of the Delhi Sultanate according to the contemporary Catalan Atlas (c. 1375).[1][2][3]

Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250.[4]

Khalji Dynasty circa 1320.[5]

Tughlaq Dynasty circa 1330.[6][4]

Sayyid Dynasty circa 1421.[7]

Lodi Dynasty circa 1489.[7]

Status| Sultanate
Capital|

* Lahore (1206–1210)
* Badayun (1210–1214)
* Delhi (1214–1327; 1334–1506)
* Daulatabad (1327–1334)
* Agra (1506–1526)

Official languages|

* Hindavi[8][9]
* Persian[10]

Religion

| State religion
Sunni Islam
Others
Hinduism (majority), Jainism, Buddhism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism
Government| Monarchy
Sultan|

• 1206–1210

| Qutb ud-Din Aibak (first)

• 1517–1526

| Ibrahim Khan Lodi (last)
Legislature| Corps of Forty (1211–1266)
Historical era| Medieval India

• Independence[11]

| 25 June 1206

• Khalji Revolution

| 1 February – 13 June 1290

• Battle of Lahrawat

| 6 September 1320

• Sack of Delhi

| 17–20 December 1398

• Battle of Panipat

| 21 April 1526
Area
1250| 1,300,000[12] km2 (500,000 sq mi)
1300| 1,500,000[13] km2 (580,000 sq mi)
1312| 3,200,000[14] km2 (1,200,000 sq mi)
1350| 2,800,000[15] km2 (1,100,000 sq mi)
Population

• 1500 estimate

| 101,000,000[16]
Currency| Taka

Preceded by | Succeeded by

|

|  | Ghurid dynasty

|

| Mughal Empire |

|

Bengal Sultanate |
Bahmani Sultanate |
Gujarat Sultanate |
Malwa Sultanate |
Khandesh Sultanate |
Jaunpur Sultanate |
Multan Sultanate |
Madurai Sultanate |
Today part of|

* Bangladesh
* India
* Pakistan
* Nepal

The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.[17][18][19] The sultanate was established around c (1206-1210) in the former Ghurid territories in India. The sultanate's history is generally divided into five periods: Mamluk (1206–1286), Khalji (1290–1316), Tughlaq (1320–1388), Sayyid (1414–1451), and Lodi (1451–1526). It covered large swaths of territory in modern-day India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, as well as some parts of southern Nepal.[20]

The foundation of the Sultanate was established by the Ghurid conqueror Muhammad Ghori, who routed the Rajput Confederacy, led by Ajmer ruler Prithviraj Chauhan, in 1192 near Tarain in a reversal of an earlier battle.[21] As a successor to the Ghurid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate was originally one of several principalities ruled by the Turkic slave-generals of Muhammad Ghori, including Taj al-Din Yildiz, Qutb ud-Din Aibak, Bahauddin Tughril and Nasir ad-Din Qabacha, that had inherited and divided the Ghurid territories amongst themselves.[22] Khalji and Tughlaq rule ushered a new wave of rapid and continual Muslim conquests deep into South India.[23][24][25] The sultanate finally reached the peak of its geographical reach during the Tughlaq dynasty, occupying most of the Indian subcontinent under Muhammad bin Tughluq. A major political transformation occurred across North India, triggered by the Central Asian king Timur's devastating raid on Delhi in 1398, followed soon afterwards by the re-emergence of rival Hindu powers such as Vijayanagara Empire and Kingdom of Mewar asserting independence, and new Muslim sultanates such as the Bengal and Bahmani Sultanates breaking off.[26][27] In 1526, Timurid ruler Babur invaded northern India and conquered the Sultanate, leading to its succession by the Mughal Empire.

The establishment of the Sultanate drew the Indian subcontinent more closely into international and multicultural Islamic social and economic networks,[28] as seen concretely in the development of the Hindustani language[29] and Indo-Islamic architecture.[30][31] It was also one of the few powers to repel attacks by the Mongols (from the Chagatai Khanate)[32] and saw the enthronement of one of the few female rulers in Islamic history, Razia Sultana, who reigned from 1236 to 1240.[33] During the sultanate's rule, there was no mass forcible conversion of Hindus, Buddhists, and other dharmic faiths, and Hindu officials and vassals were readily accepted.[34] However, there were cases like Bakhtiyar Khalji's annexations, which involved a large-scale desecration of Hindu and Buddhist temples and the destruction of universities and libraries.[35][34][36][37][38] Mongolian raids on West and Central Asia set the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers, intelligentsia, mystics, traders, artists, and artisans from those regions into the subcontinent, thereby establishing Islamic culture there.[39][40]

## Name

[edit]

Although conventionally named after its principal capital city, Delhi, the terminology applied to domains under Delhi Sultanate was often unspecified. It was called as "Empire of Delhi" (Persian: Mamalik-i-Delhi) by Juzjani and Barani while Ibn Battuta called the empire under Muhammad bin Tughlaq as "Hind and Sind". The Delhi Sultanate was also known as the "Empire of Hindustan" (Persian: Mamalik-i-Hindustan), a name that gained currency during the period.[41]

## History

[edit]

### Background

[edit]

See also: Mamluk and Turkic migration

The rise of the Delhi Sultanate in India was part of a wider trend affecting much of the Asian continent, including the whole of southern and western Asia: the influx of nomadic Turkic peoples from the Central Asian steppes. This can be traced back to the 9th century when the Islamic Caliphate began fragmenting in the Middle East, where Muslim rulers in rival states began enslaving non-Muslim nomadic Turks from the Central Asian steppes and raising many of them to become loyal army slaves called Mamluks. Soon, Turks were migrating to Muslim lands and becoming Islamicized. Many of the Turkic Mamluk slaves eventually rose to become rulers and conquered large parts of the Muslim world, establishing Mamluk Sultanates from Egypt to present-day Afghanistan, before turning their attention to the Indian subcontinent.[42]

South Asia
1175 CE

KARAKHANID
KHANATE

QARA KHITAI

GHURID
EMPIRE

CHAULUKYAS

CHAHAMANAS

LATE
GHAZNAVIDS

PARAMARAS

WESTERN
CHALUKYAS

KAKATIYAS

SHILA-
HARAS

CHOLAS

CHERAS

PANDYAS

KADAMBAS

HOYSALAS

GAHADAVALAS

GUHILAS

KACHCHAPA-
GHATAS

CHANDELAS

KALACHURIS
(TRIPURI)

KALACHURIS
(RATNAPURA)

SENAS

KARNATAS

KAMARUPAS

EASTERN
GANGAS

GUGE

MARYUL

LOHA-
RAS

SOOMRA
EMIRATE

MAKRAN
SULTANATE

class=notpageimage|

Main South Asian polities in 1175, on the eve of the Ghurid Empire invasion of the subcontinent. Orange line: Ghurid territorial conquests from 1175 to 1205, which led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206.[43][44]

It is also part of a longer trend predating the spread of Islam. Like other settled, agrarian societies in history, those in the Indian subcontinent have been attacked by nomadic tribes throughout its long history. In evaluating the impact of Islam on the subcontinent, one must note that the northwestern subcontinent was a frequent target of tribes raiding from Central Asia in the pre-Islamic era. In that sense, the Muslim intrusions and later Muslim invasions were not dissimilar to those of the earlier invasions during the 1st millennium.[45]

By 962 AD, Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms in South Asia faced a series of raids from Muslim armies from Central Asia.[46] Among them was Mahmud of Ghazni, the son of a Turkic Mamluk military slave,[47] who raided and plundered kingdoms in northern India from east of the Indus river to west of the Yamuna river seventeen times between 997 and 1030.[48] Mahmud of Ghazni raided the treasuries but retreated each time, only extending Islamic rule into western Punjab.[49][50]

The series of raids on northern and western Indian kingdoms by Muslim warlords continued after Mahmud of Ghazni.[51] The raids did not establish or extend the permanent boundaries of the Islamic kingdoms. In contrast, the Ghurid Sultan Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori (commonly known as Muhammad of Ghor) began a systematic war of expansion into northern India in 1173.[52] He sought to carve out a principality for himself and expand the Islamic world.[48][53] Muhammad of Ghor created a Sunni Islamic kingdom of his own extending east of the Indus river, and he thus laid the foundation for the Muslim kingdom called the Delhi Sultanate.[48] Some historians chronicle the Delhi Sultanate from 1192 due to the presence and geographical claims of Muhammad Ghori in South Asia by that time.[54]

Muhammad Ghori was assassinated in 1206, by Ismāʿīlī Shia Muslims.[55] After the assassination, one of Ghori's slaves (or Mamluks), the Turkic Qutb al-Din Aibak, assumed power, becoming the first Sultan of Delhi.[48]

### Dynasties

[edit]

See also: List of sultans of Delhi and Sultans of Delhi Family trees

#### Mamluk dynasty (1206–1290)

[edit]

Main article: Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)

Territory of the Delhi Mamluk Dynasty circa 1250.[56]

Qutb al-Din Aibak, a former slave of Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori, was the first ruler of the Delhi Sultanate. Aibak was of Turkic Cuman-Kipchak origin, and due to his lineage, his dynasty is known as the Mamluk dynasty.[57] Aibak reigned as the Sultan of Delhi for four years, from 1206 to 1210. Aibak was praised by the contemporary and later accounts for his generosity and due to this was called with the sobriquet of Lakhbaksh (provider of lakhs).[58]

After Aibak died, Aram Shah assumed power in 1210, but he was assassinated in 1211 by Aibak's son-in-law, Shams ud-Din Iltutmish.[59] Iltutmish's power was precarious, and several Muslim amirs (nobles) challenged his authority as they had been supporters of Qutb al-Din Aibak. After a series of conquests and brutal executions of opposition, Iltutmish consolidated his power.[60]

Tomb of Iltutmish (r. 1211–1236) in the Qutb Minar complex.

His rule was challenged several times, such as by Qubacha, and this led to a series of wars.[61] Iltutmish conquered Multan and Bengal from contesting Muslim rulers, as well as Ranthambore and Sivalik from the Hindu rulers. He also attacked, defeated, executed Taj al-Din Yildiz, who asserted his rights as heir to Mu'izz ad-Din Muhammad Ghori.[62] Iltutmish's rule lasted until 1236. Following his death, the Delhi Sultanate saw a succession of weak rulers, disputing Muslim nobility, assassinations, and short-lived tenures. Power shifted from Rukn ud-Din Firuz to Razia Sultana and others, until Ghiyas ud-Din Balban came to power and ruled from 1266 to 1287.[61][62] Ghiyasuddin Balban destroyed the power of the Corps of Forty, a council of 40 Turkic slaves who had played a role as kingmakers and had been independent of the Sultan. He was succeeded by 17-year-old Muiz ud-Din Qaiqabad, who appointed Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji as the commander of the army. Khalji assassinated Qaiqabad and assumed power in the Khalji Revolution, thus ending the Mamluk dynasty and starting the Khalji dynasty.

Qutb al-Din Aibak initiated the construction of the Qutb Minar but died before it was completed. It was later completed by his son-in-law, Iltutmish.[63] The Quwwat-ul-Islam (Might of Islam) Mosque was built by Aibak, now a UNESCO world heritage site.[64] The Qutub Minar Complex was expanded by Iltutmish, and later by Ala ud-Din Khalji in the early 14th century.[64][note 1] During the Mamluk dynasty, many nobles from Afghanistan and Persia migrated and settled in India, as West Asia came under Mongol siege.[66]

#### Khalji dynasty (1290–1320)

[edit]

Main articles: Khalji Revolution and Khalji dynasty

See also: Mongol invasions of India

Territory controlled by Khalji dynasty circa 1320.[67]

The Khalji dynasty was of Turko-Afghan heritage.[68][69][70][71] They were originally Turkic, but due to their long presence in Afghanistan, they were treated by others as Afghan as they adopted Afghan habits and customs.[72][73]

The first ruler of the Khalji dynasty was Jalal ud-Din Firuz Khalji. He was around 70 years old at the time of his ascension and was known as a mild-mannered, humble and kind monarch to the general public.[74][75] Jalal ud-Din Firuz ruled for 6 years before he was murdered in 1296 by Muhammad Salim of Samana, on the orders of his nephew and son-in-law Juna Muhammad Khalji,[76] who later came to be known as Ala ud-Din Khalji.[77]

Ala ud-Din began his military career as governor of Kara province, from where he led two raids on the Kingdom of Malwa (1292) and Devagiri (1294) for plunder and loot. After he acceded to the throne, expansions towards these kingdoms were renewed including Gujarat which was conquered by the Grand Vizier Nusrat Khan Jalesari,[78][79][80] the kingdom of Malwa by Ainul Mulk Multani,[81][82] as well as Rajputana.[83] However, these victories were cut short because of Mongol attacks and plunder raids from the northwest. The Mongols withdrew after plundering and stopped raiding northwest parts of the Delhi Sultanate.[84]

After the Mongols withdrew, Ala ud-Din Khalji continued to expand the Delhi Sultanate into southern India with the help of Indian slave generals such as Malik Kafur and Khusro Khan. They collected much war booty (anwatan) from those they defeated.[85][86] His commanders collected war spoils and paid ghanima (Arabic: الْغَنيمَة, a tax on spoils of war), which helped strengthen the Khalji rule. Among the spoils was the Warangal loot that included the famous Koh-i-Noor diamond.[87]

1320

CHAGATAI KHANATE

GOLDEN HORDE

EMPIRE
OF THE
GREAT KHAN

ILKHANATE

GEORGIA

DELHI
SULTANATE

Tungus

PINYA

KHMER

BEYLIKS

MAMLUK
SULTANATE

GO-
RYEO

MAJAPAHIT

MUSCOVY

class=notpageimage|

The Delhi Sultanate and contemporary Asian polities circa 1320. Most of the Asian continent was occupied by the Mongol Empire by that time, with Turkic polities occupying South and Western Asia, as far as Egypt where they established the Mamluk Sultanate.

