Domestic violence court

Type of court

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Specialized domestic violence courts are designed to improve victim safety and enhance defendant accountability. There is no one set definition of a specialized violence court, although these types of courts can be either civil or criminal and typically hear the majority of an area's domestic violence cases on a separate calendar. Additionally, these courts are typically led by specially assigned judges who can make more informed and consistent decisions based on their expertise and experience with the unique legal and personal issues in domestic violence cases.[1]

Specialized domestic violence courts emerged as a problem-solving court in the 1980s and 1990s as a result of challenges and reforms to the criminal-legal system's approach to domestic violence such as Thurman v. City of Torrington.[2] This reform led to changes in police and prosecutor's handling of domestic violence cases, and specialized domestic violence courts were created to address the larger number of domestic violence cases as the criminal-legal system began to take domestic violence more seriously.[2]

While there are a variety of benefits associated with specialized domestic violence courts, there are concerns that specialized domestic violence courts do not support survivors or address the broader societal causes of domestic violence.

## Background on domestic violence

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Further information: Office on Violence Against Women § Mandatory Arrest Laws

The purple ribbon is used to encourage awareness of the problem of domestic violence

The FBI estimates that a domestic violence crime is committed at a rate of once every fifteen seconds.[3] According to conservative estimates, one million women are battered by an intimate partner annually.[4] These numbers and the efforts of domestic violence advocates have led, over the last 20 years, to changes in the criminal justice response to such offenses. Prior to the 1960s and 1970s, domestic violence was viewed in the United States as a personal issue to be dealt with in private, rather than through the courts. However, activists in the battered women's movement and anti-rape movement raised awareness of domestic violence as an issue, not just within relationships, but within society more broadly. Activists in these movements initially relied on grassroots work to support survivors and promote change, but some activists turned to more institutionalized methods of change such as legislation and mainstream social services.[5] Some of the greatest institutional changes as a result of this activism occurred in the 1990s, with the passage of the federal Violence Against Women Act in 1994 and the creation of the first specialized domestic violence court in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania in 1991.[6] However, some criticize this institutional strategy for relying on the criminal-legal system, which is not meant to promote survivor autonomy.[7]

This increased attention to domestic violence resulted in, among other things, the passage of mandatory arrest laws, an increase in funding for services for victims, and the creation of special domestic violence prosecution and police units.[8] At the same time, there was a parallel movement taking place within state court systems as judges and attorneys began to search for new tools, strategies, and new technologies that could help them address difficult cases where social, human, and legal problems collide.[9]

New York's chief judge, Judith S. Kaye, with co-author Judge Susan Knipps, articulated the thinking behind the development of domestic violence courts in an essay published in Western State University Law Review:[4]

> One possible judicial response to the current situation is to continue to process domestic violence cases as any other kind of case, and to continue to observe systemic failures. Another response, however—the problem solving response—is to try to design court programs that explicitly take into account the special characteristics that domestic violence cases present. If domestic violence defendants present a particular risk of future violence, then why not enhance monitoring efforts to deter such actions? If victims remain in abusive situations due to fear for their own and their children’s well being, then why not provide links to services and safety planning that may expand the choices available to them? If cases are slipping between the cracks of a fragmented criminal justice system, then why not work together to improve coordination and consistency?

Today, there are nearly 300 courts nationwide that have special processing mechanisms for domestic violence cases.[10] Three sites were the subject of a study by the Vera Institute of Justice: Milwaukee County, Wisconsin; Washtenaw County, Michigan; and Dorchester District in Boston, Massachusetts. Starting in 1999, judges and attorneys, advocates for women and batterer intervention specialists, probation officers, police, and others in those jurisdictions banded together in an ambitious effort to improve criminal justice and community responses to domestic violence. The three sites were selected to participate in the Judicial Oversight Demonstration Initiative—a national demonstration project funded by the U.S. Department of Justice's Office on Violence Against Women—have spent the past five years working to enhance victim safety and the oversight of offenders in their communities.[11]

The Center for Court Innovation is funded by the Office on Violence Against Women to provide technical assistance to courts interested in developing or enhancing their domestic violence programs. The Center for Court Innovation also has a grant from the National Institute of Justice to document the number and types of domestic violence courts in the United States.

