Duluth lynchings

Lynching of three African Americans in Duluth, Minnesota

Duluth lynchings

Part of the Nadir of American race relations
Location| Duluth, Minnesota
Target| Six arrested suspects
Victims| Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie
Perpetrators| Mob (estimated 1,000 - 10,000 participants)
Motive| The alleged rape of Irene Tusken
Part of a series on the

Nadir of American
race relations

Violence in the 1906 Atlanta race massacre

* * *

Historical background

* Reconstruction era
* Voter suppression
* Disfranchisement
* Redeemers
* Compromise of 1877
* Jim Crow laws
* Segregation
* Anti-miscegenation laws
* Convict leasing

Practices

Common actions

* Expulsions of African Americans
* Lynchings
* Lynching postcards
* Sundown town
* Whitecapping

Vigilante groups

* Black Legion
* Indiana White Caps
* Ku Klux Klan
* Red Shirts

Lynchings

* Andrew Richards
* Michael Green
* Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer
* Eliza Woods
* Amos Miller
* George Meadows
* Joe Vermillion
* Jim Taylor
* Joe Coe
* People's Grocery
* Ephraim Grizzard
* Alfred Blount
* Samuel J. Bush
* Stephen Williams
* Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker
* John Henry James
* Sam Hose
* George Ward
* David Wyatt
* Marie Thompson
* Watkinsville
* Ed Johnson
* William Burns
* Walker family
* Laura and L. D. Nelson
* King Johnson
* John Evans
* Jesse Washington
* Newberry Six
* Anthony Crawford
* Ell Persons
* Jim McIlherron
* George Taylor
* John Hartfield
* 1920 Duluth
* James Harvey and Joe Jordan
* Joe Pullen

Massacres and riots

* Opelousas massacre
* Rock Springs massacre
* Thibodaux massacre
* Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895
* Phoenix election riot
* Wilmington insurrection of 1898
* Pana riot
* Robert Charles riots
* Evansville race riot
* Atlanta Massacre of 1906
* Springfield race riot of 1908
* Johnson–Jeffries riots
* 1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County
* 1917 Chester race riot
* East St. Louis riots
* Elaine massacre
* Red Summer
* Chicago race riot of 1919
* Washington race riot of 1919
* Ocoee massacre
* Tulsa race massacre
* Perry race riot
* Rosewood massacre

Reactions

* Anti-lynching movement
* Exodusters movement
* Atlanta Compromise
* Niagara Movement
* NAACP
* Great Migration
* Back to Africa movement

Related topics

* Black genocide
* Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
* Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
* Mass racial violence in the United States

* v
* t
* e

On June 15, 1920, three African-American circus workers, Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie, suspects in an assault case, were taken from the jail and lynched by a White mob of thousands in Duluth, Minnesota. Rumors had circulated that six Black men had raped and robbed a nineteen-year-old White woman.

The 1920 lynchings are the only known widely recorded lynching of African-Americans in Minnesota. Twenty other lynchings were recorded in Minnesota, whose victims included mainly Native Americans and Whites.[1] Three men were convicted of rioting, but none served more than fifteen months. No one was ever prosecuted for the murders.

The state of Minnesota passed anti-lynching legislation in April 1921, and lynchings have not been recorded in Minnesota since.[1] In 2003, the city of Duluth erected a memorial to the lynched men.[2] In 2020, Max Mason, who was a co-worker in the same traveling circus as the three men who were lynched, was convicted in court after the lynchings, was granted the first posthumous pardon in the history of the state.[3]

## Background

[edit]

See also: Great Migration (African American) and Red Summer

The industrial city of Duluth had been growing rapidly in the early 20th century, attracting many European immigrants. By 1920 one third of its population of 100,000 was foreign-born, with immigrants from Scandinavia, Germany, Poland, Italy, Austria-Hungary, and the Russian Empire. Many of the immigrants lived in West Duluth, a working-class section of the city. The African-American community in the city was small, with a total population of 495, but a number had been hired by US Steel, the major employer in the area.[4]

