Drug-related crime

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DEA Operation Mallorca, 2005 Typical collateral damage of drug-related theft

A drug-related crime is a crime to possess, manufacture, or distribute drugs classified as having a potential for abuse (such as cocaine, heroin, morphine and amphetamines). Drugs are also related to crime as drug trafficking and drug production are often controlled by drug cartels, organised crime and gangs. Some drug-related crime involves crime against the person such as robbery or sexual assaults.[1]

## U.S. Bureau of Justice Statistics

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In 2002, in the U.S. about a quarter of convicted property and drug offenders in local jails had committed their crimes to get money for drugs, compared to 5% of violent and public order offenders. Among State prisoners in 2004 the pattern was similar, with property (30%) and drug offenders (26%) more likely to commit their crimes for drug money than violent (10%) and public-order offenders (7%). In Federal prisons property offenders (11%) were less than half as likely as drug offenders (25%) to report drug money as a motive in their offenses.

In 2004, 17% of U.S. State prisoners and 18% of Federal inmates said they committed their current offense to obtain money for drugs. These percentages represent a slight increase for Federal prisoners (16% in 1997) and a slight decrease for State prisoners (19% in 1997).

## Drugs and crime

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Drug abuse and addiction is associated with drug-related crimes. In the U.S. several jurisdictions have reported that benzodiazepine misuse by criminal detainees has surpassed that of opiates.[2] Patients reporting to two emergency rooms in Canada with violence-related injuries were most often found to be intoxicated with alcohol and were significantly more likely to test positive for benzodiazepines (most commonly temazepam) than other groups of individuals, whereas other drugs were found to be insignificant in relation to violent injuries.[3]

Research carried out on drug-related crime found that drug misuse is associated with various crimes that are in part related to the feelings of invincibility, which can become particularly pronounced with abuse. Problematic crimes associated include shoplifting, property crime, drug dealing, violence and aggression and driving whilst intoxicated.[4] In Scotland among the 71% of suspected criminals testing positive for controlled drugs at the time of their arrest benzodiazepines (over 85% are temazepam cases) are detected more frequently than opiates and are second only to cannabis, which is the most frequently detected drug.[5]

Research carried out by the Australian government found that benzodiazepine users are more likely to be violent, more likely to have been in contact with the police, and more likely to have been charged with criminal behavior than those using opiates. Illicit benzodiazepines mostly originate from medical practitioners but leak onto the illicit scene due to diversion and doctor shopping. Although only a very small number originate from thefts, forged prescriptions, armed robberies, or ram raids, it is most often benzodiazepines, rather than opiates, that are targeted in part because benzodiazepines are not usually locked in vaults and or do not have as strict laws governing prescription and storage of many benzodiazepines. Temazepam accounts for most benzodiazepine sought by forgery of prescriptions and through pharmacy burglary in Australia.[6][7]

Benzodiazepines have been used as a tool of murder by serial killers, and other murderers, such as those with the condition Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy.[8][9][10] Benzodiazepines have also been used to facilitate rape or robbery crimes, and benzodiazepine dependence has been linked to shoplifting due to the fugue state induced by the chronic use of the drug.[11][12] When benzodiazepines are used for criminal purposes against a victim they are often mixed with food or drink.[13]

Temazepam and midazolam are the most common benzodiazepines used to facilitate date rape.[14] Alprazolam has been abused for the purpose of carrying out acts of incest and for the corruption of adolescent girls.[15] However, alcohol remains the most common drug involved in cases of drug rape.[16] Although benzodiazepines and ethanol are the most frequent drugs used in sexual assaults, GHB is another potential date rape drug that has received increased media focus.[17]

Some benzodiazepines are more associated with crime than others especially when abused or taken in combination with alcohol. The potent benzodiazepine flunitrazepam (Rohypnol), which has strong amnesia-producing effects can cause abusers to become ruthless and also cause feelings of being invincible. This has led to some acts of extreme violence to others, often leaving abusers with no recollection of what they have done in their drug-induced state. It has been proposed that criminal and violent acts brought on by benzodiazepine abuse may be related to lowered serotonin levels via enhanced GABAergic effects.[18]

Flunitrazepam has been implicated as the cause of one serial killer's violent rampage, triggering off extreme aggression with anterograde amnesia.[19] A study on forensic psychiatric patients who had abused flunitrazepam at the time of their crimes found that the patients displayed extreme violence, lacked the ability to think clearly, and experienced a loss of empathy for their victims while under the influence of flunitrazepam, and it was found that the abuse of alcohol or other drugs in combination with flunitrazepam compounded the problem. Their behaviour under the influence of flunitrazepam was in contrast to their normal psychological state.[20]

