Digital media use and mental health

Mental health effects of using digital media

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"Fear of missing out" can lead to psychological stress at the idea of missing posted content by others while offline.

The relationships between digital media use and mental health have been investigated by various researchers—predominantly psychologists, sociologists, anthropologists, and medical experts—especially since the mid-1990s, after the growth of the World Wide Web and rise of text messaging. A significant body of research has explored "overuse" phenomena, commonly known as "digital addictions", or "digital dependencies". These phenomena manifest differently in many societies and cultures. Some experts have investigated the benefits of moderate digital media use in various domains, including mental health, and the treatment of mental health problems with novel technological solutions. Studies have also suggested that certain digital media use, such as online support communities, may offer mental health benefits, although the effects are quite complex.[1]

The difference between beneficial and pathological use of digital media has not been established. There are no widely accepted diagnostic criteria associated with digital media overuse, although some experts consider overuse a manifestation of underlying psychiatric disorders. The prevention and treatment of pathological digital media use are not standardized, although guidelines for safer media use for children and families have been developed. The 2013 fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) do not include diagnoses for problematic internet use and problematic social media use; the ICD-11 includes a diagnosis for gaming disorder (commonly known as video game addiction), whereas the DSM-5 does not. Debate over how and when to diagnose these conditions is ongoing as of 2023. The use of the term addiction to refer to these phenomena and diagnoses has been questioned.

Digital media and screen time amongst modern social media apps such as Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat and Facebook have changed how children think, interact and develop in positive and negative ways, but researchers are unsure about the existence of hypothesized causal links between digital media use and mental health outcomes. Those links appear to depend on the individual and the platforms they use.

## History and terminology

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The relationship between digital technology and mental health has been investigated from many perspectives.[2][3][4] Benefits of digital media use in childhood and adolescent development have been found.[5][6] Concerns have been expressed by researchers, clinicians, and the public in regard to apparent compulsive behaviors of some people who use digital media, as correlations between technology overuse and mental health problems become apparent.[2][6][7][8]

Terminologies used to refer to compulsive digital-media-use behaviours are not standardized or universally recognised. They include "digital addiction", "digital dependence", "problematic use", or "overuse", often delineated by the digital media platform used or under study (such as problematic smartphone use or problematic internet use).[9] Unrestrained use of technological devices may affect developmental, social, mental and physical well-being and may result in symptoms akin to other psychological dependence syndromes, or behavioral addictions.[10][8] The focus on problematic technology use in research, particularly in relation to the behavioural addiction paradigm, is becoming more accepted, despite poor standardization and conflicting research.[11]

Internet addiction has been proposed as a diagnosis since the 1998[12] and social media and its relation to addiction has been examined since 2009.[13] A 2018 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report stated there were benefits of structured and limited internet use in children and adolescents for developmental and educational purposes, but that excessive use can have a negative impact on mental well-being. It also noted an overall 40% increase in internet use in school-age children between 2010 and 2015, and that different OECD nations had marked variations in rates of childhood technology use, as well as differences in the platforms used.[14] The American Psychological Association recommends that adolescents be trained or coached to use social media, as it will ensure that users have developed psychologically informed competencies and skills that will maximize the chances for balanced, safe, and meaningful social media use.[15]

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders has not formally codified problematic digital media use in diagnostic categories, but it deemed internet gaming disorder to be a condition for further study in 2013.[16] Gaming disorder, commonly known as video game addiction, has been recognised in the ICD-11.[17][18] Different recommendations in the DSM and the ICD are due partly to the lack of expert consensus, the differences in emphasis in the classification manuals, as well as difficulties using animal models for behavioural addictions.[10]

The utility of the term addiction in relation to the overuse of digital media has been questioned, in regard to its suitability to describe new, digitally mediated psychiatric categories, as opposed to overuse being a manifestation of other psychiatric disorders.[3][4] Usage of the term has also been criticised for drawing parallels with substance use behaviours. Careless use of the term may cause more problems—both downplaying the risks of harm in seriously affected people, as well as overstating risks of excessive, non-pathological use of digital media.[4] The evolution of terminology relating excessive digital media use to problematic use rather than addiction was encouraged by Panova and Carbonell, psychologists at Ramon Llull University, in a 2018 review.[19]

Due to the lack of recognition and consensus on the concepts used, diagnoses and treatments are difficult to standardize or develop. Heightened levels of public anxiety around new media (including social media, smartphones and video games) adds confusion to the interpretation of population-based assessments, as well as posing management dilemmas.[3] Radesky and Christakis, the 2019 editors of JAMA Paediatrics, published a review that investigated "concerns about health and developmental/behavioral risks of excessive media use for child cognitive, language, literacy, and social-emotional development."[20] Due to the ready availability of multiple technologies to children worldwide, the problem is bi-directional, as taking away digital devices may have a detrimental effect, in areas such as learning, family relationship dynamics, and overall development.[21]

## Problematic use

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See also: Cyberpathology, Digital Revolution, Social aspects of television, and Television consumption

Though associations have been observed between digital media use and mental health symptoms or diagnoses, causality has not been established; nuances and caveats published by researchers are often misunderstood by the general public, or misrepresented by the media.[4] Problematic social media use can also result in fear of missing out (FoMO) in which symptoms of anxiety and psychological stress exasperated with the fear of potentially missing content present online leaving the individual feeling unfulfilled or left out of the loop.[22][23][24][25] Worsening mental health issues, such as anxiety and depression, have been linked to digital use—particularly among younger users who may be more vulnerable to social comparison.[1] Neuroscientific findings that support a structural change in the brain, similar to behavioural addictions; have not found a specific biological or neural processes that may lead to excessive digital media use.[4]