In September 1918, a Finnish immigrant named Olli Kinkkonen was lynched in Duluth, allegedly for dodging military service in World War I, which the United States had recently entered.[5] Kinkkonen was found dead, tarred and feathered, and hanging from a tree in Lester Park. Authorities did not pursue murder charges; they claimed that he had committed suicide after the shame of having been tarred and feathered.[5]

During and immediately following World War I, a large population of blacks began the Great Migration out of the agrarian South to the industrial North to escape racial violence and to gain more opportunities for work, education, and voting. African-Americans competed with working-class immigrants and ethnic whites for the lower-grade jobs. Many felt the black migrants threatened their jobs and pay.[6]

The period after World War I was disruptive in the United States, as numerous veterans sought to re-enter the job market and society. The government had no program to help them. Racial antagonism erupted in 1919 as race riots of whites against blacks in numerous cities across the U.S.; it was called the Red Summer of 1919. Unlike in mob action in the South, blacks in Chicago and other cities fought back against these attacks.[citation needed]

## Event

[edit]

On June 14, 1920, the John Robinson Circus arrived in Duluth for a free parade and a one-night performance. Two local white teenagers, Irene Tusken, age 19, and James "Jimmie" Sullivan, 18, met at the circus and ended up behind the big top, watching the black workers dismantle the menagerie tent, load wagons and generally get the circus ready to move on. It is unknown what took place between Tusken, Sullivan and the workers. Later that night Sullivan claimed to his father that he and Tusken were assaulted, and that Tusken was raped and robbed by five or six black circus workers, who were part of the crew.[citation needed]

In the early morning of June 15, Duluth police chief John Murphy received a call from James Sullivan's father, saying six black circus workers had held his son and girlfriend at gunpoint and then raped and robbed Irene Tusken. Chief Murphy lined up all 150 or so roustabouts, food service workers, and props-men on the side of the tracks, and asked Sullivan and Tusken to identify their attackers. The police arrested six black men as suspects in connection with the rape and robbery and held them in custody in the city jail.[4]

Sullivan's claim that Tusken was raped has been questioned. When she was examined by a physician, Dr. David Graham, on the morning of June 15, he found no physical evidence of rape or assault.[4][additional citation(s) needed]

Newspapers printed articles about the alleged rape; rumors spread in the white community about it, including that Tusken was dying from her injuries. That evening, a mob of between 1,000 and 10,000 men[4] formed outside the Duluth city jail. A Catholic priest reportedly tried to deter them, but to no avail.[7]

The Duluth commissioner of public safety, William F. Murnian, ordered the police not to use their guns to protect the prisoners. The mob used heavy timbers, bricks, and rails to break down doors and windows,[4] pulling the six black men from their cells. The mob seized Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie. They took them out and convicted them of Tusken's rape in a kangaroo court. The mob took the three men one block to the intersection 1st Street and 2nd Avenue East, where they beat them and hanged them from a light pole.[4]

The next day, the Minnesota National Guard arrived at Duluth to secure the area and to guard the surviving prisoners, as well as ten additional black suspects whom the police had arrested from the circus at its next stop. They were moved under heavy guard to the jail of St. Louis County.[4]

## Aftermath

[edit]

### Reactions

[edit]

The killings made headlines throughout the country. The Chicago Evening Post wrote: "This is a crime of a Northern state, as black and ugly as any that has brought the South in disrepute. The Duluth authorities stand condemned in the eyes of the nation." An article in the Minneapolis Journal accused the lynch mob of putting a "stain on the name of Minnesota", stating: "The sudden flaming up of racial passion, which is the reproach of the South, may also occur, as we now learn in the bitterness of humiliation, in Minnesota."[4]

The June 15 Ely Miner reported that just across the bay in Superior, Wisconsin, the acting chief of police declared: "We are going to run all idle negroes out of Superior and they're going to stay out." How many were forced out is not certain. All of the blacks employed by a carnival in Superior were fired and told to leave the city.[4]

Prominent blacks in Duluth complained that the city had not protected the circus workers. The mayor, commissioner of public safety and police chief were criticized for their failures to break up the mob before it had gotten so powerful. A special grand jury was called to investigate the lynchings. It said that Murnian was "not competent" and the police department was in need of a "thorough overhauling".[4]

### Trials

[edit]