## Criticisms

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The concept of drug-related crime has been criticized for being too blunt, especially in its failure to distinguish between three types of crime associated with drugs:[21]

* Use-Related crime: These are crimes that result from or involve individuals who ingest drugs, and who commit crimes as a result of the effect the drug has on their thought processes and behavior.[21]
* Economic-Related crime: These are crimes where an individual commits a crime to fund a drug habit. These include theft and prostitution.[21]
* System-Related crime: These are crimes that result from the structure of the drug system. They include production, manufacture, transportation, and sale of drugs, as well as violence related to the production or sale of drugs, such as a turf war.[21]

Drug-related crime may be used as a justification for prohibition, but, in the case of system-related crime, the acts are only crimes because of prohibition.[citation needed] In addition, some consider even user-related and economic-related aspects of crime as symptomatic of a broader problem.[citation needed]

## See also

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* Alcohol-related crime
* Drug abuse
* Drugwipe test
* Intoxication defense
* Self-medication

General:

* Prohibition (drugs)
* Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs

Organized crime:

* Cigarette smuggling
* Drug Cartel
* Drug Lord
* Illegal drug trade
* Organized crime
* Rum-running

US specific:

* Bureau of Justice Statistics
* Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives
* Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act of 1970
* Controlled Substances Act
* Drug Enforcement Administration
* Food and Drug Administration
* Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act (RICO)
* U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
* Uniform Crime Report