Ala ud-Din Khalji changed tax policies, raising agriculture taxes from 20% to 50% (payable in grain and agricultural produce), eliminating payments and commissions on taxes collected by local chiefs, banning socialization among his officials as well as inter-marriage between noble families to help prevent any opposition forming against him, and he cut salaries of officials, poets, scholars.[76] These tax policies and spending controls strengthened his treasury to pay the keep of his growing army; he also introduced price controls on all agricultural produce and goods in the kingdom, as well as controls on where, how, by whom these goods could be sold. Markets called "shahana-i-mandi" were created.[88] Muslim merchants were granted exclusive permits and monopoly in these "mandis" to buy and resell at official prices. No one other than these merchants could buy from farmers or sell in cities. Those found violating these "mandi" rules were severely punished, often by mutilation.[89][90] Taxes collected in the form of grain were stored in the kingdom's storage. During famines that followed, these granaries ensured sufficient food for the army.[76]

The Alai Darwaza, completed in 1311 during the Khalji dynasty.

Historians note Ala ud-Din Khalji as being a tyrant. Anyone Ala ud-Din suspected of being a threat to this power was killed along with the men, women, and children of that family. He grew to eventually distrust the majority of his nobles and favoured only a handful of his slaves and family. In 1298, between 15,000 and 30,000 Mongols near Delhi, who had recently converted to Islam, were slaughtered in a single day, due to a mutiny during an invasion of Gujarat.[91] He is also known for his cruelty against kingdoms he defeated in battle.

After Ala ud-Din died in 1316 by assassination through his nobles, his general Malik Kafur, who was born to a Hindu family but converted to Islam, assumed de facto power and was supported by non-Khalji nobles like Kamal al-Din Gurg. However, he lacked the support of the majority of Khalji's nobles who had him assassinated, hoping to take power for themselves.[76] However, the new ruler had the killers of Kafur executed.

The last Khalji ruler was Ala ud-Din Khalji's 18-year-old son Qutb ud-Din Mubarak Shah Khalji, who ruled for four years before he was killed by Khusro Khan, another slave-general with Hindu origins, who reverted from Islam and favoured his Hindu Baradu military clan in the nobility. Khusro Khan's reign lasted only a few months, when Ghazi Malik, later to be called Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq, defeated and killed him and assumed power in 1320, thus ending the Khalji dynasty and starting the Tughlaq dynasty.[66][91]

#### Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413)

[edit]

Main article: Tughlaq dynasty

Territory of the Tughlaq dynasty circa 1330–1335, corresponding to the maximum extent of the Delhi Sultanate.[92]

The Tughlaq dynasty was a Turko-Mongol[93] or Turkic[94] Muslim dynasty, which lasted from 1320 to 1413. The first ruler was Ghiyath al-Din Tughlaq. Ghiyath al-Din ruled for five years and built a town near Delhi named Tughlaqabad.[95] His son Juna Khan and general Ainul Mulk Multani conquered Warangal in south India.[96] According to some historians such as Vincent Smith,[97] he was killed by his son Juna Khan, who then assumed power in 1325.

Juna Khan renamed himself as Muhammad bin Tughlaq and ruled for 26 years.[98] During his rule, the Delhi Sultanate reached its peak in terms of geographical reach, covering most of the Indian subcontinent.[99]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq was an intellectual, with extensive knowledge of the Quran, Fiqh, poetry and other fields. He was also deeply suspicious of his kinsmen and wazirs (ministers), extremely severe with his opponents, and took decisions that caused economic upheaval. For example, he ordered the minting of coins from base metals with face value of silver coins – a decision that failed because ordinary people minted counterfeit coins from base metal they had in their houses and used them to pay taxes and jizya.[99][97]

Depiction of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq, founder of the Tughlaq dynasty, in the Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir, a member of the Tughluq court and an ambassador to Iran. Ca.1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original.[100]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq chose the city of Deogiri in the present-day Indian state of Maharashtra (renaming it Daulatabad), as the second administrative capital of the Delhi Sultanate.[101] He ordered a forced migration of the Muslim population of Delhi, including his royal family, the nobles, Syeds, Sheikhs and 'Ulema to settle in Daulatabad. The purpose of transferring the entire Muslim elite to Daulatabad was to enrol them in his mission of world conquest. He saw their role as propagandists who would adapt Islamic religious symbolism to the rhetoric of empire, and that the Sufis could by persuasion bring many of the inhabitants of the Deccan to become Muslim.[102] Tughluq cruelly punished the nobles who were unwilling to move to Daulatabad seeing their non-compliance with his order as equivalent to rebellion. According to Ferishta, when the Mongols arrived in Punjab, the Sultan returned the elite to Delhi, although Daulatabad remained an administrative centre.[103] One result of the transfer of the elite to Daulatabad was the hatred of the nobility to the Sultan, which remained in their minds for a long time.[104] The other result was that he managed to create a stable Muslim elite and result in the growth of the Muslim population of Daulatabad who did not return to Delhi,[99] without which the rise of the Bahmanid kingdom to challenge the Vijayanagara kingdom would not have been possible.[105] Muhammad bin Tughlaq's adventures in the Deccan region also marked campaigns of destruction and desecration temples, for example, the Svayambhu Shiva Temple and the Thousand Pillar Temple in Warangal.[36]

Revolts against Muhammad bin Tughlaq began in 1327, continued over his reign, and over time the geographical reach of the Sultanate shrunk. The Vijayanagara Empire originated in southern India as a direct response to attacks from the Delhi Sultanate,[106] and liberated south India from the Delhi Sultanate's rule.[107] In the 1330s, Muhammad bin Tughlaq ordered an invasion of China, sending part of his forces over the Himalayas. However, they were defeated by the Kangra State.[108] During his reign, state revenues collapsed from his policies such as the base metal coins from 1329 to 1332. Famines, widespread poverty, and rebellion grew across the kingdom. In 1338 his nephew rebelled in Malwa, whom he attacked, caught, flayed alive, and killed ultimately.[109][110] By 1339, the eastern regions under local Muslim governors and southern parts led by Hindu kings had revolted and declared independence from the Delhi Sultanate. Muhammad bin Tughlaq did not have the resources or support to respond to the shrinking kingdom.[111] The historian Walford chronicled that Delhi and most of India faced severe famines during Muhammad bin Tughlaq's rule in the years after the base metal coin experiment.[112][113] In 1335, Jalaluddin Ahsan Khan, a Sayyid native of Kaithal in North India, revolted and founded the Madurai Sultanate in South India.[114][115][116] By 1347, the Bahmani Sultanate had become independent through the rebellion of Ismail Mukh. It became a competing Muslim kingdom in the Deccan region of South Asia, founded by Ala-ud-Din Bahman Shah.[46][117][118][119]

The Tughlaq dynasty is remembered for its architectural patronage, such as the construction of Firoz Shah Kotla. It reused old Buddhist pillars erected by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE, such as the Delhi-Topra pillar. The Sultanate initially wanted to use the pillars as minarets. Firuz Shah Tughlaq decided otherwise and had them installed near mosques.[120] The meaning of the Brahmi script on the pillars (the Edicts of Ashoka) was unknown in Firuz Shah's time.[121][122]

Muhammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351 while trying to chase and punish people in Gujarat who were rebelling against the Delhi Sultanate.[111] He was succeeded by Firuz Shah Tughlaq (1351–1388), who tried to regain the old kingdom, boundary by waging a war with Bengal for 11 months in 1359. However, Bengal did not fall. Firuz Shah ruled for 37 years. His reign was marked with prosperity much of which was due to the wise and capable Grand Vizier, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul, a South Indian Telugu Muslim.[123][124] His reign attempted to stabilize the food supply and reduce famines by commissioning an irrigation canal from the Yamuna river. An educated sultan, Firuz Shah left a memoir.[125] In it he wrote that he banned the practice of torture, such as amputations, tearing out of eyes, sawing people alive, crushing people's bones as punishment, pouring molten lead into throats, setting people on fire, driving nails into hands and feet, among others.[126] He also wrote that he did not tolerate attempts by Rafawiz Shia Muslim and Mahdi sects from proselytizing people into their faith, nor did he tolerate Hindus who tried to rebuild temples that his armies had destroyed.[127] Firuz Shah Tughlaq also lists his accomplishments to include converting Hindus to Sunni Islam by announcing an exemption from taxes and jizya for those who convert, and by lavishing new converts with presents and honours.[128][129][130] He also vastly expanded the number of slaves in his service and those of Muslim nobles, who were converted to Islam, taught to read and memorize the Quran, and employed in many offices especially in the military, out of which he was able to amass a large army.[131] These slaves were known as the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi formed an elite guard which later became influential in the state.[132][133] The reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq was marked by reduction in extreme forms of torture, elimination of favours to select parts of society, but also increased intolerance and persecution of targeted groups,[126] the latter of which resulting in conversion of significant parts of the population to Islam.[134]

A base metal coin of Muhammad bin Tughlaq that led to an economic collapse.

The death of Firuz Shah Tughlaq created anarchy and disintegration of the kingdom. Firuz Shah's successor, Ghiyath-ud-Din Shah II was young and inexperienced and gave himself up to wine and pleasure. The nobles rose against him killed the Sultan and his vizier, and installed Abu Bakr Shah on the throne.[135] However, the old Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi turned against Abu Bakr, who fled, and on their invitation Nasir-ud-Din Muhammad Shah was installed on the throne.[136] The anamalous institution of the Ghulaman-i-Firuz Shahi became a corrupting influence on the successive Sultans following Firuz Shah.[137] The last rulers of this dynasty both called themselves Sultan from 1394 to 1397: Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, the grandson of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Delhi, and Nasir ud-Din Nusrat Shah Tughlaq, another relative of Firuz Shah Tughlaq who ruled from Firozabad, which was a few miles from Delhi.[138] The battle between the two relatives continued until Timur's invasion in 1398. Timur, also known as Tamerlane in Western scholarly literature, was the Turkicized Mongol ruler of the Timurid Empire. He became aware of the weakness and quarrelling of the rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, so he marched with his army to Delhi, plundering and killing all the way.[139][140] Estimates for the massacre by Timur in Delhi range from 100,000 to 200,000 people.[141][142] Timur had no intention of staying in or ruling India. He looted the lands he crossed, then plundered and burnt Delhi. Over fifteen days, Timur and his army raged a massacre.[143][144] Then he collected wealth, captured women and men and children, and enslaved people (particularly skilled artisans), and returning with this loot to Samarkand. The people and lands within the Delhi Sultanate were left in a state of anarchy, chaos, and pestilence.[138] Nasir ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughlaq, who had fled to Gujarat during Timur's invasion, returned and nominally ruled as the last ruler of the Tughlaq dynasty, as a puppet of the various factions at the court.[145]

#### Sayyid dynasty (1414–1450)

[edit]

Main article: Sayyid dynasty

Territories of the Sayyid Dynasty.[146]

The Sayyid dynasty was founded by Khizr Khan and it ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1415 to 1451.[46] Members of the dynasty derived their title, Sayyid, or the descendants of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad, based on the claim that they belonged to his lineage through his daughter Fatima.[147] Abraham Eraly thinks his forebears were likely that Khizr Khan's ancestors were likely descendants of an Arab family who had long ago settled in the region of Multan during the early Tughluq period, but he doubts his Sayyid lineage.[148] A.L. Srivastava shares a similar viewpoint.[149] According to Richard M. Eaton and Simon Digby, Khizr Khan was a Punjabi chieftain from Khokhar clan.[150][151] The Timurid invasion and plunder had left the Delhi Sultanate in shambles, and little is known about the rule by the Sayyid dynasty. Annemarie Schimmel notes the first ruler of the dynasty as Khizr Khan, who assumed power as a vassal of the Timurid Empire. His successor was Mubarak Khan, who renamed himself Mubarak Shah, discontinued his father's nominal allegiance to Timur and unsuccessfully tried to regain lost territories in Punjab from Khokhar warlords.[145][152]

The tomb of Muhammad Shah at Lodi Gardens, New Delhi.

With the power of the Sayyid dynasty faltering, Islam's history on the Indian subcontinent underwent a profound change, according to Schimmel.[145] The previously dominant Sunni sect of Islam became diluted, alternate Muslim sects such as Shia rose, and new competing centres of Islamic culture took roots beyond Delhi.

In the course of the late Sayyid dynasty, the Delhi Sultanate shrank until it became a minor power. By the time of the last Sayyid ruler, Alam Shah (whose name translated to "king of the world"), this resulted in a common northern Indian witticism, according to which the "kingdom of the king of the world extends from Delhi to Palam", i.e. merely 13 kilometres (8.1 mi). Historian Richard M. Eaton noted that this saying showcased how the "once-mighty empire had become a joke".[153] The Sayyid dynasty was displaced by the Lodi dynasty in 1451, however, resulting in a resurgence of the Delhi Sultanate.[153]

#### Lodi dynasty (1451–1526)

[edit]

Main article: Lodi dynasty

Territory of the Lodi Sultanate (1451–1526).[154]

The Lodi dynasty was an Afghan, or Turco-Afghan dynasty,[a] related to the Pashtun (Afghan) Lodi tribe.[156][157] The founder of the dynasty, Bahlul Khan Lodi, was a Khalji of the Lodi clan.[158] He started his reign by attacking the Muslim Jaunpur Sultanate to expand the influence of the Delhi Sultanate and was partially successful through a treaty. Thereafter, the region from Delhi to Varanasi (then at the border of Bengal province), was back under the influence of the Delhi Sultanate.