Two days later, on June 17, Judge William Cant and the grand jury had a difficult time identifying the lead mob members. In the end the grand jury issued thirty-seven indictments for the lynching mob. Twenty-five were for rioting and twelve for the crime of murder in the first degree. Some men were indicted on both charges. Three men: Louis Dondino, Carl Hammerberg, and Gilbert Stephenson were convicted of rioting; none served more than 15 months in prison. No one was convicted for the murders of the three black men.[4]

Prosecution continued against the other black circus workers. Despite the lack of significant physical evidence, seven men were indicted for rape. The NAACP had protested to the city about the lynchings. It hired defense attorneys for the men, and charges were dismissed for five. Max Mason and William Miller were tried for rape. Miller was acquitted, but Mason was convicted and sentenced to serve seven to thirty years in prison. He was a native of Decatur, Georgia, who had been traveling with the circus as a worker. He appealed his case without success. He was incarcerated at Stillwater State Prison, serving four years, from 1921 to 1925. He was released on the condition that he would leave the state.[4]

### Anti-lynching law

[edit]

William T. Francis, associate counsel for Max Mason, was an attorney from St. Paul. He and his wife Nellie Francis continued to work after the trial on anti-lynching legislation, which the state of Minnesota passed in April 1921.[4] The law provided for compensation of "relatives of victims and suspended police officials who failed to protect prisoners from mobs."[1] No lynchings have since taken place in the state.[1] The anti-lynching law was repealed in Minnesota in 1984.[8] However, the 1968 Civil Rights Act ensured that hate crimes based on race could be prosecuted at the federal level.[9] Minnesota also has a hate crime law which ensures cooperation with the federal government to prosecute those who committed hate crimes defined in the 1968 Civil Rights Act as well.[9]

## Legacy

[edit]

Irene Tusken's great nephew, as of 2020, is the chief of the Duluth Police Department.[10]

### Memorial

[edit]

Residents of Duluth began to work on ways to commemorate the victims of the lynching. The Clayton Jackson McGhie Scholarship Committee set up a fund in 2000, and awarded its first scholarship in 2005.[11]

On October 10, 2003, a plaza and statues were dedicated in Duluth to the three men who were killed. The bronze statues are part of a memorial across the street from the site of the lynchings. The Clayton Jackson McGhie Memorial was designed and sculpted by Carla J. Stetson, in collaboration with editor and writer Anthony Peyton-Porter.[12][13]

At the memorial's opening, thousands of citizens of Duluth and surrounding communities gathered for a ceremony. The final speaker at the ceremony was Warren Read, the great-grandson of one of the most prominent leaders of the lynch mob:

> It was a long-held family secret, and its deeply buried shame was brought to the surface and unraveled. We will never know the destinies and legacies these men would have chosen for themselves if they had been allowed to make that choice. But I know this: their existence, however brief and cruelly interrupted, is forever woven into the fabric of my own life. My son will continue to be raised in an environment of tolerance, understanding and humility, now with even more pertinence than before.

Read has written a memoir exploring his learning about his great-grandfather's role in the lynching, as well his decision to find and connect with the descendants of Elmer Jackson, one of the men killed that night. Read's book, The Lyncher in Me, was published in March 2008.[14]

### 100th anniversary commemoration

[edit]

On June 15, 2020, the 100th anniversary of the lynchings, Minnesota Governor Tim Walz visited the memorial and issued a proclamation recognizing the day as Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie Commemoration Day.[15][16] In his proclamation, Walz stated "The foundational principles of our State and Nation were horrifically and inexcusably violated on June 15, 1920, when Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie, three Black men, were wrongfully accused of a crime", and "We must not allow such communal atrocities to happen again. Everyone must be aware of this tragic history." He compared the lynchings to the murder of George Floyd in Minneapolis three weeks before.[17]

### Cultural reference

[edit]

The first verse of the 1965 song "Desolation Row" by Bob Dylan references the lynchings in Duluth:

> They're selling postcards of the hanging
>  They're painting the passports brown
>  The beauty parlor is filled with sailors
>  The circus is in town.[18]

Dylan was born in Duluth, and grew up in Hibbing, 60 miles (97 km) northwest of Duluth. His father, Abram Zimmerman, was 9 years old in June 1920 and lived two blocks from the site of the lynchings.[19]