When an individual has FoMo they will be more likely to constantly check their social media accounts using their personal devices to check social media or messages to ensure they are up to date with information that is occurring within the individual's social network. This constant need to check social media platforms for information induces feelings of anxiety driving individuals to get involved with problematic social media use.[26]

### Screen time and mental health

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See also: Criticism of Facebook § Psychological/sociological effects, and Social media and suicide

Some types of potentially problematic internet use are associated with psychiatric or behavioral problems such as depression, anxiety, hostility, aggression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The studies could not determine if causal relationships exist; it was unclear, for example, whether people with depression might overuse the internet because they were already depressed, or if using the internet too much triggered the depression.[2] Some studies also suggest that social media can have both negative and positive effects, depending on the specific context of the individual.[27] While overuse of digital media has been associated with depressive symptoms, digital media may also be used in some situations to improve mood.[28][29] Symptoms of ADHD have been positively correlated with digital media use in a large prospective study.[30] The ADHD symptom of hyperfocus may cause affected individuals to overuse video games, social media, or online chatting; however the correlation between hyperfocus and problematic social media use is weak.[31]

A 2018 review found associations between the self-reported mental health symptoms by users of the Chinese social media platform WeChat and excessive platform use. However, the motivations and usage patterns of WeChat users affected overall psychological health, rather than the amount of time spent using the platform.[8]

The evidence, although of mainly low to moderate quality, shows a correlation between heavy screen time and a variety of health physical and mental health problems.[7] However, moderate use of digital media has been linked to positive outcomes, including improved social integration, mental health, and overall well-being for young people.[7] In fact, certain digital platforms, when used in moderation, have even been associated with enhanced mental health.[27]

In a 2022 review, it was discovered that when it comes to adolescents' well-being that perhaps there is too much focus on locating a negative correlation between digital technologies and adolescents' well-being, If a negative correlation between the two are located the impact would potentially be minimal to the point where it would have little to no impact on adolescent well-being or quality of life.[22]

Social media applications in which users can easily access social feeds, be notified of new content, and connect with others in real time

### Social media and mental health

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Excessive time spent on social media may be more harmful than digital screen time as a whole, especially for young people. Some research has found a "substantial" association between social media use and mental health issues, but most studies have found only a weak or inconsistent relationship.[32][33][34][35] Social media can have both positive and negative effects on mental health; whether the overall effect is harmful or helpful may depend on a variety of factors, including the quality and quantity of social media usage. In the case of those over 65, studies have found high levels of social media usage was associated with positive outcomes overall, such as flourishing, though it remains unclear if social media use is a causative factor.[36][37]

Social media can be beneficial to individuals as a tool which if used correctly can bring about positive impacts to users online and offline. When it comes to social media, adolescence can benefit from its use by allowing users to build and maintain online and offline relationships, access information, connect to other in real time, and help adolescence to express themselves by creating and engaging with content.[24][22] Social media can also be detrimental to users when used incorrectly. Adolescence who use social media can be exposed or placed at risk from the following: Cyberbullying, sexual predators, adult content, substance use, and content that uses unrealistic representations of people and lifestyles.[24][22]

Digital technologies tend to focus more on hedonic well-being, in which users are exposed to content that evokes joy and laughter towards positive content, to anger and sadness towards negative content. In turn these negative impacts on adolescence or any users of social media will only experience temporary impacts on mental well-being, which will not have a permanent effect on the user's quality of life and life satisfaction.[22]

When asked about the amount of time spent on social media teenagers reported that 55 percent have the right amount of time spent on social media. 35 percent of teenagers reported they spent too much time on social media, while 8 percent stated they spent too little time on social media.[22]

#### Youth

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95% of people between the ages of 13-17 have reported using some form of social media. Almost 2/3 of teenagers reported that they use social media daily. Social media in youth provides benefits and risks. Children who spend more than 3 hours per day using social media face a risk of problems including but not limited to depression, anxiety, and suicide risk.[38][39]

### Proposed diagnostic categories

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See also: Computer addiction, Internet addiction disorder, Internet sex addiction, Nomophobia, Problematic smartphone use, Problematic social media use, Television addiction, and Video game addiction

Gaming disorder has been considered by the DSM-5 task force as warranting further study (as the subset internet gaming disorder), and was included in the ICD-11.[16] Concerns have been raised by Aarseth and colleagues over this inclusion, particularly in regard to stigmatization of heavy gamers.[40]

Christakis has asserted that internet addiction may be "a 21st century epidemic".[41] In 2018, he commented that childhood Internet overuse may be a form of "uncontrolled experiment[s] on ... children".[42] International estimates of the prevalence of internet overuse have varied considerably, with marked variations by nation. A 2014 meta-analysis of 31 nations yielded an overall worldwide prevalence of six percent.[43] A different perspective in 2018 by Musetti and colleagues reappraised the internet in terms of its necessity and ubiquity in modern society, as a social environment, rather than a tool, thereby calling for the reformulation of the internet addiction model.[44]

Some medical and behavioural scientists recommend adding a diagnosis of "social media addiction" (or similar) to the next Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders update.[45][46][8] A 2015 review concluded there was a probable link between basic psychological needs and social media addiction, stating, "Social network site users seek feedback, and they get it from hundreds of people—instantly. It could be argued that the platforms are designed to get users 'hooked'."[47]

Internet sex addiction, also known as cybersex addiction, has been proposed as a sexual addiction characterized by virtual internet sexual activity that causes serious negative consequences to one's physical, mental, social, and/or financial well-being.[48][49] It may be considered a form of problematic internet use.[50]