## Benefits

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Justice system practitioners, victim advocates, and researchers[12] have cited the following major benefits of domestic violence courts:

* Enhanced coordination of cases and consistent orders in different cases involving the same parties.
* More comprehensive relief for victims at an earlier stage of the judicial process.
* Advocacy services that encourage victims to establish abuse-free lives.
* Greater understanding by judges of how domestic violence affects victims and their children.
* More consistent procedures, treatment of litigants, rulings, and orders.
* Greater availability of mechanisms to hold batterers accountable for the abuse, such as required Batterer Intervention Programs (BIPs), which are programs that are intended to rehabilitate batterers and prevent further abuse.[13]
* Improved batterer compliance with orders.
* Greater confidence on the part of the community that the justice system is responding effectively to domestic violence.
* Greater system accountability.
* Greater use of Trauma- and violence-informed care in court and advocacy practices. These practices, such as survivor-centered advocacy, culturally specific programs, narrow the gap between service delivery and the needs of survivors.[14]

## Concerns

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Susan Keilitz notes a number of concerns about domestic violence courts. The need for judges to specialize, for instance, may lead to a loss of neutrality among judges or “the assignment of judges who are not motivated to acquire the knowledge and skills required to be effective in these cases, or to loss of judicial effectiveness from the stress of fast-paced decisionmaking in difficult and emotionally charged cases every day.” Another concern is that greater efficiency in prosecution may lead to “assembly-line justice that ignores the special needs of victims,” Keilitz wrote.[15]

Additionally, there are concerns that specialized domestic violence courts exclude and further harm multiply marginalized survivors. When examined through the lens of structural intersectionality, scholars such as Alesha Durfee argue that despite seeming neutral, the policies and procedures in specialized domestic violence courts are actually designed for “White, middle-class, cis, heterosexual, passive wom[en] who [are] not system-involved and [have] experienced documented physical abuse.”[16] There are concerns that specialized domestic violence courts, like other large institutions, replicate inequalities through mismatches between the assumptions embedded in law and policy about survivors and the lived experiences and oppressions faced by multiple marginalized survivors.

There are also concerns that specialized domestic violence courts exclude and further harm multiply marginalized survivors through carceral feminism. Scholars such as Deer and Barefoot argue that because of the history of state violence at the hands of the police and criminal justice system against marginalized communities, reliance on the criminal justice system through specialized domestic violence courts perpetuates broader inequalities. From Deer and Barefoot's perspective, “an increase in arrest rates and law enforcement involvement has not led to a decrease in sexual assault and instead leads to more violence,” especially against poor women of color and sexual minorities.[17]

## In New York

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In New York, the typical domestic violence court features a single presiding judge, a fixed prosecutorial team, and enhanced staffing to monitor defendant compliance and provide assistance to victims.[18] In order to ensure compliance with court orders, New York's first domestic violence court, the Brooklyn Felony Domestic Violence Court Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine, launched in 1996, instituted a procedure that required parolees to come back to the court for a formal review of the terms of their order of protection.[19] There are now over 35 domestic violence courts in New York, including courts in the Bronx, Queens and Westchester Counties, the city of Buffalo, and smaller cities like Clarkstown and Binghamton.[20] An impact evaluation of 24 New York domestic violence courts found reduced re-arrests among convicted offenders.[21] New York State has also created integrated domestic violence courts Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine where a single judge handles criminal domestic violence cases and related family issues, such as custody, visitation, civil protection orders and matrimonial actions. In addition, the New York court system has three Youthful Offender Domestic Violence Courts Archived 2008-06-09 at the Wayback Machine that work with teenage defendants.[22]

## Sources

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* Berman, Greg; John Feinblatt (2005). Good Courts: The Case for Problem-Solving Justice. New York, New York: The New Press. p. 237\. ISBN 1-56584-973-6.