Ibrahim Lodi, last Sultan of the Lodi dynasty, at the Battle of Panipat (1526) against Babur. Baburnama c.1590

After Bahlul Lodi died, his son Nizam Khan assumed power, renamed himself Sikandar Lodi and ruled from 1489 to 1517.[159] One of the better-known rulers of the dynasty, Sikandar Lodi expelled his brother Barbak Shah from Jaunpur, installed his son Jalal Khan as the ruler, then proceeded east to make claims on Bihar. The Muslim governors of Bihar agreed to pay tribute and taxes but operated independently of the Delhi Sultanate. Sikandar Lodi led a campaign of destruction of temples, particularly around Mathura. He also moved his capital and court from Delhi to Agra,[160] an ancient Hindu city that had been destroyed during the plunder and attacks of the early Delhi Sultanate period. Sikandar thus erected buildings with Indo-Islamic architecture in Agra during his rule, and the growth of Agra continued during the Mughal Empire, after the end of the Delhi Sultanate.[161][162]

Sikandar Lodi died a natural death in 1517, and his second son Ibrahim Lodi assumed power. Ibrahim did not enjoy the support of Afghan and Persian nobles or regional chiefs.[163] Ibrahim attacked and killed his elder brother Jalal Khan, who was installed as the governor of Jaunpur by his father and had the support of the amirs and chiefs.[161] Ibrahim Lodi was unable to consolidate his power, and after Jalal Khan's death, the governor of Punjab, Daulat Khan Lodi, reached out to the Mughal Babur and invited him to attack the Delhi Sultanate.[164] Babur defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the Battle of Panipat in 1526. The death of Ibrahim Lodi ended the Delhi Sultanate, and the Mughal Empire replaced it.[165]

## Government and politics

[edit]

The historian Peter Jackson explains in The New Cambridge History of Islam: "The elite of the early Delhi sultanate comprised overwhelmingly first-generation immigrants from Iran and Central Asia: Persians, Turks, Ghūrīs, Khalaj from the hot regions (garmsīr) of modern Afghanistan".[166]

### Political system

[edit]

Delhi Sultanate

Ruling dynasties

Mamluk dynasty

|  Qutb al-Din Aibak|  1206–1210

|

Aram Shah|  1210–1211
Iltutmish|  1211–1236
Rukn ud din Firuz|  1236
Razia Sultana|  1236-1240
Muiz ud din Bahram|  1240–1242
Ala ud din Masud|  1242–1246
Nasiruddin Mahmud|  1246–1266
Ghiyas ud din Balban|  1266–1287
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad|  1287–1290
Shamsuddin Kayumars|  1290

Khalji dynasty

|  Jalaluddin|  1290–1296

|

Alauddin|  1296–1316
Shihabuddin Omar|  1316
Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah|  1316–1320
Khusrau Khan|  1320

Tughlaq dynasty

|  Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq|  1320–1325

|

Muhammad bin Tughluq|  1325–1351
Firuz Shah Tughlaq|  1351–1388
Tughluq Khan|  1388–1389
Abu Bakr Shah|  1389–1390
Nasir ud din Muhammad Shah III|  1390–1393
Ala ud-din Sikandar Shah|  1393
Nasir-ud-din Nusrat Shah Tughluq|  1394–1398
Nasir-ud-Din Mahmud Shah Tughluq|  1394–1413

Sayyid dynasty

|  Khizr Khan|  1414–1421

|

Mubarak Shah|  1421–1434
Muhammad Shah|  1434–1445
Alam Shah|  1445–1451

Lodi dynasty

|  Bahlul Khan Lodi|  1451–1489

|

Sikandar Lodi|  1489–1517
Ibrahim Lodi|  1517–1526

* v
* t
* e

Medieval scholars such as Isami and Barani suggested that the prehistory of the Delhi Sultanate lay in the Ghaznavid state and that its ruler, Mahmud Ghaznavi, provided the foundation and inspiration integral in the making of the Delhi regime. The Mongol and Hindu monarchies were the great "Others" in these narratives and the Persianate and class-conscious, aristocratic virtues of the ideal state were creatively memorialized in the Ghaznavid state, now the templates for the Delhi Sultanate. Cast within a historical narrative it allowed for a more self-reflective, linear rooting of the Sultanate in the great traditions of Muslim statecraft.[167] Over time, successive Muslim dynasties created a "centralized structure in the Persian tradition whose task was to mobilize human and material resources for the ongoing armed struggle against both Mongol and Hindu monarchies".[168] The monarch was not the Sultan of the Hindus or of, say, the people of Haryana, rather in the eyes of the Sultanate's chroniclers, the Muslims constituted what in more recent times would be termed a "Staatsvolk". For many Muslim observers, the ultimate justification for any ruler within the Islamic world was the protection and advancement of the faith. For the Sultans, as for their Ghaznavid and Ghurid predecessors, this entailed the suppression of heterodox Muslims, and Firuz Shah attached some importance to the fact that he had acted against the ashab-i had-u ibadat (deviators and latitudinarians). It also involved plundering and extorting tribute from, independent Hindu principalities.[169] Firuz Shah, who believed that India was changed into a Muslim nation,[170] declared that "no zimmi living in a Musalman country might dare to act".[171]

The Hindu kingdoms who submitted to Islamic rule qualified as "protected peoples" according to the wide spectrum of the educated Muslim community within the subcontinent. The balance of the evidence is that in the latter half of the fourteenth century, if not before, the jizyah was levied as a discriminatory tax on non-Muslims, although even then it is difficult to see how such a measure could have been enforced outside the principal centres of Muslim authority.[172] The Delhi Sultanate also continued the governmental conventions of the previous Hindu polities, claiming paramountcy of some of its subjects rather than exclusive supreme control. Accordingly, it did not interfere with the autonomy and military of certain conquered Hindu rulers and freely included Hindu vassals and officials.[18]

### Economic policy and administration

[edit]

See also: Market reforms of Alauddin Khalji

Coin of Ghiyath al-Din 'Iwad, Governor of Bengal, AH 614–616 AD 1217–1220. Struck in the name of Shams al-Din Iltutmish, Sultan of Dehli.

The economic policy of the Delhi Sultanate was characterized by greater government involvement in the economy relative to the Classical Hindu dynasties, and increased penalties for private businesses that broke government regulations. Alauddin Khalji replaced the private markets with four centralized government-run markets, appointed a "market controller", and implemented strict price controls[173] on all kinds of goods, "from caps to socks; from combs to pins; from vegetables to soups, from sweetmeats to chapatis" (according to Ziauddin Barani [c. 1357][174]). The price controls were inflexible even during droughts.[175] Capitalist investors were completely banned from participating in the horse trade,[176] animal and slave brokers were forbidden from collecting commissions,[177] and private merchants were eliminated from all animal and slave markets.[177] Bans were instituted against hoarding[178] and regrating,[179] granaries were nationalized[178] and limits were placed on the amount of grain that could be used by cultivators for personal use.[180]

Various licensing rules were imposed. Registration of merchants was required,[181] and expensive goods such as certain fabrics were deemed "unnecessary" for the general public and required a permit from the state to be purchased. These licenses were issued to amirs, maliks, and other important persons in government.[177] Agricultural taxes were raised to 50%.

Traders regarded the regulations as burdensome, and violations were severely punished, leading to further resentment among the traders.[174] A network of spies was instituted to ensure the implementation of the system; even after price controls were lifted after Khalji's death, Barani claims that the fear of his spies remained and that people continued to avoid trading in expensive commodities.[182]

### Social policies

[edit]

Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq leading his troops in the capture of the city of Tirhut in 1324, from Basātin al-uns by Ikhtisān-i Dabir, a member of the Tughluq court. Ca.1410 Jalayirid copy of 1326 lost original. Istanbul, Topkapi Palace Museum Library, Ms. R.1032.[183]

The sultanate enforced Islamic religious prohibitions on anthropomorphic representations in art.[184]

### Military

[edit]

The army of the Delhi sultans initially consisted of nomadic Turkic Mamluk military slaves belonging to Muhammad of Ghor.

The nucleus of this Southeast Asian sultanate military were the Turco-Afghani regular units named Wajih, which were composed of elite household cavalry archers who came from slave backgrounds.[185] A major military contribution of the Delhi Sultanate was their successful campaigns repelling the Mongol Empire's invasions of India, which could have been devastating for the Indian subcontinent, like the Mongol invasions of China, Persia and Europe. Were it not for the Delhi Sultanate, the Mongol Empire may have been successful in invading India.[42]

The strength of the armies changes according to time. Historians state the Delhi sultanate during the Khalji dynasty maintained 300,000–400,000 horse cavalry and 2500–3000 war elephant as a standing army.[186][187][188][189][190][191] Its successor state, the Tughlaq dynasty further expanded into 500,000 horse cavalry in their force.[188]

## Economy

[edit]

See also: Economic history of India

Some historians argue that the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for making India more multicultural and cosmopolitan. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India has been compared to the expansion of the Mongol Empire and called "part of a larger trend occurring throughout much of Eurasia, in which nomadic people migrated from the steppes of Inner Asia and became politically dominant".[28]

According to Angus Maddison, between the years 1000 and 1500, India's GDP, of which the sultanates represented a significant part, grew nearly 8% to $60.5 billion in 1500. Though the overall the percentage of the GDP share reduced from 33% to 22% [192] According to Maddison's estimates, India's population grew from 85 million in 1200 to 101 million in 1500 AD in the period.[16]

[1500]

MOGHULISTAN

PHAGMODRUPAS

CHAM-

SIBIR KHANATE

CRIMEAN
KHANATE

LITHUANIA
GRAND DUCHY

KHAZAN
KHANATE

ASTRA-
KHAN

MUSCOVY

NOGAIS

KAZAKH KHANATE

MING
DYNASTY

FOUR
OIRATS

NORTHERN YUAN

QOYUNLU

VIJAYA-
NAGARA

BUKHARA
KHANATE

TIMURID
EMPIRE

DELHI
SULTANATE

Tungus

AVA

LAN
XANG

OTTOMAN
EMPIRE

MAMLUK
SULTANATE

JO-
SEON

MALACCA

class=notpageimage|

The Delhi Sultanate and main other polities circa 1500

The Delhi Sultanate period coincided with more use of mechanical technology in the Indian subcontinent.[193] India previously already had highly sophisticated agriculture, food crops, textiles, medicine, minerals, and metals.[193] Water wheels also previously existed in India, as described by various Chinese monks and Arab travellers and writers in their books.[194][195][note 2] During the Delhi Sultanate, various mechanical devices were introduced from the Islamic world to India, such as geared water-raising wheels and other machines with gears, pulleys, cams, and cranks.[193] Later, Mughal emperor Babur provided a description on the use of water wheels in the Delhi Sultanate.[200]

Transportation of the Delhi-Topra pillar to Delhi. Sirat i-Firuz Shahi, 14th century illustration.[201]

According to historians Arnold Pacey and Irfan Habib, the spinning wheel was introduced to India from Iran during the Delhi Sultanate.[202] Smith and Cothren suggested that it was invented in India during the latter half of the first millennium,[203] but Pacey and Habib said these early references to cotton spinning do not identify a wheel, but more likely refer to hand spinning.[204] The earliest unambiguous reference to a spinning wheel in India is dated to 1350.[204] The worm gear roller cotton gin was invented in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries; Habib states that the development may likely occurred in peninsular India, before becoming more widespread across India during the Mughal era.[205] The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin may have appeared sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire.[206]

India and China have connections throughout the thousands of years of history. Paper had already reached some parts of India as early as the 6th or 7th century,[207][208][209] initially through Chinese travellers and the ancient silk road which India was very well connected with. Earlier some historians believed that paper failed to catch on as palmyra leaves and birch bark remained far more popular but this theory was discredited later on.[210][211][212][213] On the other hand, the paper may have arrived in Bengal from a separate route, as 15th-century Chinese traveller Ma Huan remarked that Bengali paper was white and made from "bark of a tree" similar to the Chinese method of papermaking (as opposed to the Middle-Eastern method of using rags and waste material), suggesting a direct route from China for the arrival of paper in Bengal and paper was already very well established and widespread in that part of the subcontinent.[213]

## Factors

[edit]

### Demographics

[edit]

See also: Demographics of India: History

According to one set of very uncertain estimates by modern historians, the total Indian population had largely been stagnant at 75 million during the Middle Kingdoms era from 1 AD to 1000 AD. During the Medieval Delhi Sultanate era from 1000 to 1500, India as a whole experienced lasting population growth for the first time in a thousand years, with its population increasing nearly 50% to 110 million by 1500 AD.[214][215]

### Culture

[edit]

See also: Indo-Persian culture

Decorative reliefs, Alai Darwaza, 1311.

While the Indian subcontinent has had invaders from Central Asia since ancient times, what made the Muslim invasions different is that unlike the preceding invaders who assimilated into the prevalent social system, the successful Muslim conquerors retained their Islamic identity and created new legal and administrative systems that challenged and usually in many cases superseded the existing systems of social conduct and ethics, even influencing the non-Muslim rivals and common masses to a large extent, though the non-Muslim population was left to their laws and customs.[216][217] They also introduced new cultural codes that in some ways were very different from the existing cultural codes. This led to the rise of a new Indian culture that was mixed in nature, different from ancient Indian culture. The overwhelming majority of Muslims in India were Indian natives converted to Islam. This factor also played an important role in the synthesis of cultures.[218]

The Hindustani language (Hindi) began to emerge in the Delhi Sultanate period, developed from the Middle Indo-Aryan apabhramsha vernaculars of North India. Amir Khusrau, who lived in the 13th century CE during the Delhi Sultanate period in North India, used a form of Hindustani, which was the lingua franca of the period, in his writings and referred to it as Hindavi.[29]

The officers, the Sultans, Khans, Maliks and the soldiers wore the Islamic qabas dress in the style of Khwarezm, which were tucked in the middle of the body, while the turban and kullah were common headwear. The turbans were wrapped around the kullah (caps), and the feet were covered with red boots. The Wazirs and Katibs also dressed like the soldiers, except they did not use belts, and often let down a piece of cloth in front of them in the manner of the Sufis. The judges and the learned men wore ample gowns (farajiyat) and an Arabic garment (durra).[219]

### Architecture

[edit]

Main article: Indo-Islamic architecture

The Qutb Minar (left, begun c. 1200) next to the Alai Darwaza gatehouse (1311); Qutb Minar complex in Delhi.[64]

The start of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 under Qutb al-Din Aibak introduced a large Islamic state to India, using Central Asian styles.[220] The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both were very often topped by large domes and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Both types of building essentially consist of a single large space under a high dome, and completely avoid the figurative sculpture so important to Hindu temple architecture.[221]

The important Qutb Minar complex in Delhi was begun under Muhammad of Ghor, by 1199, and continued under Qutb al-Din Aibak and later sultans. The Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque, now a ruin, was the first structure. Like other early Islamic buildings, it re-used elements such as columns from destroyed Hindu and Jain temples, including one on the same site whose platform was reused. The style was Iranian, but the arches were still corbelled in the traditional Indian way.[222]

Beside it is the extremely tall Qutb Minar, a minaret or victory tower, whose original four stages reach 73 meters (with a final stage added later). Its closest comparator is the 62-metre all-brick Minaret of Jam in Afghanistan, of c. 1190, a decade or so before the probable start of the Delhi tower.[note 3] The surfaces of both are elaborately decorated with inscriptions and geometric patterns; in Delhi the shaft is fluted with "superb stalactite bracketing under the balconies" at the top of each stage.[223] In general minarets were slow to be used in India, and are often detached from the main mosque where they exist.[224]

The Tomb of Iltutmish was added by 1236; its dome, the squinches again corbelled, and is now missing, and the intricate carving has been described as having an "angular harshness", from carvers working in an unfamiliar tradition.[225] Other elements were added to the complex over the next two centuries.