### Related phenomena

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#### Online problem gambling

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Main article: Online gambling § Problem gambling

A 2015 review found evidence of higher rates of mental health comorbidities, as well as higher amounts of substance use, among internet gamblers, compared to non-internet gamblers. Causation, however, has not been established. The review postulates that there may be differences in the cohorts between internet and land-based problem gamblers.[51]

#### Cyberbullying

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Main article: Cyberbullying

Cyberbullying, bullying or harassment using social media or other electronic means, has been shown to have effects on mental health. Victims may have lower self-esteem, increased suicidal ideation, decreased motivation for usual hobbies, and a variety of emotional responses, including being scared, frustrated, angry, anxious or depressed. These victims may also begin to distance themselves from friends and family members.[52][53][54]

According to the EU Kids Online project, the incidence of cyberbullying across seven European countries in children aged 8–16 increased from 8% to 12% between 2010 and 2014. Similar increases were shown in the United States and Brazil.[55]

#### Media multitasking

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Main article: Media multitasking

Concurrent use of multiple digital media streams, commonly known as media multitasking, has been shown to be associated with depressive symptoms, social anxiety, impulsivity, sensation seeking, lower perceived social success and neuroticism.[56] A 2018 review found that while the literature is sparse and inconclusive, overall, heavy media multitaskers also have poorer performance in several cognitive domains.[57] One of the authors commented that the data does not "unambiguously show that media multitasking causes a change in attention and memory", therefore it is possible to argue that it is inefficient to multitask on digital media.[58]

#### Distracted road use

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Main articles: Mobile phones and driving safety and Smartphones and pedestrian safety

See also: Distracted driving, Human multitasking, and Texting while driving

A 2023 systematic review of 47 samples across 45 studies investigating associations between problematic mobile phone use and road safety outcomes found that problematic mobile phone use was associated with greater risk of simultaneous mobile phone use and road use and risk of vehicle collisions and pedestrian collisions or falls.[59]

#### Noise-induced hearing loss

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See also: Tinnitus and Occupational hearing loss

This section is an excerpt from Noise-induced hearing loss § Video game sound levels.[edit]

A 2024 systematic review of 14 studies investigating associations between sound-induced hearing loss and playing video games and esports found that a significant association between gaming and hearing loss or tinnitus and that the average measured sound levels during gameplay by subjects (which averaged 3 hours per week) exceeded or nearly exceeded permissible sound exposure levels.[60]

Physical Affects

Extended periods of screen use have been linked to poor posture, eye strain, and reduced physical activity, which may contribute to more serious health issues such as obesity, musculoskeletal pain, and even cardiovascular problems. Sedentary behavior, especially when combined with poor diet habits during screen time, increases the risk of long-term health complications. Also, blue light exposure from screens can disrupt sleep patterns, reducing sleep quality and affecting overall physical recovery.[61]

### Assessment and treatment

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Rigorous, evidence-based assessment of problematic digital media use is yet to be comprehensively established. This is due partially to a lack of consensus around the various constructs and lack of standardization of treatments.[62] The American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) has developed a Family Media Plan, intending to help parents assess and structure their family's use of electronic devices and media more safely. It recommends limiting entertainment screen time to two hours or less per day.[63][64] The Canadian Paediatric Society produced a similar guideline. Ferguson, a psychologist, has criticised these and other national guidelines for not being evidence-based.[65] Other experts, cited in a 2017 UNICEF Office of Research literature review, have recommended addressing potential underlying problems rather than arbitrarily enforcing screen time limits.[4]

Different methodologies for assessing pathological internet use have been developed, mostly self-report questionnaires, but none have been universally recognised as a gold standard.[66] For gaming disorder, both the American Psychiatric Association[67] and the World Health Organization (through the ICD-11)[17] have released diagnostic criteria.

There is some limited evidence of the effectiveness of cognitive behavioral therapy and family-based interventions for treatment. In randomized controlled trials, medications have not been shown to be effective.[62] A 2016 study of 901 adolescents suggested mindfulness may assist in preventing and treating problematic internet use.[68] A 2019 UK parliamentary report deemed parental engagement, awareness and support to be essential in developing "digital resilience" for young people, and to identify and manage the risks of harm online.[69] Treatment centres have proliferated in some countries, and China and South Korea have treated digital dependence as a public health crisis, opening 300 and 190 centres nationwide, respectively.[70] Other countries have also opened treatment centres.[71][72]

NGOs, support and advocacy groups provide resources to people overusing digital media, with or without codified diagnoses,[73][74] including the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.[75][76]

A 2022 study outlines the mechanisms by which media-transmitted stressors affect mental well-being. Authors suggest a common denominator related to problems with the media's construction of reality is increased uncertainty, which leads to defensive responses and chronic stress in predisposed individuals.[77]

## Associated psychiatric disorders

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### ADHD

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Main article: Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Meta-analysis and systematic reviews of studies have shown a link between internet use, gaming disorders, social media use, and ADHD or symptoms of ADHD including impulsive traits; however, associations and casualty are not clear.[78][79][80] There is some evidence of a bi-directional relationship in which people with ADHD may be more likely to engage with problematic internet or gaming use, and higher digital media use may worsen existing ADHD symptoms.[81][82][83]

### Anxiety

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Main articles: Generalized anxiety disorder and Social anxiety disorder

There is evidence of weak to moderate associations between gaming disorder or smartphone use and social anxiety and depressive symptoms,[79][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93] and nomophobia.[94] However these are also not causal, the nature of the associations is not clear.[95][80][96][97] There is also some evidence of bi-directionality.[98] There are some conflicting results from systematic reviews.[99] There are also some links between the amount of personal information uploaded, and social media addictive behaviors all correlated with anxiety.[88]

### Autism

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Main article: Autism

In August 2015, NeuroTribes identified autistic digital communities such as Autism Network International, Wrong Planet, and the Autism List mailing list at St. John's University (New York City).[100] Steve Silberman argued that these communities "provided a natural home" where autistic members "could interact at their own pace."[101] Jim Sinclair (activist) was a member of Autism List and participated in founding Autism Network International.