## References

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1. ^ B., Cissner, Amanda. Testing the effects of New York's domestic violence courts : a statewide impact evaluation. OCLC 856583820.`{{cite book}}`: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
2. ^ a b "Domestic Violence Courts", Encyclopedia of Psychology and Law, 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks California 91320 United States: SAGE Publications, Inc., 2008, doi:10.4135/9781412959537.n91, ISBN 9781412951890, retrieved 2023-02-27`{{citation}}`: CS1 maint: location (link)
3. ^ N.Y. STATE OFFICE FOR THE PREVENTION OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE, DOMESTIC VIOLENCE DATA SHEET (2001).
4. ^ a b Judith S. Kaye and Susan K. Knipps, Judicial Responses to Domestic Violence: The Case for a Problem Solving Approach, 27 W. ST. U.L. REV. 3 (1999-2000).
5. ^ Arnold, Gretchen (2017-05-10). McCammon, Holly J.; Taylor, Verta; Reger, Jo; Einwohner, Rachel L. (eds.). "U.S. Women's Movements to End Violence against Women, Domestic Abuse, and Rape". Oxford Handbooks Online. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190204204.013.15.
6. ^ Buzawa, Eve S.; Buzawa, Carl G., eds. (2017). Global Responses to Domestic Violence. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-56721-1. ISBN 978-3-319-56719-8.
7. ^ BAILEY, KIMBERLY D. (2010). "Lost in Translation: Domestic Violence, "The Personal is Political," and the Criminal Justice System". The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology. 100 (4): 1255–1300\. ISSN 0091-4169. JSTOR 25766125.
8. ^ Maytal, Anat (2008). "Specialized Domestic Violence Courts: Are They Worth the trouble in Massachusetts?" (PDF). Boston University Public Interest Law Journal. 18 (197).
9. ^ For more on how courts have responded to domestic violence, see"BRIDGING THEORY AND PRACTICE: A ROUNDTABLE ON COURT RESPONSES TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE" (PDF). Journal of Court Innovation.
10. ^ "Specialization of Domestic Violence Case Management in the Courts: A National Survey" (PDF). National Institute of Justice.
11. ^ "ENHANCING RESPONSES TO DOMESTIC VIOLENCE PROMISING PRACTICES FROM THE JUDICIAL OVERSIGHT DEMONSTRATION INITIATIVE" (PDF). Vera Institute of Justice. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-10-04.
12. ^ See Fritzler, R.B., and Simon, L.M.J. (2000). “Creating a Domestic Violence Court: Combat in the Trenches.” Court Review, 37, 28–39; Karan, A., Keilitz, S., and Denaro, S. (1999). “Domestic Violence Courts: What Are They and How Should We Manage Them?” Juvenile and Family Court Journal, 50, 75–86; Keilitz, S., Jones, A., and Rubio, D. (2000). Specialization of Domestic Violence Case Management in the Courts: Findings From a National Survey. Williamsburg, VA: National Center for State Courts; Tsai, B. (2000). “The Trend Toward Specialized Domestic Violence Courts: Improvements on an Effective Innovation.” Fordham Law Review, 68, 1285–1327; and Winick, B. (2000). “Applying the Law Therapeutically in Domestic Violence Cases.” University of Missouri–Kansas City Law Review, 69, 1–63.
13. ^ Maytal, Anat (2008). "Specialized Domestic Violence Courts: Are They Worth the Trouble in Massachusetts?" (PDF). Boston University Public Interest Law Journal. 18 (197): 197–219.
14. ^ Kulkarni, Shanti (2018-09-17). "Intersectional Trauma-Informed Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) Services: Narrowing the Gap between IPV Service Delivery and Survivor Needs". Journal of Family Violence. 34 (1): 55–64\. doi:10.1007/s10896-018-0001-5. ISSN 0885-7482. S2CID 52290249.
15. ^ "Specialization of Domestic Violence Case Management in the Courts: A National Survey" (PDF). National Institute of Justice.
16. ^ Durfee, Alesha (2020-09-23). "The Use of Structural Intersectionality as a Method to Analyze How the Domestic Violence Civil Protective Order Process Replicates Inequality". Violence Against Women. 27 (5): 639–665\. doi:10.1177/1077801220958495. ISSN 1077-8012. PMID 32965175. S2CID 221864448.
17. ^ Deer, Sarah; Barefoot, Abigail (2019). "The Limits of the State: Feminist Perspectives on Carceral Logic, Restorative Justice, and Sexual Violence". Kansas Journal of Law and Public Policy. 28 (3): 505–527.
18. ^ "What Makes a Domestic Violence Court Work? Lessons from New York" (PDF). American Bar Association’s Judges’ Journal.
19. ^ "Specialized Felony Domestic Violence Courts: Lessons on Implementation and Impact from the Kings County Experience" (PDF). Urban Institute.
20. ^ "Planning a Domestic Violence Court: The New York State Experience" (PDF). Center for Court Innovation.
21. ^ "Testing the Effects of New York's Domestic Violence Courts" (PDF). Center for Court Innovation.
22. ^ "Process Evaluation of the Brooklyn Youthful Offender Domestic Violence Court" (PDF). Center for Court Innovation.