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Marc B, Baudry F, Vaquero P, Zerrouki L, Hassnaoui S, Douceron H (April 2000). "Sexual assault under benzodiazepine submission in a Paris suburb". Archives of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 263 (4): 193–7\. doi:10.1007/s004040050282. PMID 10834331. S2CID 11093298.
2. ^ Yacoubian GS. (January 2003). "Correlates of Drug use among a sample of arrestees surveyed through the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring (ADAM) Program". Substance Use & Misuse. 38 (1): 127–39\. doi:10.1081/JA-120016569. PMID 12602810. S2CID 25817581.
3. ^ Macdonald S; Wells S; Giesbrecht N; Cherpitel CJ (June 1, 1999). "Demographic and substance use factors related to violent and accidental injuries: results from an emergency room study". Drug and Alcohol Dependence. 55 (1–2): 53–61\. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00184-7. PMID 10402149.1–2&rft.pages=53-61&rft.date=1999-06-01&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/S0376-8716(98)00184-7&rft_id=info:pmid/10402149&rft.au=Macdonald+S&rft.au=Wells+S&rft.au=Giesbrecht+N&rft.au=Cherpitel+CJ&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Drug-related+crime" class="Z3988">
4. ^ Australian Government; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime" (PDF). NDLERF. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 May 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2008.
5. ^ The Scottish Government Publications (25 July 2000). "Interviewing and Drug Testing of Arrestees in Scotland: A Pilot of the Arrestee Drug Abuse Monitoring Methodology (ADAM)". Retrieved 27 December 2008.
6. ^ "Injecting Temazepam: The facts — Temazepam Injection and Diversion". Victorian Government Health Information. 29 March 2007. Archived from the original on 7 January 2008. Retrieved 2007-11-25.
7. ^ National Drug Strategy; National Drug Law Enforcement Research Fund (2007). "Benzodiazepine and pharmaceutical opioid misuse and their relationship to crime - An examination of illicit prescription drug markets in Melbourne, Hobart and Darwin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2008.
8. ^ Missliwetz J (July–August 1981). "[Serial homicide in the Vienna-Lainz hospital]". Archiv für Kriminologie. 194 (1–2): 1–7\. PMID 7979864.1–2&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1981-07/1981-08&rft_id=info:pmid/7979864&rft.au=Missliwetz+J&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Drug-related+crime" class="Z3988">
9. ^ Valentine JL; Schexnayder S; Jones JG; Sturner WQ (September 1997). "Clinical and toxicological findings in two young siblings and autopsy findings in one sibling with multiple hospital admissions resulting in death. Evidence suggesting Munchausen Syndrome by Proxy". The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology. 18 (3): 276–81\. doi:10.1097/00000433-199709000-00009. PMID 9290875.
10. ^ Saito T; Takeichi S; Nakajima Y; Yukawa N; Osawa M (November–December 1997). "A case of homicidal poisoning involving several drugs". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 21 (7): 584–6\. doi:10.1093/jat/21.7.584. PMID 9399131.
11. ^ Boussairi A; Dupeyron JP; Hernandez B; Delaitre D; Beugnet L; Espinoza P; Diamant-Berger O (1996). "Urine benzodiazepines screening of involuntarily drugged and robbed or raped patients". Journal of Toxicology: Clinical Toxicology. 34 (6): 721–4\. doi:10.3109/15563659609013835. PMID 8941203.
12. ^ Tang CP; Pang AH; Ungvari GS (July 1996). "Shoplifting and robbery in a fugue state". Medicine, Science, and the Law. 36 (3): 265–8\. doi:10.1177/002580249603600315. PMID 8918097. S2CID 77259419.
13. ^ Ohshima T. (January 2006). "A case of drug-facilitated sexual assault by the use of flunitrazepam". Journal of Clinical Forensic Medicine. 13 (1): 44–5\. doi:10.1016/j.jcfm.2005.05.006. PMID 16087387.
14. ^ Negrusz A; Gaensslen RE (August 2003). "Analytical developments in toxicological investigation of drug-facilitated sexual assault". Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry. 376 (8): 1192–7\. doi:10.1007/s00216-003-1896-z. PMID 12682705. S2CID 34401047.
15. ^ Kintz P; Villain M; Chèze M; Pépin G (October 29, 2005). "Identification of alprazolam in hair in two cases of drug-facilitated incidents". Forensic Science International. 153 (2–3): 222–6\. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.025. PMID 16139113.2–3&rft.pages=222-6&rft.date=2005-10-29&rft_id=info:doi/10.1016/j.forsciint.2004.10.025&rft_id=info:pmid/16139113&rft.au=Kintz+P&rft.au=Villain+M&rft.au=Chèze+M&rft.au=Pépin+G&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:Drug-related+crime" class="Z3988">
16. ^ Weir E. (July 10, 2001). "Drug-facilitated date rape". Canadian Medical Association Journal. 165 (1): 80. PMC 81265. PMID 11468961.
17. ^ Saint-Martin P; Furet Y; O'Byrne P; Bouyssy M; Paintaud G; Autret-Leca E (March–April 2006). "[Chemical submission: a literature review]". Thérapie. 61 (2): 145–50\. doi:10.2515/therapie:2006028. PMID 16886708.
18. ^ Dåderman A; Lidberg L. (March 3, 1999). "[Rohypnol should be classified as a narcotic]". Läkartidningen. 96 (9): 1005–7\. PMID 10093441.
19. ^ Dåderman AM; Strindlund H; Wiklund N; Fredriksen SO; Lidberg L (October 14, 2003). "The importance of a urine sample in persons intoxicated with flunitrazepam--legal issues in a forensic psychiatric case study of a serial murderer". Forensic Science International. 137 (1): 21–7\. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00273-1. PMID 14550609.
20. ^ Dåderman AM; Fredriksson B; Kristiansson M; Nilsson LH; Lidberg L (2002). "Violent behavior, impulsive decision-making, and anterograde amnesia while intoxicated with flunitrazepam and alcohol or other drugs: a case study in forensic psychiatric patients". Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law. 30 (2): 238–51\. PMID 12108561.
21. ^ a b c d "Drug-Related Crime". The National Center for Victims of Crime. 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-11-26. Retrieved 2023-06-24.

## External links

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Wikimedia Commons has media related to Drug-related crimes.

* Defining drug-related crime - EU
* Drug-related crime Canada
* Drug-related crime UK
* PDF version of Drug-related crime U.S. Department of Justice Archived 2012-09-16 at the Wayback Machine
* Prevention of drug-related crime - EU
* Beckley Foundation Report 2005, Reducing drug-related crime: an overview of the global Evidence
* Driving under the influence of drugs
* The National Center for Victims of Crime

* v
* t
* e

Recreational drug use

Major recreational drugs

| Depressants|

* Barbiturates
* Benzodiazepines
* Carbamates
* Ethanol (alcohol)
* Alcoholic beverage
* Beer
* Wine
* Gabapentinoids
* GHB
* Inhalants
* Medical
* Nitrous oxide (recreational use)
* Hazardous solvents
* contact adhesives
* Gasoline
* nail polish remover
* Paint thinner
* Other
* Freon
* Kava
* Nonbenzodiazepines
* Quinazolinones
* Quaaludes

|

Opioids|

* Buprenorphine
* Suboxone
* Subutex
* Codeine
* Lean
* Desomorphine
* Krokodil
* Dextropropoxyphene
* Darvocet
* Darvon
* Fentanyl
* Diamorphine
* Heroin
* Hydrocodone
* Hydromorphone
* Dilaudid
* Methadone
* Mitragyna speciosa
* Kratom
* Morphine
* Opium
* Oxycodone
* /paracetamol
* Tramadol