A 2018 systematic review of 47 studies published from 2005 to 2016 concluded that associations between autism and screen time was inconclusive.[102] Another 2019 systematic review of 16 studies that found that autistic children and adolescents are exposed to more screen time than typically developing peers and that the exposure starts at a younger age.[103] A 2021 systematic review of 12 studies of video game addiction in autistic subjects found that children, adolescents, and autistic adults are at greater risk of video game addiction than non-autistic adults, and that the data from the studies suggested that internal and external factors (sex, attention and oppositional behavior problems, social aspects, access and time spent playing video games, parental rules, and game genre) were significant predictors of video game addiction in autistic subjects.[104] A 2022 systematic review of 21 studies investigating associations between autism, problematic internet use, and gaming disorder found that the majority of studies found positive associations between the disorders.[105]

Another 2022 systematic review of 10 studies found that autistic subjects had more symptoms of problematic internet use than control group subjects, had higher screen time online and an earlier age of first-time use of the internet, and also greater symptoms of depression and ADHD.[106] A 2023 meta-analysis of 46 studies comprising 562,131 subjects that concluded that while screen time may be a developmental cause of autism in childhood, associations between autism and screen time were not statistically significant when accounting for publication bias.[107]

### Bipolar disorder

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Main article: Bipolar disorder

There is some evidence of an association between problematic internet use as a risk factor for bipolar disorder.[108]

### Depression

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Main article: Major depressive disorder

There is a growing body of evidence demonstrating an association between screen-based behaviours and depressive symptoms or clinical depression.[79][95][109][110][80][111][96][92] Studies across a wide range of populations including different ages, genders, [112] and cultures report small to moderate associations between these behaviors and depression symptoms, with problematic use more strongly associated with depression than general use.[88][85][86][89][113] While some studies suggest these associations may be bidirectional or influenced by factors like social support or content type, the overall direction of findings points to screen-based behaviours as a potential risk factor for a person to experience depressive symptoms.[98][114] The strength and nature of these associations has been reported to vary and may depend on usage and patterns, individual vulnerabilities, and geographic context. Causality remains unclear.[115][87][90][97][91][116][117][93]

### Sleep

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Main article: Insomnia

Sleep quality and screen time or digital media use have been linked, including studies looking at media type, time of day, and age of person.[118][119][85][80][120][121][122][123][124][125] Various sleep challenges or outcomes have been studied including a reduction in sleep duration, increased sleep onset latency, modifications to rapid eye movement sleep and slow-wave sleep, increased sleepiness and self-perceived fatigue, and impaired post-sleep attention span and verbal memory.[126]

### Narcissism

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Main article: Narcissistic personality disorder

There are some reports of positive correlations between grandiose narcissism and social networking site usage, [127][110] highlighting the potential for a correlation between time spent on social media, frequency of status updates, number of friends or followers, and frequency of posting self-portrait digital photographs.[128][129]

### Obsessive–compulsive disorder

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Main article: Obsessive–compulsive disorder

There is some evidence suggesting a significant correlation between digital media overuse and obsessive–compulsive disorder symptoms.[79][130]

## Mental health benefits

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See also: Video game controversies § Positive effects of video games

Smartphones and other digital devices are ubiquitous in many societies.

There is some evidence that people with mental illness can have a positive outcomes based on digital media use, such as the potential to develop social connections over social media and foster a sense of social inclusion in online communities.[5][6] Digital communities or social media may also have the potential for some people with mental illness to share personal stories in a perceived safer space, as well as gaining peer support for developing coping strategies.[5][6] There are some reports of people avoiding stigma and gaining further insight into their mental health condition, including the potential for dialogue with healthcare professionals, as benefits of using social media.[5][131][132] This comes with the usual digital media risk of the potential for unhealthy influences, misinformation, and delayed access to traditional mental health outlets.[5]

Other benefits include the potential to gain connections to supportive online communities, including illness or disability specific communities, as well as the LGBTQIA community.[6] Young people with cancer have reported an improvement in their coping abilities due to their participation in an online community.[133]

Furthermore, in children, there may be educational benefits of digital media use.[5] For example, screen-based programs may help increase both independent and collaborative learning. A variety of quality apps and software may decrease learning gaps and increase skill in certain educational subjects.[134][135] The benefits (and risks) may also be specific to cultures and geographic locations.[136]

Young people may have different experiences online, depending on their socio-economic background, noting lower-income youths may spend up to three hours more per day using digital devices, compared to higher-income youths.[137] Lower-income youths, who are already vulnerable to mental illness, may be more passive in their online engagements, being more susceptible to negative feedback online, with difficulty self-regulating their digital media use.[137] It has been suggested that this may be a new form of digital divide between at-risk young people and other young people, pre-existing risks of mental illness becoming amplified among the already vulnerable population.[137]

## Impact on cognition

[edit]

There is research and development about the cognitive impacts of smartphones and digital technology.