## External links

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* Office on Violence Against Women, a unit of the U.S. Department of Justice that seeks to raise awareness and support training and services responding to incidents of domestic violence, dating violence, sexual assault, and stalking.
* Center for Court Innovation, a nonprofit think tank that develops problem-solving courts, including domestic violence courts.
* The Family Violence Prevention Fund, which works to prevent violence within the home and in the community.
* The National Network to End Domestic Violence, a social change organization dedicated to creating a social, political, and economic environmental in which violence against women no longer exists.
* Safe Horizon, a nonprofit organization that provides support, prevents violence, and promotes justice for victims of crime and abuse, their families and communities.
* Sanctuary for Families, the largest nonprofit in New York State dedicated exclusively to serving domestic violence victims and their children.
* Vera Institute of Justice, an independent center for policy and practice, making justice systems fairer and more effective through research and innovation.

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Types of courts

By structure|

* Supreme court
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By party|

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Domestic violence

General|

* Outline
* Abuse
* Controlling behavior
* Conflict tactics scale
* Cycle of abuse
* Cycle of violence
* Epidemiology
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Forms|

| Sexual|

* Genital modification and mutilation
* Marital rape
* Birth control sabotage
* Reproductive coercion
* Sexual violence by intimate partners

|

Physical|

* Acid attack
* Bride burning
* Domestic violence and pregnancy
* Dowry death
* Honor killing
* Murder of pregnant women
* Sati
* Situational couple violence

Psychological|

* Bullying
* Deny, attack, and reverse victim and offender (DARVO)
* Economic abuse
* Embarrassment/Humiliation
* Emotional blackmail
* False accusation
* Gaslighting
* Intimidation
* Major depressive disorder
* Mind games
* Nagging
* Narcissistic abuse
* Passive-aggressive behavior
* Setting up to fail
* Silent treatment
* Stalking
* Verbal abuse

Victims|

| Adults|

* Bride buying
* Domestic violence against men
* Domestic violence and pregnancy
* Elder abuse
* Intimate partner violence
* Lesbian
* Mariticide
* Misandry
* Misogyny
* Parental abuse by children
* Same-sex relationships
* Social emotional development
* Uxoricide

|

Children|

* Adverse childhood experiences
* Child abuse
* Effects of domestic violence on children
* Narcissistic parent
* Parental bullying of children
* Sibling abuse
* Stress in early childhood

Prevention|

* Domestic violence hotlines
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Experts|

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|

Activists|

* Ruahine Albert
* Angela Barker
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* Elizabeth Celi
* Anne Cools
* Donna Ferrato
* Karen Ingala Smith
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Media|

| Documentaries|

* A Better Man
* The Conspiracy of Silence
* Defending Our Lives
* Power and Control: Domestic Violence in America
* Silent Voices
* Sin by Silence

|

Other films|

* American Tragedy
* Black and Blue
* Blinded
* Bordertown
* The Burning Bed
* Our Mother's Murder
* Enough
* Looking for Angelina
* Once Were Warriors
* One Minute to Nine
* Provoked
* Sleeping with the Enemy
* Submission
* What's Love Got to Do with It

Books|

* Life with Billy
* Mommie Dearest
* The War on Women

Periodicals|

* Contemporary Family Therapy
* Family Process
* Family Relations
* Journal of Family Issues
* Journal of Interpersonal Violence
* Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society
* Trauma, Violence, & Abuse
* Violence Against Women

Organizations|

* Gulabi Gang
* ManKind Initiative
* National Coalition Against Domestic Violence
* National Domestic Violence Hotline
* Nia
* Refuge
* Respect

Legal|

* Battered woman defense
* Domestic violence court

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