Another very early mosque, begun in the 1190s, is the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra in Ajmer, Rajasthan, built for the same Delhi rulers, again with corbelled arches and domes. Here Hindu temple columns (and possibly some new ones) are piled up in threes to achieve extra height. Both mosques had large detached screens with pointed corbelled arches added in front of them, probably under Iltutmish a couple of decades later. In these, the central arch is taller, in imitation of an iwan. At Ajmer, the smaller screen arches are tentatively cusped, for the first time in India.[226]

By around 1300 true domes and arches with voussoirs were being built; the ruined Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi may be the earliest survival.[227] The Alai Darwaza gatehouse at the Qutb complex, from 1311, still shows a cautious approach to the new technology, with very thick walls and a shallow dome, only visible from a certain distance or height. Bold contrasting colours of masonry, with red sandstone and white marble, introduce what was to become a common feature of Indo-Islamic architecture, substituting for the polychrome tiles used in Persia and Central Asia. The pointed arches come together slightly at their base, giving a mild horseshoe arch effect, and their internal edges are not cusped but lined with conventionalized "spearhead" projections, possibly representing lotus buds. Jali, stone openwork screens, are introduced here; they already had been long used in temples.[228]

#### Tughlaq architecture

[edit]

Tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam at Multan, built during the reign of Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughluq in 1320 AD

The tomb of Shah Rukn-e-Alam (built 1320 to 1324) in Multan, Pakistan is a large octagonal brick-built mausoleum with polychrome glazed decoration that remains much closer to the styles of Iran and Afghanistan. Timber is also used internally. This was the earliest major monument of the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413), built during the unsustainable expansion of its massive territory. It was built for a Sufi saint rather than a sultan, and most of the many Tughlaq tombs are much less exuberant. The tomb of the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325) is more austere, but impressive; like a Hindu temple, it is topped with a small amalaka and a round finial like a kalasha. Unlike the buildings mentioned previously, it completely lacks carved texts and sits in a compound with high walls and battlements. Both these tombs have external walls sloping slightly inwards, by 25° in the Delhi tomb, like many fortifications including the ruined Tughlaqabad Fort opposite the tomb, intended as the new capital.[229]

The Tughlaqs had a corps of government architects and builders, and in this and other roles employed many Hindus. They left many buildings and a standardized dynastic style.[228] The third sultan, Firuz Shah (r. 1351–88) is said to have designed buildings himself and was the longest ruler and greatest builder of the dynasty. His Firoz Shah Palace Complex (started 1354) at Hisar, Haryana is a ruin, but parts are in fair condition.[230] Some buildings from his reign take forms that had been rare or unknown in Islamic buildings.[231] He was buried in the large Hauz Khas Complex in Delhi, with many other buildings from his period and the later Sultanate, including several small domed pavilions supported only by columns.[232]

By this time Islamic architecture in India had adopted some features of earlier Indian architecture, such as the use of a high plinth,[233] and often mouldings around its edges, as well as columns and brackets and hypostyle halls.[234] After the death of Firoz the Tughlaqs declined, and the following Delhi dynasties were weak. Most of the monumental buildings constructed were tombs, although the impressive Lodi Gardens in Delhi (adorned with fountains, charbagh gardens, ponds, tombs and mosques) were constructed by the late Lodi dynasty. The architecture of other regional Muslim states was often more impressive.[235]

* Screen of the Adhai Din Ka Jhonpra mosque, Ajmer, c. 1229; Corbel arches, some cusped.

* Tomb of Ghiyath al-Din Tughluq (d. 1325), Delhi

* Possibly the first "true" arches in India; Tomb of Balban (d. 1287) in Delhi

* Pavilions in the Hauz Khas Complex, Delhi

* The Shish Gumbad in the Lodi Gardens, Delhi

* Tomb of Sikandar Lodi in the Lodi Gardens, Delhi

## List of rulers

[edit]

Main article: List of rulers of the Delhi Sultanate

## Downfall

[edit]

### Cities

[edit]

While the sacking of cities was not uncommon in medieval warfare, the army of the Delhi Sultanate also often destroyed cities in their military expeditions. According to Jain chronicler Jinaprabha Suri, Nusrat Khan's conquests destroyed hundreds of towns including Ashapalli (modern-day Ahmedabad), Anhilvad (modern-day Patan), Vanthali and Surat in Gujarat.[236] This account is corroborated by Ziauddin Barani.[237]

### Battles and massacres

[edit]

* Ghiyas ud din Balban wiped out the Rajputs of Mewar and Awadh, killing approximately 100,000 people.[238]
* Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing of 30,000 people at Chittor.[239]
* Alauddin Khalji ordered the killing Brahmins during his raid on Devagiri.[240]
* According to a hymn, Muhammad bin Tughlaq is said to have killed 12,000 Hindu ascetics during the sacking of Srirangam.[241]
* Firuz Shah Tughlaq killed 180,000 people during his invasion of Odisha.[242]

### Desecration

[edit]

Jordan Catala was a contemporary European witness of the destructions by the "Turkish Saracens" in India (extract from Mirabilia Descripta, written in 1329–1338).[243][244]

Historian Richard Eaton has tabulated a campaign of destruction of idols and temples by Delhi Sultans, intermixed with certain years where the temples were protected from desecration.[37][245][246] In his paper, he has listed 37 instances of Hindu temples being desecrated or destroyed in India during the Delhi Sultanate, from 1234 to 1518, for which reasonable evidences are available.[247][248][249] He notes that this was not unusual in medieval India, as there were numerous recorded instances of temple desecration by Hindu and Buddhist kings against rival Indian kingdoms between 642 and 1520, involving conflict between devotees of different Hindu deities, as well as between Hindus, Buddhists and Jains at small scales.[250][251][252] He also noted there were also many instances of Delhi sultans, who often had Hindu ministers, ordering the protection, maintenance and repairing of temples, according to both Muslim and Hindu sources. For example, a Sanskrit inscription notes that Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq repaired a Shiva and Parvati temple in Bidar after his Deccan conquest. There was often a pattern of Delhi sultans plundering or damaging temples during the conquest and then patronizing or repairing temples after the conquest. This pattern came to an end with the Mughal Empire, where Akbar's chief minister Abu'l-Fazl criticized the excesses of earlier sultans such as Mahmud of Ghazni.[247]

In the majority of cases, the demolished remains, rocks and broken statue pieces of temples destroyed by Delhi sultans were reused to build mosques and other buildings. For example, the Qutb complex in Delhi was built from stones from 27 demolished Hindu and Jain temples by some accounts.[253] Similarly, the Muslim mosque in Khanapur, Maharashtra was built from the looted parts and demolished remains of Hindu temples.[66] Muhammad bin Bakhtiyar Khalji destroyed Buddhist Religious Centres such as Odantapuri & Vikramshila in 1193 at the beginning of the Delhi Sultanate.[36][35]

The first historical record of a campaign of destruction of temples and defacement of faces or heads of Hindu idols lasted from 1193 to 1194 in Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh under the command of Ghuri. Under the Mamluks and Khaljis, the campaign of temple desecration expanded to Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra, and continued through the late 13th century.[37] The campaign extended to Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu under Malik Kafur and Ulugh Khan in the 14th century, and by the Bahmanis in the 15th century.[36][failed verification] Orissa temples were destroyed in the 14th century under the Tughlaqs.

Beyond destruction and desecration, the sultans of the Delhi Sultanate in some cases had forbidden the reconstruction or repair of damaged Hindu, Jain and Buddhist temples. In certain cases, the Sultanate would grant a permit for repairs and construction of temples if the patron or religious community paid jizya (fee, tax). For example, a proposal by the Chinese to repair Himalayan Buddhist temples destroyed by the Sultanate army was refused, because such temple repairs were only allowed if the Chinese agreed to pay jizya tax to the treasury of the Sultanate.[254][255][256] According to Eva De Clercq, an expert in the study of Jainism, the Delhi Sultans did not strictly prohibit construction of new temples in the sultanate, Islamic law notwithstanding.[257] In his memoirs, Firoz Shah Tughlaq describes how he destroyed temples and built mosques instead and killed those who dared build new temples.[127] Other historical records from wazirs, amirs and the court historians of various Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate describe the grandeur of idols and temples they witnessed in their campaigns and how these were destroyed and desecrated.[258]

Temple desecration during Delhi Sultanate period, a list prepared by Richard Eaton in Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States[37][259] Sultan / Agent  | Dynasty  | Years  | Temple Sites Destroyed  | States

|
|
|
|

Muhammad of Ghor, Qutb ud-Din Aibak and Bakhtiyar Khalji | Ghurids | 1192–1206  | Ajmer, Samana, Kuhram, Delhi, Kara, Pushkar, Anahilavada, Kol, Kannauj, Varanasi, Nalanda, Odantapuri, Somapura, Vikramashila | Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Bengal
Iltumish, Jalal-ud-din Khalji, Alauddin Khalji, Malik Kafur | Mamluk and Khalji  | 1211–1320  | Bhilsa, Ujjain, Jhain, Vijapur, Devagiri, Ellora, Lonar, Somnath, Ashapalli, Khambhat, Vamanathali, Surat, Dhar, Mandu, Ranthambore, Chittor, Siwana, Jalore, Hanmakonda, Dvarasamudra, Chidambaram, Srirangam, Madurai | Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu
Ulugh Khan, Firuz Shah Tughlaq, Raja Nahar Khan, Muzaffar Khan | Khalji and Tughlaq  | 1320–1395[note 4] | Warangal, Bodhan, Pillalamarri, Ghanpur, Dvarasamudra, Belur, Somanathapura, Puri, Cuttack, Jajpur, Jaunpur, Sainthali, Idar[note 5] | Gujarat, Telangana, Karnataka, Orissa, Haryana
Sikandar, Muzaffar Shah, Ahmad Shah, Mahmud | Sayyid  | 1400–1442  | Paraspur, Bijbehara, Tripureshvara, Idar, Diu, Manvi, Sidhpur, Navasari, Dilwara, Kumbhalmer | Gujarat, Rajasthan
Suhrab, Begada, Bahmanis, Khalil Shah, Khawwas Khan, Sikandar Lodi, Ibrahim Lodi | Lodi  | 1457–1518  | Mandalgarh, Malan, Dwarka, Alampur, Kondapalli, Kanchipuram, Amod, Nagarkot, Girnar, Vadnagar, Junagadh, Pavagadh, Utgir, Narwar, Khajuraho, Gwalior | Rajasthan, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu

* Iconoclasm under the Delhi Sultanate
* The Somnath Temple in Gujarat was repeatedly destroyed by Delhi Sultanate armies and rebuilt by Chaulukya armies. It was destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate's army in 1299 and was rebuilt afterwards.[260]

* The Kashi Vishwanath Temple was destroyed by Muhammad of Ghor along with thousand other temples in Varanasi.[261]

* The armies of the Delhi Sultanate led by their Delhi Sultanate commander Malik Kafur demolished and plundered the Meenakshi Temple of Madurai and looted it of all its wealth.[262][263][264]

* Kakatiya Kala Thoranam (Warangal Gate) built by the Kakatiya dynasty in ruins; one of the many temple complexes destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate.[37]

* Rani ki Vav is a stepwell, built by the Chaulukya dynasty, located in Patan; the city was sacked by Sultan of Delhi Qutb ud-Din Aibak between 1200 and 1210, and again by the Allauddin Khalji in 1298.[265]

* Artistic rendition of the Kirtistambha at Rudra Mahalaya Temple. The temple was destroyed by Alauddin Khalji.[266]

* Exterior wall reliefs at Hoysaleshvara Temple. The temple was twice sacked and plundered by the Delhi Sultanate.[267]

## See also

[edit]

Part of a series on the

History of India
Timeline

Prehistoric

* Paleolithic
* Masol c. 2.6 Ma
* Riwat c. 2.5 Ma
* Madrasian culture c. 1.5 Ma
* Soanian c. 500,000 BCE
* Neolithic, c. 7600 – c. 1000 BCE
* Bhirrana 7570 – 6200 BCE
* Jhusi 7106 BCE
* Lahuradewa 7000 BCE
* Koldihwa 7000 BCE
* Mehrgarh 7000 – 2600 BCE
* South Indian Neolithic 3000 – 1000 BCE

Ancient

* Indus Valley Civilization, c. 3300 – c. 1700 BCE
* Post Indus Valley Period
(Cemetery H Culture), c. 1700 – c. 1500 BCE
* Vedic civilization, c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE
* Kuru kingdom, c. 1200 – c. 500 BCE
* Early Vedic period
* Rise of Śramaṇa movement
* Later Vedic Period
* Spread of Jainism – Parshvanatha
* Spread of Jainism – Mahavira
* Rise of Buddhism

* Kingdom of Magadha
* Brihadratha Dynasty 1700 – 682 BCE
* Haryanka Dynasty 544 – 413 BCE
* Shaishunaga Dynasty 413 – 345 BCE
* Nanda Dynasty, 345 – 322 BCE
* Mahajanapadas, c. 600 – 345 BCE

Classical

* Magadhan Empire
* Maurya Dynasty, 322 – 185 BCE
* Shunga Dynasty, 185 – 73 BCE
* Kanva Dynasty, 73 – 28 BCE
* Sangam period 300 BCE – 400 CE
* Kushan Dynasty, c. 30 – c. 375 CE
* Satavahana Dynasty, c. 228 BCE – c. 224 CE
* Gupta Dynasty, c. 240 – c. 550 CE

Early medieval

* Pallava dynasty, 275 CE - 897 CE
* Chalukya Dynasty, 543 – 753 CE
* Pandya Dynasty, 590 CE - 920 CE
* Harsha's Dynasty, c. 606 CE – c. 647 CE
* Karakota Dynasty, c. 724 – c. 760 CE
* Arab Invasion, c. 738 CE
* Tripartite Struggle, c. 760 – c. 973 CE
* Pratihara dynasty
* Rastrakuta Dynasty
* Pala Dynasty
* Chola Dynasty, c. 848 – c. 1251 CE
* 2nd Chalukya Dynasty, c. 973 – c. 1187 CE

Late medieval

* Delhi Sultanate, 1206 – 1526 CE
* Mamluk Dynasty
* Khalji Dynasty
* Tugluq Dynasty
* Sayyid Dynasty
* Lodhi Dynasty
* Pandyan Empire, 1251 – 1618 CE
* Vijayanagara, 1336 – 1646 CE
* Bengal Sultanate, 1342 – 1576 CE