Some educators and experts have raised some concerns about how technology may negatively affect students’ thinking abilities and academic performance.[138]

Measured results of the study

## Impact on social life

[edit]

Worldwide adolescent loneliness in contemporary schools and depression increased substantially after 2012 and a study found this to be associated with smartphone access and Internet use.[139][140]

## Mitigation

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### Industry

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Several technology firms have implemented changes intending to mitigate the adverse effects of excessive use of their platforms.

In December 2017, Facebook admitted passive consumption of social media could be harmful to mental health, although they said active engagement can have a positive effect. In January 2018, the platform made major changes to increase user engagement.[141] In January 2019, Facebook's then head of global affairs, Nick Clegg, responding to criticisms of Facebook and mental health concerns, stated they would do "whatever it takes to make this environment safer online especially for youngsters". Facebook admitted "heavy responsibilities" to the global community, and invited regulation by governments.[142] In 2018 Facebook and Instagram announced new tools that they asserted may assist with overuse of their products.[143] In 2019, Instagram, which has been investigated specifically in one study in terms of addiction,[144] began testing a platform change in Canada to hide the number of "likes" and views that photos and videos received in an effort to create a "less pressurised" environment.[145] It then continued this trial in Australia, Italy, Ireland, Japan, Brazil and New Zealand[146] before extending the experiment globally in November of that year. The platform also developed artificial intelligence to counter cyberbullying.[147]

In 2018, Alphabet Inc. released an update for Android smartphones, including a dashboard app enabling users to set timers on application use.[148] Apple Inc. purchased a third-party application and then incorporated it in iOS 12 to measure "screen time".[149] Journalists have questioned the functionality of these products for users and parents, as well as the companies' motivations for introducing them.[148][150] Alphabet has also invested in a mental health specialist, Quartet, which uses machine learning to collaborate and coordinate digital delivery of mental health care.[151]

Two activist investors in Apple Inc voiced concerns in 2018 about the content and amount of time spent by youth. They called on Apple Inc. to act before regulators and consumers potentially force them to do so.[152] Apple Inc. responded that they have, "always looked out for kids, and [they] work hard to create powerful products that inspire, entertain, and educate children while also helping parents protect them online". The firm is planning new features that they asserted may allow them to play a pioneering role in regard to young people's health.[153]

### Public sector

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In China, Japan, South Korea and the United States, governmental efforts have been enacted to address issues relating to digital media use and mental health.

China's Ministry of Culture has enacted several public health efforts from as early as 2006 to address gaming and internet-related disorders. In 2007, an "Online Game Anti-Addiction System" was implemented for minors, restricting their use to 3 hours or less per day. The ministry also proposed a "Comprehensive Prevention Program Plan for Minors' Online Gaming Addiction" in 2013, to promulgate research, particularly on diagnostic methods and interventions.[154] China's Ministry of Education in 2018 announced that new regulations would be introduced to further limit the amount of time spent by minors in online games.[155][156] In response, Tencent, the owner of WeChat and the world's largest video game publisher, restricted the amount of time that children could spend playing one of its online games, to one hour per day for children 12 and under, and two hours per day for children aged 13–18.[157] On 2 September 2023, those under the age of 18 can no longer access the Internet on their mobile device between 10 pm and 6 am without parental bypass. Smartphone usage is similarly capped by default at 40 minutes a day for children younger than eight and at two hours for 16- and 17-year-olds.[158]

Japan's Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications coordinates Japanese public health efforts in relation to problematic internet use and gaming disorder. Legislatively, the Act on Development of an Environment that Provides Safe and Secure Internet Use for Young People was enacted in 2008, to promote public awareness campaigns, and support NGOs to teach young people safe internet use skills.[154]

South Korea has eight government ministries responsible for public health efforts in relation to internet and gaming disorders. A review article published in Prevention Science in 2018 stated that the "region is unique in that its government has been at the forefront of prevention efforts, particularly in contrast to the United States, Western Europe, and Oceania."[154] Efforts are coordinated by the Ministry of Science and ICT, and include awareness campaigns, educational interventions, youth counseling centres, and promoting healthy online culture.[154]

In July 2022, Senators Richard Blumenthal and Marsha Blackburn introduced The Kids Online Safety Act (KOSA). This bill aims to protect minors from online harms by requiring social media platforms to mitigate online harms to minors through implementing safeguards (e.g. privacy settings), performing independent audits, and limiting the sharing of minors' personal information to third parties.[159] The bill passed the Senate in July 2024, but is still up for consideration by the House. Despite not being passed yet, KOSA is already incredibly polarizing legislation, with groups like The Electronic Frontier Foundation (EFF) opposing KOSA, saying the bill would lead to: "broad online censorship of lawful speech, including content designed to help children navigate and overcome the very same harms it identifies."[160]

In May 2023, the United States' Surgeon general took the rare measure of issuing an advisory on Social media and mental health.[161][162] In October, 41 U.S. states commenced legal proceedings against Meta. This included the attorneys general of 33 states filing a combined lawsuit over concerns about the addictive nature of Instagram and its impact on the mental health of young people.[163][164] In November 2024, Australia passed the world's first ban on social media for under-16s.[165][166]

## Digital mental health care

[edit]

"Wellmind", a United Kingdom National Health Service smartphone application

Digital technologies have also provided opportunities for delivery of mental health care online; benefits have been found with computerized cognitive behavioral therapy for depression and anxiety.[167] Mindfulness based online intervention has been shown to have small to moderate benefits on mental health. The greatest effect size was found for the reduction of psychological stress. Benefits were also found regarding depression, anxiety, and well-being.[168][169]