Stimulants|

* Amphetamine
* Arecoline
* Areca
* Betel
* Caffeine
* Coffee
* Energy drinks
* Tea
* Cathinone
* Khat
* Cocaine
* Coca
* Cocaine paste
* Crack
* Ephedrine
* Ephedra
* MDPV
* Mephedrone
* Methamphetamine
* Methylone
* Methylphenidate
* Modafinil
* Nicotine
* Polacrilex
* Salt
* Tobacco
* Theobromine
* Cocoa
* Chocolate

Entactogens|

* 2C series
* 6-APB
* Benzofury
* AMT
* MDA
* MDMA
* Ecstasy
* Molly

Hallucinogens|

| Psychedelics|

* 2C-B
* 25I-NBOMe
* 4-AcO-DMT
* 5-MeO-DMT
* Psychoactive toads
* Bufotenin
* Vilca
* Yopo
* DMT
* Ayahuasca
* LSA and iso-LSA
* Morning glory
* Ergot
* LSD
* Mescaline
* Peruvian torch
* Peyote
* San Pedro
* Psilocybin and psilocin
* Psilocybin mushrooms

|

Dissociatives|

* DXM (recreational use)
* Inhalants
* Nitrous oxide (recreational use)
* Ketamine
* MXE
* PCP

Deliriants|

* Atropine and Scopolamine
* Atropa belladonna
* Datura
* Hyoscyamus niger
* Mandragora officinarum
* Dimenhydrinate
* Diphenhydramine

Cannabinoids|

* THC
* Cannabis (Marijuana)
* Hashish
* Hash oil
* Synthetic cannabinoids
* JWH-018
* APICA
* APINACA
* Spice

Others|

* Ibogaine
* Tabernanthe iboga
* Muscimol
* Amanita muscaria
* Oneirogens
* Calea zacatechichi
* Silene capensis
* Salvinorin A
* Salvia divinorum

Drug culture

| Cannabis culture|

* 420
* Cannabis consumption
* Cannabis cultivation
* Cannabis edible
* Cannabis rights
* Cannabis rights leaders
* List of cannabis rights organizations
* Cannabis smoking
* Cannabis Social Club
* Cannabis tea
* Cannabis vaping
* Head shop
* Legal history of cannabis in the United States
* Legality of cannabis
* Marijuana Policy Project
* Medical cannabis
* NORML
* Cannabis and religion
* Stoner film

|

Coffee culture|

* Coffee break
* Coffeehouse
* Latte art
* Teahouse

Drinking culture|

* Bartending
* Beer culture
* Beer festival
* Binge drinking
* Diethyl ether
* Drinking games
* Drinking song
* Happy hour
* Hip flask
* Nightclub
* Oktoberfest
* Pub
* Pub crawl
* Sommelier
* Sports bar
* Tailgate party
* Wine bar
* Wine tasting

Psychedelia|

* Psychonautics
* Art
* Drug
* Era
* Experience
* Literature
* Music
* Microdosing
* Smart shop
* Therapy
* Trip report

Smoking culture|

* Cigarette card
* Fashion cigarettes
* Cloud-chasing
* Loosie
* Smokeasy
* Smoking fetishism
* Tobacco smoking

Other|

* Chasing the dragon
* Club drug
* Counterculture of the 1960s
* Dance party
* Drug paraphernalia
* Drug tourism
* Entheogen
* Hippie
* Needle sharing
* Nootropic
* Party and play
* Poly drug use
* Rave
* Religion and drugs
* Self-medication
* Sex and drugs
* Urban legends about drugs
* Whoonga

Legality of drug use

| International|

* International drug control conventions
* 1961 Narcotic Drugs
* 1971 Psychotropic Substances
* 1988 Drug Trafficking
* Other treaties addressing drugs
* Law of the Sea Convention
* Convention Against Doping
* Council of the European Union decisions on designer drugs

|

State level|

* Drug policy
* Decriminalization
* Legalization
* Prohibition
* Regulation
* Supply reduction
* Policy reform
* Demand reduction
* Drug Policy Alliance
* Harm reduction
* Law Enforcement Action Partnership
* Liberalization
* Latin America
* Students for Sensible Drug Policy