Early modern

* Mughal Dynasty, 1526 – 1540 CE
* Suri Dynasty, 1538/40 – 1556 CE
* Mughal Dynasty, 1556 – 1857 CE
* Bengal Subah, c. 1576 – c. 1757 CE
* Maratha Empire, c. 1674 – c. 1818 CE
* Company Raj, c. 1757 – c. 1858 CE
* Kingdom of Mysore, c. 1760 – c. 1799 CE
* Sikh Empire, c. 1799 – c. 1849 CE

Modern

* The Great Rebellion, 1857 – 1858 CE
* British Raj, 1858 – 1947 CE
* Independence Movement
* Independent India, 1947 CE – present
* Dominion of India, 1947 – 1950 CE
* Republic of India, 1950 CE – present

Related articles

* Timeline of Indian History
* Dynasties in Indian History
* Economic History
* Demographic History
* Linguistic History
* Architectural History
* Art History
* LGBT history
* Literary History
* Philosophical History
* History of Religion
* Musical History
* Education History
* Coinage History
* Paper Currency History
* Science and Technology History
* List of Inventions and Discoveries
* Military History
* Naval History
* Wars involving India

* v
* t
* e

* Mongol invasions of India
* Delhi Sultanate literature
* Iconoclasm
* Ibrahim Lodi's Tomb
* Persianate states
* Tomb of Bahlol Lodi
* Turkish slaves in the Delhi Sultanate
* Islam in South Asia

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Welch and Crane note that the Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque was built with the remains of demolished Hindu and Jain temples.[65]
2. ^ Pali literature dating to the 4th century BC mentions the cakkavattaka, which commentaries explain as arahatta-ghati-yanta (machine with wheel-pots attached), and according to Pacey, water-raising devices were used for irrigation in Ancient India predating their use in the Roman empire or China.[196] Greco-Roman tradition, on the other hand, asserts that the device was introduced to India from the Roman Empire.[197] Furthermore, South Indian mathematician Bhaskara II describes water-wheels c. 1150 in his incorrect proposal for a perpetual motion machine.[198] Srivastava argues that the Sakia, or araghatta was in fact invented in India by the 4th century.[199]
3. ^ Also two huge minarets at Ghazni.
4. ^ Ulugh Khan also known as Almas Beg was brother of Ala-al Din Khalji; his destruction campaign overlapped the two dynasties.
5. ^ Somnath temple went through cycles of destruction by Sultans and rebuilding by Hindus.

1. ^ Herbert Hartel calls the Lodi sultans Turco-Afghan: "The Turco-Afghan sultans of the Lodi Dynasty...".[155]

## References

[edit]

### Citations

[edit]