The Lancet commission on global mental health and sustainability report from 2018 evaluated both benefits and harms of technology. It considered the roles of technologies in mental health, particularly in public education; patient screening; treatment; training and supervision; and system improvement.[170] A study in 2019 published in Front Psychiatry in the National Center for Biotechnology Information states that despite proliferation of many mental health apps there has been no "equivalent proliferation of scientific evidence for their effectiveness."[171]

Steve Blumenfield and Jeff Levin-Scherz, writing in the Harvard Business Review, claim that "most published studies show telephonic mental health care is as effective as in-person care in treating depression, anxiety and obsessive-compulsive disorder." The also cite a 2020 study done with the Veterans Administration as evidence of this as well.[172]

## Epidemiology

[edit]

In 1999, 58% of Finnish citizens had a mobile phone, including 75% of 15-17 year olds.[173] In 2000, a majority of U.S. households had at least one personal computer and internet access the following year.[174] In 2002, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having a mobile phone.[175] In September and December 2006 respectively, Luxembourg and the Netherlands became the first countries to completely transition from analog to digital television, while the United States commenced its transition in 2008. In September 2007, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported having broadband internet at home.[176] In January 2013, a majority of U.S. survey respondents reported owning a smartphone.[177] An estimated 40% of U.S. households in 2006 owned a dedicated home video game console,[178][179] and by 2015, 51 percent of U.S. households owned a dedicated home video game console.[180][181] In April 2015, one survey of U.S. teenagers ages 13 to 17 reported that nearly three-quarters of them either owned or had access to a smartphone, and 92 percent went online daily, with 24 percent saying they went online "almost constantly."[182] In a 2024 survey, U.S. teenagers reported that 95 percent have access to smartphone, spent 97 percent of their time online daily, and 48 percent is spent online "almost constantly".[23]

## Society and culture

[edit]

In August 2015, NeuroTribes identified autistic digital communities such as Autism Network International, Wrong Planet, and the Autism List mailing list at St. John's University (New York City).[183] Steve Silberman argued that these communities "provided a natural home" where autistic members "could interact at their own pace."[184] Jim Sinclair was a member of Autism List and participated in founding Autism Network International.

## See also

[edit]

* Computer-induced medical problems
* Evolutionary psychiatry
* Instagram
* Screen time
* Social aspects of television

## References

[edit]

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## Further reading

[edit]

* Alter A (2017). Irresistible : the rise of addictive technology and the business of keeping us hooked. New York: Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-7352-2284-7. OCLC 990286417.
* Bartlett V, Bowden-Jones H (2017). Are we all addicts now? : digital dependence. Beales, Katriona, MacDonald, Fiona. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press. ISBN 978-1-78694-081-0. OCLC 988053669.
* Young K, de Abreu CN (2017). Internet addiction in children and adolescents : risk factors, assessment, and treatment. New York: Springer Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-8261-3373-1. OCLC 988278461.
* Haidt J (2024). The Anxious Generation: How the Great Rewiring of Childhood Is Causing an Epidemic of Mental Illness. Penguin Press. ISBN 978-0-593-65503-0.
* Galea S, Buckley GJ, Wojtowicz A, eds. (2024). Social Media and Adolescent Health: NASEM Consensus Study Report (Report). Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/27396. ISBN 978-0-309-71316-0. Retrieved 9 May 2024.

* Woods, H. C., & Scott, H. (2016). #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self‐esteem. Journal of Adolescence, 51(1), 41–49. #Sleepyteens: Social media use in adolescence is associated with poor sleep quality, anxiety, depression and low self-esteem
* Jones, A., Hook, M., Podduturi, P., McKeen, H., Beitzell, E., & Liss, M. (2022). Mindfulness as a mediator in the relationship between social media engagement and depression in young adults. Personality and Individual Differences, 185. Mindfulness as a mediator in the relationship between social media engagement and depression in young adults
* White-Gosselin, C.-É., & Poulin, F. (2022). Associations between young adults' social media addiction, relationship quality with parents, and internalizing problems: A path analysis model. Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science / Revue Canadienne Des Sciences Du Comportement. Associations between young adults’ social media addiction, relationship quality with parents, and internalizing problems: A path analysis model.
* Hammad, M. A., & Alqarni, T. M. (2021). Psychosocial effects of social media on the Saudi society during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic: A cross-sectional study. PLoS ONE, 16(3). Psychosocial effects of social media on the Saudi society during the Coronavirus Disease 2019 pandemic: A cross-sectional study
* Huang, Chiungjung. “A Meta-Analysis of the Problematic Social Media Use and Mental Health.” A meta-analysis of the problematic social media use and mental health, December 9, 2020. A meta-analysis of the problematic social media use and mental health.
* Weigle, Paul E., and Pamela Hurst-Della Pietra. “Children and Screens: Youth Digital Media Use and Mental Health Outcomes.” Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 60, no. 10 (October 2, 2021): S297–S297. CHILDREN AND SCREENS: YOUTH DIGITAL MEDIA USE AND MENTAL HEALTH OUTCOMES.

## External links

[edit]

Wikinews has related news:

* New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions

* Media related to Digital media use and mental health at Wikimedia Commons
* Anthropology of Social Media: Why We Post, University College London, Free online five-week course, asking "What are the consequences of social media?"
* Social Media Use and Mental Health: A Review – ongoing review curated by Jean Twenge & Jonathan Haidt.
* "Digital Nation". Frontline. Season 28. Episode 7. 2 February 2010. PBS. WGBH. Retrieved 2 August 2022.