Drug policy
by country|

* Australia
* Canada
* China
* Czech Republic
* Germany
* India
* Laos
* Netherlands
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Slovakia
* South Korea
* Soviet Union
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* United States
* Just Say No
* Office of National Drug Control Policy
* School district drug policies
* California
* Colorado
* Maryland
* Oregon
* Virginia
* United Kingdom

Drug legality|

* Alcohol legality
* Anabolic steroid legality
* Cannabis legality
* Cocaine legality
* Methamphetamine legality
* Psilocybin decriminalization in the U.S.
* Psilocybin mushrooms legality
* Salvia legality

Other|

* Arguments for and against drug prohibition
* Cannabis rights
* Capital punishment for drug trafficking
* Cognitive liberty
* Designer drug
* Drug court
* Drug possession
* Drug test
* Narc
* Politics of drug abuse
* War on drugs
* Mexican drug war
* Plan Colombia
* Philippine drug war
* Zero tolerance

Other

| Drug
production
and trade|

| Drug
production|

* Coca production in Colombia
* Drug precursors
* Opium production in Afghanistan
* Rolling meth lab

|

Drug trade|

* Illegal drug trade
* Afghanistan
* Aruba
* Australia
* Bangladesh
* Belize
* Benin
* Bhutan
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Burma
* Cambodia
* Chile
* China
* Colombia
* Costa Rica
* Cuba
* Cyprus
* Dominican Republic
* El Salvador
* Estonia
* Finland
* Germany
* Haiti
* Honduras
* India
* Indian Ocean region
* Iran
* Italy
* Japan
* Kenya
* Kosovo
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Latin America
* Latvia
* Malaysia
* Mauritius
* Moldova
* Nigeria
* Norway
* Oman
* Panama
* Papua New Guinea
* Paraguay
* Philippines
* Poland
* Portugal
* Puerto Rico
* Russia
* Saint Kitts and Nevis
* Seychelles
* Slovakia
* South Africa
* South Korea
* Spain
* Suriname
* Switzerland
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Turkey
* Turks and Caicos Islands
* United Arab Emirates
* United States
* Venezuela
* Darknet market
* Pharmaceutical distribution
* Beer shop
* Cannabis shop
* Liquor store
* Liquor license

Issues with
drug use|

* Abuse
* Addiction
* Date rape drug
* Dependence
* Driving impaired
* Drug harmfulness
* Effects of cannabis
* Drug-related crime
* Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder
* Long-term effects of cannabis
* Neurotoxicity
* Overdose
* Passive smoking
* of tobacco or other substances

Harm reduction|

* Drug checking
* Drug legalization
* Drug rehabilitation
* Needle and syringe programmes
* Opioid replacement therapy
* Pharmacovigilance
* Reagent testing
* Regulation of therapeutic goods
* Responsible drug use
* Substance abuse prevention
* Supervised injection site
* Trip killer

Countries by
drug use|

* Alcohol consumption
* Cocaine use
* Cannabis
* Annual use
* Lifetime use
* Opiates use
* Tobacco consumption

Authority control databases: National |

* Germany
* Czech Republic

|

Poverty exposure in childhood and adolescence is closely linked to a higher chance of drug use disorders and drug-related criminal activity in later life. Early drug exposure and the acceptance of criminal activity are caused by social disadvantages such disinvestment in the community, unsecure family settings, and limited access to education. Drug use and trafficking trends among male inner-city adolescents in Washington, D.C., frequently arise as responses to isolation from society and financial difficulty. In areas where legal possibilities are limited and illegal economies thrive, young individuals are more prone to resort to delinquent behaviors, such as drug distribution and violence, as a means of surviving. [1]Manhica, H., Straatmann, V. S., Lundin, A., Agardh, E., & Danielsson, A. (2020). Association between poverty exposure during childhood and adolescence, and drug use disorders and drug‐related crimes later in life. Addiction, 116(7), 1747–1756. https://doi.org/10.1111/add.15336

1. ^ Patterns of drug use, drug trafficking, and other delinquency among Inner-City adolescent males in Washington, D.C. | National Institute of Justice. (n.d.). National Institute of Justice. https://nij.ojp.gov/library/publications/patterns-drug-use-drugtrafficking-and-other-delinquency-among-inner-city

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