1. ^ Grey flag with black vertical stripe according to the Catalan Atlas (c. 1375):  in the depiction of the Delhi Sultanate in the Catalan Atlas
2. ^ Kadoi, Yuka (2010). "On the Timurid flag". Beiträge zur islamischen Kunst und Archäologie. 2: 148. doi:10.29091/9783954909537/009. S2CID 263250872. "...helps identify another curious flag found in northern India – a brown or originally silver flag with a vertical black line – as the flag of the Delhi Sultanate (602–962/1206–1555)."
3. ^ Note: other sources describe the use of two flags: the black Abbasid flag, and the red Ghurid flag, as well as various banners with figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion.Qurashi, Ishtiyaq Hussian (1942). The Administration of the Sultanate of Delhi. Kashmiri Bazar Lahore: SH. MUHAMMAD ASHRAF. p. 143\. "Large banners were carried with the army. In the beginning, the sultans had only two colours : on the right were black flags, of Abbasid colour; and on the left, they carried their colour, red, which was derived from Ghor. Qutb-ud-din Aibak's standards bore the figures of the new moon, a dragon or a lion; Firuz Shah's flags also displayed a dragon."Jha, Sadan (8 January 2016). Reverence, Resistance and Politics of Seeing the Indian National Flag. Cambridge University Press. p. 36\. ISBN 978-1-107-11887-4., also "On the right of the Sultan was carried the black standard of the Abbasids and on the left the red standard of Ghor." in Thapliyal, Uma Prasad (1938). The Dhvaja, Standards and Flags of India: A Study. B.R. Publishing Corporation. p. 94\. ISBN 978-81-7018-092-0. `{{cite book}}`: ISBN / Date incompatibility (help)
4. ^ a b Schwartzberg 1978, p. 147.
5. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, p. 38.
6. ^ Jackson 2003.
7. ^ a b Schwartzberg 1978, p. 148.
8. ^ Eaton, Richard Maxwell (2015). The Sufis of Bijapur, 1300–1700: Social Roles of Sufis in Medieval India. Princeton University Press. pp. 41–42\. ISBN 978-1-4008-6815-5.
9. ^ Alam, Muzaffar (1998). "The pursuit of Persian: Language in Mughal Politics". Modern Asian Studies. 32 (2). Cambridge University Press: 317–349\. doi:10.1017/s0026749x98002947. S2CID 146630389. "Hindavi was recognized as a semi-official language by the Sor Sultans (1540–1555) and their chancellery rescripts bore transcriptions in the Devanagari script of the Persian contents. The practice is said to have been introduced by the Lodis (1451–1526)."
10. ^ "Arabic and Persian Epigraphical Studies - Archaeological Survey of India". Asi.nic.in. Archived from the original on 29 September 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2018.
11. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 28.
12. ^ Size and Duration of Empires: Systematics of Size "[1]
13. ^ Size and Duration of Empires: Systematics of Size "[2]
14. ^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D. (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires Archived 17 May 2016 at the Portuguese Web Archive" (PDF). Journal of World-Systems Research. 12 (2): 222–223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 July 2020. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
15. ^ Size and Duration of Empires: Systematics of Size "[3]
16. ^ a b Maddison (27 July 2016). "Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 9 May 2023.
17. ^ Shally-Jensen, Michael; Vivian, Anthony (2022). A Cultural Encyclopedia of Lost Cities and Civilizations. ABC-CLIO. p. 171\. ISBN 978-1-4408-7311-9.
18. ^ a b Delhi Sultanate, Encyclopædia Britannica
19. ^ A. Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Leiden, 1980
20. ^ Chapman, Graham (2016) [1990]. "Religious vs. regional determinism: India, Pakistan and Bangladesh as inheritors of empire". In Chisholm, Michael; Smith, David M. (eds.). Shared Space: Divided Space: Essays on Conflict and Territorial Organization. Routledge. pp. 106–134\. ISBN 978-1-317-35837-4.
21. ^ Sugata Bose; Ayesha Jalal (2004). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. p. 21\. ISBN 978-0-415-30786-4. "It was a similar combination of political and economic imperatives which led Muhammad Ghuri, a Turk, to invade India a century and half later, in 1192. His defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, a Rajput chieftain, in the strategic battle of Tarain in northern India paved the way for the establishment of the first Muslim sultanate..."
22. ^ K. A. Nizami (1992). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206–1526). Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 198.
23. ^ Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India. Chand. p. 121\. ISBN 9788121903646.
24. ^ Sugata Bose, Ayesha Jalal (1998). Modern South Asia: History, Culture, Political Economy. Psychology Press. p. 28\. ISBN 9780415169523.
25. ^ M.S. Ahluwalia (1999). "Rajput Muslim Relations (1200–1526 A.D.)". In Shyam Singh Ratnawat; Krishna Gopal Sharma (eds.). History and Culture of Rajasthan (From Earliest Times upto 1956 A.D.). Centre for Rajasthan Studies, University of Rajasthan. p. 135\. OCLC 264960720. "The Khaiji rule proved much stronger for the Rajput principalities ... A new wave of invasions and conquests began, which ended only when practically the whole of India had been bought under the sway of the Delhi kingdom."
26. ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd ed., Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-15482-0, pp. 187–190.
27. ^ Smith 1920, Ch. 2, p. 218.
28. ^ a b Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–52.
29. ^ a b Keith Brown; Sarah Ogilvie (2008), Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World, Elsevier, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, "... Apabhramsha seemed to be in a state of transition from the Middle Indo-Aryan to the New Indo-Aryan stage. Some elements of Hindustani appear ... the distinct form of the lingua franca Hindustani appears in the writings of Amir Khusro (1253–1325), who called it Hindwi ..."
30. ^ A. Welch, "Architectural Patronage and the Past: The Tughluq Sultans of India", Muqarnas 10, 1993, Brill Publishers, pp. 311–322.
31. ^ J. A. Page, Guide to the Qutb, Delhi, Calcutta, 1927, pp. 2–7.
32. ^ Pradeep Barua The State at War in South Asia, ISBN 978-0803213449, pp. 29–30.
33. ^ Bowering et al., The Princeton Encyclopedia of Islamic Political Thought, ISBN 978-0691134840, Princeton University Press
34. ^ a b "Delhi sultanate | History, Significance, Map, & Rulers | Britannica". www.britannica.com. 17 November 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023. "The Delhi sultanate made no break with the political traditions of the later Hindu period—namely, that rulers sought paramountcy rather than sovereignty. It never reduced Hindu chiefs to unarmed impotence or established an exclusive claim to allegiance. The sultan was served by a heterogeneous elite of Turks, Afghans, Khaljīs, and Hindu converts; he readily accepted Hindu officials and Hindu vassals. Threatened for long periods with Mongol invasion from the northwest and hampered by indifferent communications, the Delhi sultans perforce left a large discretion to their local governors and officials."
35. ^ a b Gul and Khan (2008)"Growth and Development of Oriental Libraries in India", Library Philosophy and Practice, University of Nebraska–Lincoln
36. ^ a b c d Richard Eaton, Temple Desecration and Muslim States in Medieval India at Google Books, (2004)
37. ^ a b c d e Richard Eaton (September 2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States". Journal of Islamic Studies. 11 (3): 283–319\. doi:10.1093/jis/11.3.283.
38. ^ Jackson, Peter (2000). The Delhi Sultanate: a political and military history. Cambridge studies in Islamic civilization (Reprint ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
39. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 67.
40. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–51.
41. ^ Jackson 2003, p. 86.
42. ^ a b Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 19, 50–51.
43. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, pp. 37, 147.
44. ^ Eaton 2020, p. 38.
45. ^ Richard M. Frye, "Pre-Islamic and Early Islamic Cultures in Central Asia", in Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective, ed. Robert L. Canfield (Cambridge U. Press c. 1991), 35–53.
46. ^ a b c See:
* M. Reza Pirbha, Reconsidering Islam in a South Asian Context, ISBN 978-9004177581, Brill
* The Islamic frontier in the East: Expansion into South Asia, Journal of South Asian Studies, 4(1), pp. 91–109
* Sookoohy M., Bhadreswar – Oldest Islamic Monuments in India, ISBN 978-9004083417, Brill Academic; see discussion of earliest raids in Gujarat
47. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 19.
48. ^ a b c d Jackson 2003, pp. 3–30.
49. ^ Heathcote, T. A. (1995). The Military in British India: The Development of British Land Forces in South Asia, 1600–1947. Manchester University Press. pp. 5–7\. ISBN 978-0-7190-3570-8.
50. ^ Barnett, Lionel D. (1999). Antiquities of India: An Account of the History and Culture of Ancient Hindustan. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. pp. 73–79\. ISBN 978-81-7156-442-2.
51. ^ Davis, Richard H. (January 1994). "Three styles in looting India". History and Anthropology. 6 (4): 293–317\. doi:10.1080/02757206.1994.9960832.
52. ^ MUHAMMAD B. SAM Mu'izz AL-DIN, T.W. Haig, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. VII, ed. C.E.Bosworth, E.van Donzel, W.P. Heinrichs and C. Pellat, (Brill, 1993)
53. ^ C.E. Bosworth, Tidge History of Iran, Vol. 5, ed. J. A. Boyle, John Andrew Boyle, (Cambridge University Press, 1968), pp 161–170
54. ^ History of South Asia: A Chronological Outline Columbia University (2010)
55. ^ Muʿizz al-Dīn Muḥammad ibn Sām Encyclopædia Britannica (2011)
56. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, p. 147, map XIV.3 (h).
57. ^ Jackson P. (1990), The Mamlūk institution in early Muslim India, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), 122(02), pp. 340–358.
58. ^ K. A. Nizami (1992). "FOUNDATION OF THE DELHI SULTANAT". In Mohammad Habib; K. A. Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. pp. 205–206\. "All contemporary and later chroniclers praise the qualities of loyalty, generosity, courage and justice in his character. His generosity won for him the sobriquet of lakhbaksh (giver of lakhs)"
59. ^ C.E. Bosworth, The New Islamic Dynasties, Columbia University Press (1996)
60. ^ Barnett & Haig (1926), A review of History of Mediaeval India, from ad 647 to the Mughal Conquest – Ishwari Prasad, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland (New Series), 58(04), pp 780–783
61. ^ a b Jackson 2003, pp. 29–48.
62. ^ a b Anzalone, Christopher (2008), "Delhi Sultanate", in Ackermann, M. E. etc. (Editors), Encyclopedia of World History 2, ISBN 978-0-8160-6386-4
63. ^ "Qutub Minar". Archived from the original on 23 July 2015. Retrieved 5 August 2015.
64. ^ a b c Qutb Minar and its Monuments, Delhi UNESCO
65. ^ Welch, Anthony; Crane, Howard (1983). "The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate" (PDF). Muqarnas. 1. Brill: 123–166\. doi:10.2307/1523075. JSTOR 1523075. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
66. ^ a b c Welch, Anthony; Crane, Howard (1983). "The Tughluqs: Master Builders of the Delhi Sultanate" (PDF). Muqarnas. 1. Brill: 123–166\. doi:10.2307/1523075. JSTOR 1523075. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2016. Retrieved 13 August 2016.
67. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, p. 147, map XIV.3 (i).
68. ^ Khan, Hussain Ahmad (2014). Artisans, Sufis, Shrines: Colonial Architecture in Nineteenth-Century Punjab. I.B.Tauris. p. 15\. ISBN 9781784530143.
69. ^ Yunus, Mohammad; Aradhana Parmar (2003). South Asia: a historical narrative. Oxford University Press. p. 97\. ISBN 978-0-1957-9711-4. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
70. ^ Kumar Mandal, Asim (2003). The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis. India: Indus Publishing. p. 43\. ISBN 978-81-738-7143-6. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
71. ^ Singh, D. (1998). The Sundarbans of India: A Development Analysis. India: APH Publishing. p. 141\. ISBN 978-81-702-4992-4. Retrieved 19 November 2012.
72. ^ Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of medieval India: from 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 28\. ISBN 978-81-269-0123-4. Retrieved 23 August 2010. "The Khaljis were a Turkish tribe but having been long domiciled in Afghanistan, adopted Afghan habits and customs. They were treated as Afghans in Delhi Court."
73. ^ Cavendish, Marshall (2006). World and Its Peoples: The Middle East, Western Asia, and Northern Africa. Marshall Cavendish. p. 320\. ISBN 978-0-7614-7571-2. Retrieved 23 August 2010. "The members of the new dynasty, although they were also Turkic, had settled in Afghanistan and brought a new set of customs and culture to Delhi."
74. ^ Srivastava 1929, p. 141.
75. ^ A. B. M. Habibullah (1992) [1970]. "The Khaljis: Jalaluddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib; Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India. Vol. 5: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. p. 312\. OCLC 31870180.
76. ^ a b c d Holt et al., The Cambridge History of Islam – The Indian sub-continent, south-east Asia, Africa and the Muslim west, ISBN 978-0521291378, pp 9–13
77. ^ New Indian Antiquary: Volume 2. Karnatak Publishing House. 1939. p. 545\. "Alauddin gave the signal and in a twinkling Muhammad Salim of Samana struck"
78. ^ AL. P. Sharma (1987). History of medieval India (1000–1740 A.D.). TKonark Publishers. ISBN 9788122000429.
79. ^ Yasin Mazhar Siddiqi (1972). "the Kotwals under the Sultans of Delhi". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. Indian History Congress: 194. JSTOR 44145331. "Nusrat Khan Jalesari who was the Kotwal in the first year of the Alai reign was an Indian Muslim"
80. ^ The Life and Works of Sultan Alauddin Khalji. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. 1992. ISBN 9788171563623. "the Sultan appointed his Wazir Nusrat Khan to deal with the Jalali nobles"
81. ^ Fauja Singh (1972). History of the Punjab: A.D. 1000–1526. Editor: Fauja Singh. p. 150.
82. ^ Satish Chandra (2004). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals-Delhi Sultanat (1206–1526) = Part One. Har-Anand Publications. ISBN 9788124110645.
83. ^ Alexander Mikaberidze, Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, ISBN 978-1598843361, pp. 62–63
84. ^ Rene Grousset – Empire of steppes, Chagatai Khanate; Rutgers Univ Press, New Jersey, 1988 ISBN 0-8135-1304-9
85. ^ Gujarat State Gazetteer:Part 1. 1989. p. 164.
86. ^ Frank Fanselow (1989), Muslim society in Tamil Nadu (India): a historical perspective, Journal Institute of Muslim Minority Affairs, 10(1), pp 264–289
87. ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, 3rd ed., Routledge, 1998, ISBN 0-415-15482-0
88. ^ Srivastava 1929, pp. 156–158
89. ^ M.A. Farooqi (1991), The economic policy of the Sultans of Delhi, Konark publishers, ISBN 978-8122002263
90. ^ Jackson 2003, pp. 244–248.
91. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 231–235.
92. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, p. 147, map XIV.3 (j).
93. ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 231. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289. "Muhammad Tughluq and his successors were contemporaries of the Jalayirid sultans; both dynasties were Turco-Mongol"
94. ^ Jamal Malik (2008). Islam in South Asia: A Short History. Brill Publishers. p. 104\. ISBN 978-9004168596.
95. ^ "Eight Cities of Delhi: Tughlakabad". Delhi Tourism.
96. ^ Siddiqui (1980). The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition: Supplement, Parts 1–2. Brill Archive. p. 105\. ISBN 9004061673.
97. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 236–242.
98. ^ Elliot and Dowson, Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháhí of Ziauddin Barani, The History of India as Told by Its Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3), London, Trübner & Co
99. ^ a b c Muḥammad ibn Tughluq Encyclopædia Britannica
100. ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 230, 258 Fig.56. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289.
101. ^ Ray 2019, p. 115: "The Sultan created Daulatabad as the second administrative centre. A contemporary writer has written that the Empire had two capitals –Delhi and Daulatabad."
102. ^ Carl W. Ernst (1992). Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. SUNY Press. ISBN 9781438402123.
103. ^ Ray 2019, p. 115.
104. ^ Ray 2019, p. 115: "The primary result of the transfer of the capital to Daulatabad was the hatred of the people towards the Sultan."
105. ^ P.M. Holt; Ann K.S. Lambton; Bernard Lewis (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam" Volume 2A. Cambridge University Press. p. 15.
106. ^ Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund, A History of India, (Routledge, 1986), 188.
107. ^ Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India by Jl Mehta p. 97
108. ^ Chandra, Satish (1997). Medieval India: From Sultanate to the Mughals. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-8124105221.
109. ^ Elphinstone, Mountstuart (2014). History Of India. Pickle Partners Publishing. ISBN 978-1-78289-478-0.
110. ^ A Compendium of the History of India: With a Synopsis of the Principal Events. Gantz Bros. 1870. p. 37.
111. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 242–248.
112. ^ Cornelius Walford (1878), The Famines of the World: Past and Present, p. 3, at Google Books, pp 9–10
113. ^ Judith Walsh, A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-0816083626, pp 70–72; Quote: "In 1335–42, during a severe famine and death in the Delhi region, the Sultanate offered no help to the starving residents."
114. ^ Raj Kumar (2003). Essays on Medieval India. Discovery Publishing House. p. 82\. ISBN 9788171416837.
115. ^ Kate Fleet; Gudrun Krämer; Denis Matringe; John Nawas; Devin J. Stewart (January 2018). "Jalal al-Din Ahsan".
116. ^ M. S. Nagaraja Rao (1987). Kusumāñjali:New Interpretation of Indian Art & Culture : Sh. C. Sivaramamurti Commemoration Volume · Volume 2.
117. ^ Suvorova (2000). Masnavi. Oxford University Press. p. 3\. ISBN 978-0-19-579148-8.
118. ^ Husaini (Saiyid.), Abdul Qadir (1960). Bahman Shāh, the Founder of the Bahmani Kingdom. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhyay. pp. 59–60.
119. ^ Jayanta Gaḍakarī (2000). Hindu Muslim Communalism, a Panchnama. p. 140.
120. ^ McKibben, William Jeffrey (1994). "The Monumental Pillars of Fīrūz Shāh Tughluq". Ars Orientalis. 24: 105–118\. JSTOR 4629462.
121. ^ HM Elliot & John Dawson (1871), Tarikh I Firozi Shahi – Records of Court Historian Sams-i-Siraj The History of India as told by its historians, Volume 3, Cornell University Archives, pp 352–353
122. ^ Prinsep, J (1837). "Interpretation of the most ancient of inscriptions on the pillar called lat of Feroz Shah, near Delhi, and of the Allahabad, Radhia and Mattiah pillar, or lat inscriptions which agree therewith". Journal of the Asiatic Society. 6 (2): 600–609.
123. ^ Mehta (1979). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India: Volume 2. p. 225\. "Khan-i-Jahan was a Brahmin from Telangana whose original name was Kattu or Kannu. Kannu was brought a captive to Delhi where he embraced Islam and was given the name of Maqbul. No wonder, Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul and his family made a great contribution towards the initial administrative achievements of Sultan Firuz Tughlaq, the peace and prosperity of his reign during the first two decades are unintelligible unless the services rendered by Khan-i-Jahan Maqbul to the throne are taken into consideration."
124. ^ Iqtidar Alam Khan (2008). Historical Dictionary of Medieval India. Scarecrow Press. p. 141\. ISBN 9780810864016.
125. ^ Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Memoirs of Firoz Shah Tughlak, Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives
126. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 249–251.
127. ^ a b Firoz Shah Tughlak, Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi – Autobiographical memoirs, Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 3 –The History of India, Cornell University Archives, pp 377–381.
128. ^ Dasgupta, Ajit K. (2002). A History of Indian Economic Thought. Routledge. p. 45\. ISBN 978-1-134-92551-3.
129. ^ Futuhat-i Firoz Shahi Simultaneously, he raised taxes and jizya, assessing it at three levels, and stopping the practice of his predecessors who had historically exempted all Hindu Brahmins from the jizya.
130. ^ Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN 978-9004061170, Brill Academic, pp 20–23
131. ^ Kumar, Praveen. Complete Indian History for IAS Exam Highly Recommended for IAS, PCS and other Competitive Exam. p. 217.
132. ^ André Wink (2020). The Making of the Indo-Islamic World: C. 700–1800 CE. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781108417747.
133. ^ Gurcharn Singh Sandhu (2003). A Military History of Medieval India. Vision Books. p. 247\. ISBN 9788170945253.
134. ^ Debajyoti Burman (1947). Indo-Muslim Relations: A Study in Historical Background. Jugabani Sahitya Chakra. p. 36.
135. ^ Dr. Aijaz Ahmad (2021). History of Mewat. Alina Books. p. 112\. ISBN 9788193391426.
136. ^ Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India Issues 52–54. Archaeological Survey of India. 1937. p. 19\. "The old Firoz Shahi slaves , however , turned against Abu Bakr , who fled , and on their invitation Sultan Muhammad " entered the city and took"
137. ^ Āg̲h̲ā Mahdī Ḥusain (1963). Tughluq Dynasty. Thacker, Spink. p. 444.
138. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 248–254.
139. ^ Jackson 1999, pp. 312–317.
140. ^ Beatrice F. Manz (2000). "Tīmūr Lang". In P. J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C. E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. Vol. 10 (2 ed.). Brill.
141. ^ Lionel Trotter (1906), History of India: From the Earliest Times to the Present Day, Gorham Publishers London/New York, p. 74
142. ^ Annemarie Schimmel (1997), Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004061170, pp 36–37; Also see: Elliot, Studies in Indian History, 2nd ed., pp 98–101
143. ^ Jayapalan, N. (2001). History of India. Atlantic Publishers & Distri. pp. 50–51\. ISBN 978-81-7156-928-1.
144. ^ Gipson, Therlee (2019). India's Struggle. Lulu.com. p. 15\. ISBN 978-0-359-59732-1.
145. ^ a b c Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN 978-9004061170, Brill Academic, Chapter 2
146. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, pp. 39, 148.
147. ^ The Cambridge History of India: Turks and Afghans, edited by W. Haig. S. Chand. 1958. "The claim of Khizr Khān, who founded the dynasty known as the Sayyids, to descent from the prophet of Arabia was dubious, and rested chiefly on its causal recognition by the famous saint Sayyid Jalāl-ud-dīn of Bukhārā."
148. ^ Eraly, Abraham (2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin UK. p. 261\. ISBN 978-93-5118-658-8. "The first of these two dynasties was founded by Khizr Khan, who bore the appellation 'Sayyid', which identified him as a descendant of prophet Muhammad, so the dynasty he founded came to be known as the Sayyid dynasty. The veracity of Khizr Khan's claimed lineage is uncertain, but his forebears were likely Arabs, who had migrated to India in the early Tughluq period and settled in Multan. The family prospered in India, gaining wealth and power. This advancement culminated in Malik Suleiman, Khizr Khan's father, becoming the governor of Multan under the Tughluqs. When Suleiman died, Khizr Khan succeeded him in the post but lost it during the political turmoil following the death of Firuz Tughluq."
149. ^ Srivastava 1929, p. 229, "their claim of Descendants of Prophet Mohammad is dubious but it seems certain that Khizr Khan's ancestors came from Arabia".
150. ^ Digby, Simon (13 October 2014), After Timur Left: North India in the Fifteenth Century, Oxford University Press, pp. 47–59, doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199450664.003.0002, ISBN 978-0-19-945066-4, retrieved 25 January 2023, "And we find that a Khokhar chieftain, Khizr Khan who was sent to Timur as an ambassador and negotiator from the most adjacent area, the Punjab, ultimately became the power holder in Delhi, thanks to the contacts he had aquired [sic]."
151. ^ Eaton 2020, p. 105 "The career of Khizr Khan, a Punjabi chieftain belonging to the Khokar clan, illustrates the transition to an increasingly polycentric north India.".
152. ^ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand. p. 239\. ISBN 9788121903646.
153. ^ a b Eaton 2020, p. 108.
154. ^ Schwartzberg 1978, p. 147, map XIV.4 (d).
155. ^ Hartel 1997, p. 261.
156. ^ Judith Walsh, A Brief History of India, ISBN 978-0816083626, p. 81; Quote: "The last dynasty was founded by a Sayyid provincial governor, Buhlul Lodi (r. 1451–89). The Lodis were descended from Afghans, and under their rule, Afghans eclipsed Turks in court patronage."
157. ^ Ramananda Chatterjee (1961). The Modern Review. Vol. 109\. Indiana University. p. 84.
158. ^ Lee, Jonathan (2019). Afghanistan: A History from 1260 to the Present. Reaktion Books. p. 56\. ISBN 9781789140101. "In 1451 Bahlul Khan, a Khalji of the Lodhi clan, deposed the then sultan and founded a second Afghan sultanate, the Lodhi Dynasty, which ruled northern India for 75 years (1451–1526)."
159. ^ Digby, S. (1975), The Tomb of Buhlūl Lōdī, Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 38(03), pp. 550–561
160. ^ "Delhi Sultanate under Lodhi Dynasty: A Complete Overview". Jagranjosh.com. 31 March 2017. Retrieved 1 August 2020.
161. ^ a b Smith 1920, pp. 253–257.
162. ^ Andrew Petersen, Dictionary of Islamic Architecture, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415060844, p. 7
163. ^ Richards, John (1965), The Economic History of the Lodi Period: 1451–1526, Journal de l'histoire economique et sociale de l'Orient, Vol. 8, No. 1, pp 47–67
164. ^ Lodi Dynasty Encyclopædia Britannica (2009)
165. ^ Chandra, Satish (2005). Medieval India: From Sultanat to the Mughals Part – II. Har-Anand Publications. pp. 30–31\. ISBN 978-81-241-1066-9.
166. ^ Jackson, Peter (2010). "Muslim India: the Delhi sultanate". In Morgan, David O.; Reid, Anthony (eds.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 3: The Eastern Islamic World, Eleventh to Eighteenth Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 101\. ISBN 978-0-521-85031-5.
167. ^ John F. Richards (2013). Expanding Frontiers in South Asian and World History. Cambridge University Press. p. 55\. ISBN 9781107034280.
168. ^ John F. Richards (1993). Power, Administration, and Finance in Mughal India. Variorum. ISBN 9780860783664.
169. ^ Jackson 1999, p. 278.
170. ^ V. D. Mahajan (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand. p. 446\. ISBN 9788121903646.
171. ^ Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society: Volume 45. Pakistan Historical Society. 1997. p. 222.
172. ^ Jackson 1999, pp. 283–287.
173. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, pp. 379–380.
174. ^ a b Satish Chandra 2007, p. 105.
175. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 379.
176. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 385.
177. ^ a b c Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 384.
178. ^ a b Satish Chandra 2007, p. 102.
179. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 380.
180. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 389.
181. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 383.
182. ^ Banarsi Prasad Saksena 1992, p. 386.
183. ^ ÇAĞMAN, FİLİZ; TANINDI, ZEREN (2011). "Selections from Jalayirid Books in the Libraries of Istanbul" (PDF). Muqarnas. 28: 230, 258 Fig.56. ISSN 0732-2992. JSTOR 23350289.
184. ^ Architecture under the Sultanate of Delhi
185. ^ Saikat K Bose (2015). "And the Social Dynamics Behind South Asian Warfare". Boot, Hooves and Wheels (ebook). Vij Books India Private Limited. ISBN 9789384464547. Retrieved 21 July 2023. "They had corps of regulars, the watch, formed primarily of mounted archers but which also had an advance reserve, the blemish, of lancers. The wajih had a nucleus of the elite khasakhail or household cavalry, composed largely of slaves."
186. ^ Ram Shankar Tripathi (1989). History of Kanauj To the Moslem Conquest. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 327\. ISBN 9788120804784. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
187. ^ Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton (2002). Indian and Oriental Arms and Armour (Paperback). Dover Publications. ISBN 9780486422299. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
188. ^ a b Simon Digby (1971). War-horse and Elephant in the Dehli Sultanate (Hardcover). Orient Monographs. p. 24\. ISBN 9780903871006. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
189. ^ Syed Zafar Haider (1991). Islamic Arms and Armour of Muslim India. Bahadur Publishers. p. 265\. ISBN 9789698123000. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
190. ^ Wilbraham Egerton, 1st Earl Egerton (1896). A Description of Indian and Oriental Armour Illustrated from the Collection Formerly in the India Office, Now Exhibited at South Kensington, and the Author's Private Collection, with a Map, Twenty-three Full-page Plates (two Coloured), and Numerous Woodcuts, with an Introductory Sketch of the Military History of India. W. H. Allen & Company, limited. p. 16. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
191. ^ Kaushik Roy (2015). Warfare in Pre-British India – 1500BCE to 1740CE. Taylor & Francis. p. 219\. ISBN 9781317586920. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
192. ^ Madison, Angus (2007). Contours of the world economy, 1–2030 AD: essays in macro-economic history. Oxford University Press. p. 379\. ISBN 978-0-19-922720-4.
193. ^ a b c Pacey, Arnold (1991) [1990]. Technology in World Civilization: A Thousand-Year History (1st MIT Press paperback ed.). Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. pp. 26–29.
194. ^ Al-, Biruni (1888). Alberuni's India : an Account of the religion, philosophy, literature, geography, chronology, astronomy, customs, laws and astrology of India about A.D. 1030. An English Edition, with Notes and Indices by Edward C. Sachau. Trübner & Co. OCLC 162833441.
195. ^ Siddiqui, Iqtidar Hussain (1986). "Water Works and Irrigation System in India during Pre-Mughal Times". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 29 (1): 63–64\. doi:10.2307/3632072. JSTOR 3632072.
196. ^ Pacey 1991, p. 10.
197. ^ Oleson, John Peter (2000), "Water-Lifting", in Wikander, Örjan (ed.), Handbook of Ancient Water Technology, Technology and Change in History, vol. 2, Leiden, South Holland: Brill, pp. 217–302, ISBN 978-90-04-11123-3
198. ^ Pacey 1991, p. 36.
199. ^ Srivastava, Vinod Chanda; Gopal, Lallanji (2008). History of Agriculture in India, Up to C. 1200 A.D. New Delhi: Project of History of Indian Science, Philosophy and Culture. ISBN 978-81-8069-521-6.
200. ^ Jos Gommans; Harriet Zurndorfer, eds. (2008). Roots and Routes of Development in China and India: Highlights of Fifty Years of The Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (1957–2007). Leiden, South Holland: Koninklijke Brill NV. p. 444\. ISBN 978-90-04-17060-5.
201. ^ Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India No. 52 a Memoir on Kotla Firoz, Delhi. p. 58.
202. ^ Pacey 1991, p. 23-24.
203. ^ Smith, C. Wayne; Cothren, J. Tom (1999). Cotton: Origin, History, Technology, and Production. Vol. 4\. John Wiley & Sons. p. viii. ISBN 978-0471180456. "The first improvement in spinning technology was the spinning wheel, which was invented in India between 500 and 1000 A.D."
204. ^ a b Pacey 1991, pp. 23–24.
205. ^ Habib, Irfan (2011). Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500. Pearson Education. p. 53\. ISBN 9788131727911.
206. ^ Habib 2011, pp. 53–54.
207. ^ Harrison, Frederick. A Book about Books. London: John Murray, 1943. p. 79. Mandl, George. "Paper Chase: A Millennium in the Production and Use of Paper". Myers, Robin & Michael Harris (eds). A Millennium of the Book: Production, Design & Illustration in Manuscript & Print, 900–1900. Winchester: St. Paul's Bibliographies, 1994. p. 182. Mann, George. Print: A Manual for Librarians and Students Describing in Detail the History, Methods, and Applications of Printing and Paper Making. London: Grafton & Co., 1952. p. 79\. McMurtrie, Douglas C. The Book: The Story of Printing & Bookmaking. London: Oxford University Press, 1943. p. 63.
208. ^ Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin (1985), Joseph Needham (ed.), Paper and Printing, Science and Civilisation in China, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, vol. 5, Cambridge University Press, pp. 2–3, 356–357
209. ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2012), Chinese History: A New Manual, Harvard University Asia Center for the Harvard-Yenching Institute, p. 909
210. ^ Kurlansky, Mark (2017). Paper : paging through history. National Geographic Books. ISBN 978-0-393-35370-9. OCLC 1119136572.
211. ^ D. C. Sircar (1996). Indian Epigraphy. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 67–68\. ISBN 978-81-208-1166-9.
212. ^ Habib 2011, p. 96.
213. ^ a b Habib 2011, pp. 95–96.
214. ^ Angus Maddison (2001), The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, pages 241–242 Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, OECD Development Centre
215. ^ Angus Maddison (2001), The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, page 236 Archived 11 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine, OECD Development Centre
216. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.
217. ^ Metcalf, B.; Metcalf, T. R. (9 October 2006), A Concise History of Modern India (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press, p. 6, ISBN 978-0-521-68225-1
218. ^ Eaton, Richard M.'The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier, 1204–1760. Berkeley: University of California Press, c1993 1993, accessed on 1 May 2007
219. ^ Raj Kumar (2008). Encyclopaedia Of Untouchables : Ancient Medieval And Modern. Kalpaz Publications. p. 212\. ISBN 9788178356648.
220. ^ Harle, 423–424
221. ^ Harle 1994, pp. 421, 425; Yale, p. 165; Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 149.
222. ^ Yale, pp. 164–165; Harle 1994, pp. 423–424; Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 149.
223. ^ Yale, p. 164; Harle 1994, p. 424(quoted); Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 149.
224. ^ Harle, 429.
225. ^ Yale, p. 164(quoted); Harle 1994, p. 425.
226. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 149–150; Harle 1994, p. 425.
227. ^ Harle 1994, p. 425.
228. ^ a b Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 151.
229. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 151–156; Harle 1994, pp. 425–426.
230. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 154; Harle 1994, pp. 425.
231. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 154–156.
232. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, pp. 154–156; Harle 1994, p. 425.
233. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 149.
234. ^ Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 156.
235. ^ Harle 1994, p. 426; Blair & Bloom 1995, p. 156.
236. ^ Lal 1950, p. 85.
237. ^ Lal 1950, p. 86.
238. ^ Hunter, W. W. (2013). The Indian Empire: Its People, History and Products. Routledge. p. 280\. ISBN 9781136383014.
239. ^ Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press. pp. 30, 317. ISBN 0803213441.
240. ^ Lal 1950, p. 55.
241. ^ Hopkins, Steven Paul (18 April 2002). "Singing the Body of God: The Hymns of Vedantadesika in Their South Indian Tradition". Oxford University Press. p. 69\. ISBN 9780198029304.
242. ^ Rummel, R. J. (2011). Death by Government. Transaction Publishers. p. 60\. ISBN 9781412821292.
243. ^ Jordanus, Catalani; Yule, Henry; Parr, Charles McKew donor; Parr, Ruth (1863). Mirabilia descripta : the wonders of the East. London : Printed for the Hakluyt Society. p. 23.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link)
244. ^ Juncu, Meera (2015). India in the Italian Renaissance: Visions of a Contemporary Pagan World 1300–1600. Routledge. p. 85\. ISBN 978-1-317-44768-9.
245. ^ Richard M. Eaton, Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Part II, Frontline, 5 January 2001, 70–77. [4]
246. ^ Richard M. Eaton, Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States, Part I, Frontline, 22 December 2000, 62–70.[5]
247. ^ a b Eaton, Richard M. (2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States" (PDF). The Hindu. Chennai, India. p. 297\. Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 January 2014.
248. ^ Annemarie Schimmel, Islam in the Indian Subcontinent, ISBN 978-9004061170, Brill Academic, pp. 7–10.
249. ^ James Brown (1949), The History of Islam in India, The Muslim World, 39(1), 11–25
250. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (December 2000). "Temple desecration in pre-modern India". Frontline. 17 (25). The Hindu Group.
251. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (September 2000). "Temple Desecration and Indo-Muslim States". Journal of Islamic Studies. 11 (3): 283–319\. doi:10.1093/jis/11.3.283.
252. ^ Eaton, Richard M. (2004). Temple desecration and Muslim states in medieval India. Gurgaon: Hope India Publications. ISBN 978-8178710273.
253. ^ Welch, Anthony (1993), Architectural patronage and the past: The Tughluq sultans of India, Muqarnas, Vol. 10, 311–322
254. ^ Srivastava 1929.
255. ^ R Islam (2002), Theory and Practice of Jizyah in the Delhi Sultanate (14th Century), Journal of the Pakistan Historical Society, 50, pp. 7–18
256. ^ Jackson 2003, pp. 287–295.
257. ^ Eva De Clercq (2010), ON JAINA APABHRAṂŚA PRAŚASTIS, Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hung. Volume 63 (3), pp 275–287
258. ^ Hasan Nizami et al., Taju-l Ma-asir & Appendix, Translated in 1871 by Elliot and Dawson, Volume 2 – The History of India, Cornell University Archives, pp 22, 219, 398, 471
259. ^ Richard Eaton, Temple desecration and Indo-Muslim states, Frontline (5 January 2001), pp 72–73
260. ^ Eaton (2000), Temple desecration in pre-modern India Frontline, p. 73, item 16 of the Table, Archived by Columbia University
261. ^ Andre Wink (1991). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World: The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest : 11th–13th Centuries. Brill. p. 333\. ISBN 9004102361. "We do not know much about the first Muslim raid on Benares, by Ahmad Nayaltigin in 1033 AD, which appears merely to have been a plundering expedition. When Muhammad Ghuri marched on the city, we are merely told that after breaking the idols in above 1000 temples, he purified and consecrated the latter to the worship of the true God"
262. ^ Carl W. Ernst (2004). Eternal Garden: Mysticism, History, and Politics at a South Asian Sufi Center. Oxford University Press. p. 109\. ISBN 978-0-19-566869-8.
263. ^ Sarojini Chaturvedi (2006). A short history of South India. Saṁskṛiti. p. 209\. ISBN 978-81-87374-37-4.
264. ^ Abraham Eraly (2015). The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate. Penguin Books. pp. 155–156\. ISBN 978-93-5118-658-8.
265. ^ Lal 1950, p. 84.
266. ^ Burgess; Murray (1874). "The Rudra Mala at Siddhpur". Photographs of Architecture and Scenery in Gujarat and Rajputana. Bourne and Shepherd. p. 19. Retrieved 23 July 2016.
267. ^ Robert Bradnock; Roma Bradnock (2000). India Handbook. McGraw-Hill. p. 959\. ISBN 978-0-658-01151-1.