* v
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Reinforcement disorders: addiction and dependence

Addiction|

| Drug|

* Alcohol
* Amphetamine
* Cocaine
* Methamphetamine
* Methylphenidate
* Nicotine
* Opioid

|

Behavioral|

* Financial
* Gambling
* Shopping
* Palatable food
* Sex-related
* Intercourse
* Pornography
* Internet-related
* Internet addiction disorder
* Internet sex addiction
* Video game addiction
* Digital media addictions

Cellular
mechanisms|

* Transcriptional
* ΔFosB
* c-Fos
* Cdk5
* CREB
* GluR2
* NF-κB

* Epigenetic
* G9a
* G9a-like protein
* HDAC1
* HDAC2
* HDAC3
* HDAC4
* HDAC5
* HDAC9
* HDAC10
* SIRT1
* SIRT2
* ...

Dependence|

| Concepts|

* Adverse childhood experiences
* Physical dependence
* Psychological dependence
* Withdrawal

|

Disorders|

* Drugs
* Alcoholism
* Amphetamine
* Barbiturate
* Benzodiazepine
* Caffeine
* Cannabis
* Cocaine
* Nicotine
* Opioid
* Non-drug stimuli
* Tanning dependence

Treatment
and
management|

| Detoxification|

* Alcohol detoxification
* Drug detoxification

|

Behavioral
therapies|

* Cognitive behavioral therapy
* Relapse prevention
* Contingency management
* Community reinforcement approach and family training
* Motivational enhancement therapy
* Motivational interviewing
* Motivational therapy
* Physical exercise

Treatment
programs|

* Drug rehab
* Residential treatment center
* Heroin-assisted treatment
* Intensive outpatient program
* Methadone maintenance
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* Tobacco cessation clinics in India
* Twelve-step program

Support groups|

* Addiction recovery groups
* List of twelve-step groups

Harm reduction|

* Category:Harm reduction
* Drug checking
* Reagent testing
* Low-threshold treatment programs
* Managed alcohol program
* Moderation Management
* Needle exchange program
* Responsible drug use
* Stimulant maintenance
* Supervised injection site
* Tobacco harm reduction

See also|

* Addiction medicine
* Allen Carr
* Category:Addiction
* Category:Vaccines against drugs
* Discrimination against drug addicts
* Dopamine dysregulation syndrome
* Cognitive control
* Inhibitory control
* Motivational salience
* Incentive salience
* Sober companion

* Category

* v
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* e

Digital media use and mental health

Proposed or recognised
diagnostic categories|

* Computer addiction
* Internet addiction disorder
* Internet sex addiction
* Online gambling
* Problematic smartphone use
* Nomophobia
* Problematic social media use
* Television addiction
* Video game addiction

Disciplines involved|

* Digital anthropology
* Digital sociology
* Ergonomics
* Cognitive ergonomics
* Computer-mediated communication
* Cyberpsychology
* Engineering psychology
* Human–computer interaction
* Media naturalness theory
* Neuroergonomics
* Neuroscience
* Psychiatry
* Evolutionary
* Psychology
* Clinical
* Cognitive
* Evolutionary
* Social

Associated
psychiatric conditions|

* Anxiety disorder
* Generalized anxiety disorder
* Obsessive–compulsive disorder
* Social anxiety disorder
* Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
* Autism
* Bipolar disorder
* Depression
* Eating disorder
* Anorexia nervosa
* Body image disturbance
* Insomnia
* Narcissistic personality disorder

Related topics|

* Behavioral addiction
* Behavioral modernity
* Body image
* Criticism of Facebook
* 2021 Facebook company files leak
* Cyberbullying
* Cyberpathology
* Digital detox
* Digital zombie
* Evolution of cognition
* Evolutionary mismatch
* Fear of missing out
* Mobile phones and driving safety
* Promotion of anorexia
* Psychological effects of Internet use
* Screen time
* Binge-watching
* Social aspects of television
* Television consumption
* Smartphones and pedestrian safety
* Social media and suicide
* Social media restrictions on children in Australia
* Spaving
* Suicide and the Internet
* Technophilia
* Technophobia
* Technostress
* Texting while driving

* v
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Evolutionary psychology

* History
* Evolutionary thought
* Theoretical foundations
* Adaptationism
* Cognitive revolution
* Cognitivism
* Gene selection theory
* Modern synthesis
* Criticism

Evolutionary
processes|

* Adaptations
* Altruism
* Cheating
* Hamiltonian spite
* Reciprocal
* Baldwin effect
* By-products
* Evolutionarily stable strategy
* Exaptation
* Fitness
* Inclusive
* Kin selection
* Inbreeding avoidance
* Kin recognition
* Parental investment
* Parent–offspring conflict
* Mismatch
* Natural selection
* Sexual selection
* Costly signaling
* Male/female intrasexual competition
* Mate choice
* Sexual dimorphism
* Social selection
* Species-typical behavior

Areas|

| Cognition /
Emotion|

* Affect
* Display
* Display rules
* Facial expression
* Behavioral modernity
* Cognitive module/modularity of mind
* Adaptive unconscious/Unconscious cognition
* Automatic and controlled processes
* Cognitive specialization
* Computational theory of mind
* Domain generality
* Domain specificity/learning
* Dual process theory
* Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
* Evolution of the brain
* Evolution of nervous systems
* Fight-or-flight response
* Arachnophobia
* Basophobia
* Ophidiophobia
* Folk biology/taxonomy
* Folk psychology/theory of mind
* Intelligence
* Flynn effect
* Wason selection task
* Motor control/skill
* Multitasking
* Numerical cognition
* Number sense
* Approximate number system
* Parallel individuation system
* Sleep
* Visual perception
* Color vision
* Eye
* Naïve physics

|

Culture|

* Aesthetics
* Literary criticism
* Musicology
* Anthropology
* Biological
* Crime
* Language
* Origin
* Psychology
* Speech
* Morality
* Moral foundations
* Religion
* Origin
* Universals