### Sources

[edit]

* Asher, C. B.; Talbot, C. (1 January 2008). India Before Europe (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-51750-8.
* Blair, Sheila; Bloom, Jonathan M. (1995). The Art and Architecture of Islam, 1250–1800. Yale University Press Pelican History of Art. ISBN 0300064659.
* Satish Chandra (2007). History of Medieval India: 800–1700. Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
* Eaton, Richard M. (2020) [1st pub. 2019]. India in the Persianate Age. London: Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-141-98539-8. * Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250. Yale University Press. ISBN 9780300088694.
* Harle, J.C. (1994). The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent (2nd ed.). Yale University Press Pelican History of Art. ISBN 0300062176.
* Hartel, Herbert (1997). "India under the Moghol Empire". In Kissling, H. J.; Barbour, N.; Spuler, Bertold; Trimingham, J. S.; Bagley, F. R. C. (eds.). The Last Great Muslim Empires. BRILL. pp. 262–263\. ISBN 90-04-02104-3. Retrieved 20 July 2011.
* Jackson, Peter (April 1999). the Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press.
* Jackson, Peter (2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
* Lal, Kishori Saran (1950). History of the Khaljis (1290–1320). Allahabad: The Indian Press. OCLC 685167335.
* Ludden, David (2002), India And South Asia: A Short History, Oxford: Oneworld, xii, 306, ISBN 978-1-85168-237-9`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: publisher location (link).
* Majumdar, R. C., Raychaudhuri, H., & Datta, K. (1951). An advanced history of India: 2. London: Macmillan.
* Majumdar, R. C., & Munshi, K. M. (1990). The Delhi Sultanate. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
* Prasad, Pushpa (1990). Sanskrit Inscriptions of Delhi Sultanate 1191-1526. Oxford University Press.
* Ray, Aniruddha (4 March 2019). The Sultanate of Delhi (1206-1526): Polity, Economy, Society and Culture. Routledge. ISBN 9781000007299.
* Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1992) [1970]. "The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji". In Mohammad Habib; Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (eds.). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanate (A.D. 1206–1526). Vol. 5 (2nd ed.). The Indian History Congress / People's Publishing House. OCLC 31870180.
* Schwartzberg, Joseph E. (1978). A Historical atlas of South Asia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226742210.
* Smith, Vincent Arthur (1920). The Oxford History of India: From the Earliest Times to the End of 1911. Clarendon Press.
* Srivastava, Ashirvadi Lal (1929). The Sultanate Of Delhi 711–1526 A D (2nd ed.). Shiva Lal Agarwala & Company. OCLC 607636383.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Seyyed Hussein-zadeh, Huda; Miller, Isabel (2018). "Delhi Sultanate". In Madelung, Wilferd; Daftary, Farhad (eds.). Encyclopaedia Islamica Online. Brill Online. ISSN 1875-9831.
* Elliot, H. M.; John Dowson (1867). "15. Táríkh-i Fíroz Sháhí, of Ziauddin Barani". The History of India, as Told by Its Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Vol 3.). London: Trübner & Co.
* Green, Nile, ed. (2019). The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0520972100.
* Hambly, Gavin R. G.; Asher, Catherine B. (1994). "Delhi Sultanate". In Yarshater, Ehsan (ed.). Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. VII/3: Dehqān I–Deylam, John of. London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 242–250\. ISBN 978-1-56859-021-9.
* Khan, Mohd. Adul Wali (1974). Gold and Silver Coins of Sultans of Delhi. Government of Andhra Pradesh.
* Kumar, Sunil (2007). The Emergence of the Delhi Sultanate, 1192–1286. Permanent Black. ISBN 978-81-7824-147-0.