Development|

* Attachment
* Bonding
* Affectional/maternal/paternal bond
* Caregiver deprivation
* Childhood attachment
* Cinderella effect
* Cognitive development
* Education
* Language acquisition
* Personality development
* Socialization

Human factors /
Mental health|

* Cognitive ergonomics
* Computer-mediated communication
* Engineering psychology
* Human–computer interaction
* Media naturalness theory
* Neuroergonomics
* Depression
* Digital media use and mental health
* Hypophobia
* Imprinted brain hypothesis
* Mind-blindness
* Psychological effects of Internet use
* Rank theory of depression
* Schizophrenia
* Screen time
* Smartphones and pedestrian safety
* Social aspects of television
* Societal effects of cars
* Distracted driving
* Lead–crime hypothesis
* Mobile phones and driving safety
* Texting while driving

Sex|

* Activity
* Adult attachment
* Age disparity
* Arousal
* Concealed ovulation
* Coolidge effect
* Desire
* Fantasy
* Hormonal motivation
* Incest taboo
* Westermarck effect
* Jealousy
* Mate guarding
* Mating preferences
* Mating strategies
* Orientation
* Ovulatory shift hypothesis
* Pair bond
* Physical/Sexual attraction
* Sexuality/male/female
* Sexy son hypothesis

Sex differences|

* Aggression
* Autism
* Cognition
* Crime
* Division of labour
* Emotional intelligence
* Empathising–systemising theory
* Gender role
* Intelligence
* Memory
* Mental health
* Narcissism
* Neuroscience
* Schizophrenia
* Substance abuse
* Suicide
* Variability hypothesis

Related subjects|

| Academic disciplines|

* Behavioral/evolutionary economics
* Behavioral epigenetics/genetics
* Affective/behavioral/cognitive/evolutionary neuroscience
* Biocultural anthropology
* Biolinguistics
* Biological psychiatry
* Cognitive psychology
* Cognitive science
* Cross-cultural psychology
* Ethology
* Evolutionary biology
* Evolutionary medicine
* Functional psychology
* Neuropsychology
* Philosophy of mind
* Population genetics
* Primatology
* Sociobiology

|

Research topics|

* Cultural evolution
* Evolutionary epistemology
* Great ape language
* Human–animal communication
* Missing heritability problem
* Number sense in animals
* Primate cognition
* Unit of selection
* Coevolution
* Cultural group selection
* Dual inheritance theory
* Fisher's principle
* Group selection
* Hologenome theory
* Lamarckism/acquired characteristics
* Population
* Punctuated equilibrium
* Recent human evolution
* Species
* Species complex
* Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
* Trivers–Willard hypothesis

Theoretical positions|

* Cultural selection theory
* Determinism/indeterminism
* Biological determinism
* Connectionism
* Cultural determinism
* Environmental determinism
* Nature versus nurture
* Psychological nativism
* Social constructionism
* Social determinism
* Standard social science model
* Functionalism
* Memetics
* Multilineal evolution
* Neo-Darwinism
* Neoevolutionism
* Sociocultural evolution
* Unilineal evolution

* Evolutionary psychologists
*  Evolutionary psychology
*  Psychology portal
*  Evolutionary biology portal

* v
* t
* e

Media and human factors

* Cognitive psychology
* Externality
* Evolutionary psychology
* Behavioral modernity
* Cognition
* Mismatch
* Media psychology
* Media studies
* Social psychology

Media practices|

* Betteridge's law of headlines
* Gatekeeping
* Infotainment
* Human-interest story
* Junk food news
* Least objectionable program
* Soft media
* Media bias
* Media manipulation
* Pink-slime journalism
* Propaganda
* Public relations
* Missing white woman syndrome
* News values
* Sensationalism
* Hot take
* Spiking
* Tabloid television
* Yellow journalism

Attention|

* Attention economy
* Attention inequality
* Attention management
* Attention span
* Chumbox
* Clickbait
* Cognitive miser
* Low information voter
* Digital zombie
* Phubbing
* Doomscrolling
* Human multitasking
* Media multitasking
* Mobile phones and driving safety
* Smartphones and pedestrian safety
* Texting while driving
* Influence-for-hire
* Infodemic
* Information explosion
* Information overload
* Information pollution
* Information–action ratio
* Rage farming
* Screen time
* Binge-watching
* Television consumption
* Sticky content

Cognitive bias/
Conformity|

* Availability cascade
* Availability heuristic
* Bandwagon effect
* Confirmation bias
* Crowd psychology
* Mobbing
* Moral panic
* Mean world syndrome
* Negativity bias
* Peer pressure
* Social-desirability bias
* Social influence bias
* Spiral of silence

Digital divide/
Political polarization|

* Algorithmic radicalization
* Youth
* Echo chamber
* Fake news website
* Post-truth politics
* United States
* Filter bubble
* Knowledge divide
* Knowledge gap hypothesis
* Political polarization in the United States
* Social media use in politics
* United States
* 2016 U.S. presidential election
* 2020 U.S. presidential election

Related topics|

* Computer rage
* Criticism of Facebook
* 2021 Facebook company files leak
* Facebook–Cambridge Analytica data scandal
* Criticism of Netflix
* Cultural impact of TikTok
* Digital media use and mental health
* Effects of violence in mass media
* Fascination with death
* Griefer
* Mass shooting contagion
* Psychological effects of Internet use
* Sealioning
* Social aspects of television
* Social bot
* Social impact of YouTube
* Technophilia
* Neophile
* Technophobia
* Violence and video games

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