## External links

[edit]

* Media related to Delhi Sultanate at Wikimedia Commons
* Quotations related to Delhi Sultanate at Wikiquote

* v
* t
* e

India topics

History

| Overviews|

* Timeline
* Years

* Astronomy
* Clothing
* Coinage
* Economics
* LGBTQ
* Linguistics
* Maritime
* Mathematics
* Metallurgy
* Military
* Paper currency
* Postal
* Science and technology

|

Ancient |

* Stone Age
* Indus Valley Civilisation
* Vedic period
* Mahajanapadas
* Mauryas
* Indo-Greek Kingdom
* Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley
* Indo-Parthian kingdom
* Kushan Empire
* Alchon Huns
* Seleucid–Mauryan war

Middle Kingdoms|

* Middle kingdoms
* Chola

Middle Ages|

* Medieval India
* Hoysala
* Pala
* Kakatiya
* Delhi Sultanate
* Vijayanagara

Early Modern|

* Mughals
* Marathas
* European trade
* Bengal War

Late modern|

* Colonial
* Princely state
* East India Company
* Plassey
* 1857 rebellion
* British Raj
* Railways
* Economy
* Army
* Commander-in-Chief
* Zamindari
* Bengal Renaissance
* Political reforms
* Partition of Bengal
* Independence movement
* 1943 famine
* World War II
* Partition

Republic|

* Integration
* Non-Aligned Movement
* Five-Year Plans
* Sino-Indian War
* Indo-Pakistani wars
* Green Revolution
* White Revolution
* Naxal Insurgency
* Smiling Buddha
* Space programme
* The Emergency
* Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF)

Contemporary|

* History of India (1947–present)
* Economic liberalisation
* Pokhran-II
* COVID-19 pandemic

Geography

| Geology|

* Fossil Parks
* Geology of India
* Indian Plate

|

Heritage|

* National Geological Monuments of India
* Sacred groves of India
* Sacred mountains of India
* Sacred rivers of India
* Stones of India

Environment|

* Biogeographic classification
* Biosphere reserves
* Climate
* Climate change
* Earthquakes
* Ecoregions
* Environmental issues
* Fauna
* Forests
* Flora
* Geology
* National parks
* Protected areas
* Wildlife
* sanctuaries

Landforms|

* Beaches
* Canals
* Coasts
* Desert
* ECZ
* Extreme points
* Glaciers
* Highest point by states
* Islands
* Lakes
* Mountains
* Mountain passes
* Plains
* Indo-Gangetic
* Eastern coastal
* Western coastal
* Rivers
* Valleys
* Volcanoes
* Waterfalls

Regions|

* Central
* East
* North
* Northwest
* Northeast
* South
* Southwest
* Southeast
* West

Subdivisions|

* Autonomous administrative divisions
* Borders
* Towns
* Cities
* Districts
* Municipalities
* States and union territories

See also|

* National monuments of India
* National parks of India
* Nature worship in Indian-origin religions
* World Heritage Sites in India
* Culture of India
* History of India
* Tourism in India

Politics

| Government|

* Agencies
* Energy policy
* Foreign relations
* Parliament
* Lok Sabha
* Rajya Sabha
* President
* Vice President
* Prime Minister
* Union Council of Ministers
* Civil Services
* Cabinet Secretary
* State governments
* State legislative assemblies
* State legislative councils
* Governors, Lieutenant Governors and Administrators
* Chief Ministers
* Chief Secretaries

|

Law|

* Constitution
* Penal Code
* Fundamental rights, principles and duties
* Human rights
* Supreme Court
* Chief Justice
* High Courts
* District Courts

Enforcement|

| Federal|

* Border Security Force (BSF)
* Central Industrial Security Force (CISF)
* Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF)
* Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP)
* National Security Guard (NSG)
* Railway Protection Force (RPF)
* Sashastra Seema Bal (SSB)
* Special Protection Group (SPG)

|

Intelligence|

* Bureau of Police Research and Development (BPR&D)
* Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
* Directorate of Revenue Intelligence (DRI)
* Enforcement Directorate (ED)
* Intelligence Bureau (IB)
* Joint Intelligence Committee (JIC)
* Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)
* National Investigation Agency (NIA)
* Research and Analysis Wing (R&AW)

Military|

* Army
* Navy
* Air Force

Politics|

* Censorship
* Citizenship
* Elections
* Democracy
* Nationalism
* Political parties
* Reservations
* Scandals
* Scheduled groups
* Secularism
* Women in politics

Economy

| Companies|

* BSE SENSEX
* NIFTY 50
* NIFTY Next 50
* NIFTY 500
* GIFT Nifty

|

Governance|

* Ministry of Finance
* Finance ministers
* Ministry of Commerce and Industry
* Finance Commission
* Economic Advisory Council
* Central Statistical Office
* Securities and Exchange Board of India
* Enforcement Directorate
* External debt
* Foreign trade
* Foreign direct investment
* Foreign exchange reserves
* Remittances
* Taxation
* Subsidies
* Industrial licensing
* Voluntary guidelines
* NITI Aayog
* Make in India
* Atmanirbhar Bharat

Currency|

* Indian rupee
* Sign
* History
* Historical Forex
* Digital rupee
* Coinage
* Paisa
* Reserve Bank of India
* Governor
* Mint
* Inflation

Financial services|

* Banking
* Insurance
* Multi Commodity Exchange
* Bullion
* BSE
* NSE
* India INX

History|

* COVID-19 impact
* Economic development
* Liberalisation
* Licence Raj
* Green revolution
* Government initiatives
* Numbering system

People|

* By net worth
* Demography
* Income
* Poverty
* Labour law
* Pensions
* EPFO
* NPS
* PPF

States|

* Andhra Pradesh
* Assam
* Bihar
* Delhi
* Goa
* Gujarat
* Haryana
* Himachal Pradesh
* Jammu and Kashmir
* Jharkhand
* Karnataka
* Kerala
* Ladakh
* Madhya Pradesh
* Maharashtra
* Mizoram
* Odisha
* Punjab
* Rajasthan
* Tamil Nadu
* Telangana
* Uttarakhand
* Uttar Pradesh
* West Bengal

Sectors|

* Agriculture
* Livestock
* Fishing
* Automotive
* Chemical
* Construction
* Defence
* Education
* Energy
* Electricity
* Nuclear
* Oil and gas
* Solar
* Wind
* Electronics and semiconductor
* Entertainment
* Forestry
* Gambling
* Healthcare
* Hospitals
* Information technology
* Media
* Cinema
* FM Radio
* Television
* Printing
* Mining
* Coal
* Iron and Steel
* Pharmaceuticals
* Pulp and paper
* Retail
* Science and technology
* Biotechnology
* Space
* Telecommunications
* Textiles
* Tourism
* Transport
* Aviation
* Civil
* Ports
* Rail
* Roads
* Electricity
* Water
* Power

Regulator|

* IRDAI
* RBI
* SEBI
* IBBI
* PFRDA

Other|

* NCLT
* NCLAT
* BIFR
* IBBI
* IBC
* SARFESI Act
* Income Tax Act
* Companies Act
* Banking Act
* Insurance Act
* FEMA
* Mumbai Consensus

* Society and culture

| Society|

* Caste system
* Corruption
* Crime
* Demographics
* Indians
* Education
* Universities in India
* Medical colleges in India
* Law colleges in India
* Engineering colleges in India
* Ethnic relations
* Health
* Languages
* Life expectancy
* Literacy
* Poverty
* Prisons
* Religion
* Socio-economic issues
* Standard of living
* Water supply and sanitation
* Women
* Sexuality
* Youth

|

Culture|

* Arts and entertainment
* Architecture
* Blogging
* Cinema
* Comics
* Webcomics
* Cuisine
* wine
* Dance
* Dress
* Folklore
* Festivals
* Literature
* Media
* television
* Martial arts
* Music
* Painting
* Physical culture
* Public holidays
* Sculpture
* tallest
* Sport
* Traditional

* v
* t
* e

Turkic topics

Languages|

* Afshar
* Altai
* Northern
* Southern
* Äynu
* Azerbaijani
* Bashkir
* Bulgar
* Chagatai
* Chulym
* Chuvash
* Crimean Tatar
* Cuman
* Dolgan
* Fuyü Gïrgïs
* Gagauz
* Ili Turki
* Karachay-Balkar
* Karaim
* Karakalpak
* Karamanli Turkish
* Kazakh
* Khakas
* Khalaj
* Khazar
* Khorasani Turkic
* Kipchak
* Krymchak
* Kumyk
* Kipchak languages
* Kyrgyz
* Nogai
* Old Turkic
* Ottoman Turkish
* Pecheneg
* Qashqai
* Sakha/Yakut
* Salar
* Shor
* Siberian Tatar
* Tatar
* Telengit
* Tofa
* Turkish
* Turkmen
* Tuvan
* Urum
* Uyghur
* Uzbek
* Western Yugur

| Alphabets|

* Old Turkic
* Common Turkic
* Cyrillic
* Old Uyghur
* Persian

|

Peoples|

* Afshars
* Altaians
* Chelkans, Kumandins, Telengits, Teleuts, Tubalars
* Azerbaijanis
* in Iran, Armenia, Georgia1
* Balkars
* Bashkirs
* Chulyms
* Chuvash
* Crimean Karaites
* Crimean Tatars
* Dolgans
* Gagauz
* Karachays
* Karakalpaks
* Kazakhs
* in China1
* Khakas
* Khalaj
* Khorasani Turks
* Krymchaks
* Kyrgyz
* in China1
* Kumyks
* Naimans
* Nogais
* Qarai Turks
* Qashqai
* Salar
* Shors
* Siberian Tatars
* Baraba Tatars
* Chat Tatars
* Kalmak Tatars
* Eushta Tatars
* Zabolotnie Tatars
* Tobol Tatars
* Tatars
* Astrakhan, Chinese, Finnish, Lipka, Kryashens, Mishar, Nağaybäk, Volga
* Tofalar
* Turkmens
* Afghan, Iranian1
* Turkish
* in Abkhazia, Algeria, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Crete, Cyprus, Dodecanese, Egypt, Iraq, Israel, Kosovo, Lebanon, Libya, North Macedonia, Meskhetia (Ahiska), Montenegro, Romania, Serbia, Syria, Tunisia, Western Thrace, Yemen1
* Tuvans
* Uyghurs
* Uzbeks
* in Afghanistan1
* Yakuts (Sakha)
* Yugurs

| Extinct Turkic groups|

* Bulaqs
* Bulgars
* Cumans
* Dughlats
* Göktürks
* Karluks
* Khazars
* Kimek
* Kipchaks
* K'o-sa
* Oghuz Turks
* Shatuo
* Türgesh
* Uzes

|

Politics|

* Grey Wolves
* Kemalism
* Burkhanism
* Jadid
* Pan-Turkism
* Turkesism
* Turanism (Hungarian)

Origins|

* Turkestan
* Mongolia
* History
* Timeline of the Göktürks
* Timeline 500–1300
* Migration
* Turkification
* Nomadic empire
* Turco-Mongol
* Tian Shan / Altai Mountains
* Otuken
* Oğuz

Locations|

| Sovereign states|

* Azerbaijan
* Kazakhstan
* Kyrgyzstan
* Northern Cyprus2
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* Uzbekistan

|

Autonomous areas|

* Altai Republic
* Bashkortostan
* Chuvashia
* Crimea
* Gagauzia
* Kabardino-Balkaria
* Karachay-Cherkessia
* Karakalpakstan
* Khakassia
* Nakhchivan
* Sakha
* Tatarstan
* Tuva
* Xinjiang

Studies|

* Old Turkic script
* Proto-Turkic language
* Turkology

Religions|

* Turkic mythology
* Tengrism
* Shamanism
* Aiyy Faith
* Tibetan Buddhism
* Islam
* Alevism
* Batiniyya
* Bayramiye
* Bektashi Order
* Burkhanism
* Christianity
* Hurufism
* Khalwati order
* Malamatiyya
* Qadiri
* Qalandariyya
* Rifaʽi*
* Safaviyya
* Zahediyeh
* Vattisen Yaly

Traditional sports|

* Kyz kuu
* Jereed
* Kokpar
* Jigit
* Chovgan

Organizations|

* Organization of Turkic States
* International Organization of Turkic Culture (TÜRKSOY)
* Parliamentary Assembly (TURKPA)
* Turkic Academy
* Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status (TAKM)
* World Turks Qurultai

1These are traditional areas of settlement; the Turkic group has been living in the listed country/region for centuries and should not be confused with modern diasporas.
2State with limited international recognition.

Authority control databases

International|

* VIAF
* WorldCat

National|

* United States
* Sweden
* Israel

Other|

* İslâm Ansiklopedisi
* Yale LUX

*[c.]: circa
*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template