### Posthumous pardon

[edit]

See also: George Floyd protests

In 2020, during the George Floyd protests Minnesota Attorney General Keith Ellison proposed that the related 1920 conviction of Max Mason, a black man convicted of raping an 18-year-old woman, was a false charge and should be reversed.[20] On June 12, 2020, the Minnesota Board of Pardons granted Max Mason the first posthumous pardon in the history of the state of Minnesota.[3] In 1920, Mason, who was working in the same traveling circus as the three who were lynched, was convicted of rape and sentenced to 30 years in prison.[contradictory][3] He was released from prison after four years on the condition that he not return to Minnesota for 16 years.[3]

## See also

[edit]

* False accusations of rape as justification for lynchings
* Post-assault treatment of sexual assault victims

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d Ziebarth, Marilyn (Summer 1996). "Judge Lynch in Minnesota" (PDF). Minnesota History. 55 (2): 72. Archived (PDF) from the original on May 10, 2022. Retrieved February 27, 2017.
2. ^ Kraker, Dan (June 15, 2013). "Duluth marks anniversary of memorial to 3 lynching victims". www.mprnews.org. Archived from the original on March 1, 2016. Retrieved February 19, 2016.
3. ^ a b c d "Minnesota grants state's first posthumous pardon to black man in 1920 case that led to lynchings". CBS News. June 12, 2020. Archived from the original on June 15, 2022. Retrieved June 13, 2020.
4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Duluth Lynchings: On line Resource". Minnesota Historical Society. Archived from the original on February 21, 2006. Retrieved March 9, 2006.
5. ^ a b "MPR: Postcard From A Lynching". news.minnesota.publicradio.org. Archived from the original on August 12, 2012. Retrieved June 21, 2010.
6. ^ "Duluth Lynchings: Presence of the Past" Archived June 29, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Twin Cities Public Television.
7. ^ Ellis, Elizabeth (September 20, 2009). "Famous footprints: Roy Wilkins, Whitney Young other Black greats' steps in MN". Twin Cities Daily Planet. Archived from the original on December 8, 2021. Retrieved December 8, 2021.
8. ^ "Minn. Laws 1984, chapt. 629, sec. 4". Archived from the original on September 26, 2021. Retrieved April 20, 2020.
9. ^ a b "Laws and Policies". May 25, 2021. Archived from the original on December 20, 2020. Retrieved June 12, 2020.
10. ^ "Duluth's new police chief acknowledges great-aunt's role in 1920 lynching". June 18, 2016. Archived from the original on November 21, 2021. Retrieved June 5, 2020.
11. ^ "Clayton Jackson McGhie Memorial Scholarship Fund". Duluth Superior Area Community Foundation. Retrieved June 15, 2020.
12. ^ Kelleher, Bob (June 8, 2003). "Lynching victims memorial takes shape in Duluth". Minnesota Public Radio. Archived from the original on March 31, 2022. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
13. ^ "Creation of the Memorial". claytonjacksonmcghie.org. November 8, 2003. Archived from the original on August 25, 2010. Retrieved November 3, 2012.
14. ^ The Lyncher in Me; A Search for Redemption in the Face of History. Archived May 4, 2022, at the Wayback Machine Read, Warren.
15. ^ "Walz visits Clayton-Jackson-McGhie Memorial in Duluth, urges action to create change | KSTP.com". kstp.com. Archived from the original on June 15, 2020.
16. ^ "Governor Tim Walz Officially Recognizes Elias Clayton, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie Commemoration Day". Archived from the original on September 26, 2021. Retrieved June 15, 2020.
17. ^ Galioto, Katie, "'An unbroken line': Gov. Tim Walz connects Duluth lynchings 100 years ago to George Floyd's death'" Archived June 15, 2022, at the Wayback Machine, Minneapolis Star Tribune, June 15, 2020.
18. ^ Dylan, Bob. "Desolation Row". bobdylan.com. Archived from the original on December 15, 2012. Retrieved June 2, 2014.
19. ^ Hoekstra, Dave (July 1, 2001). "Dylan's Duluth Faces Up to Its Past". Chicago Sun-Times. Archived from the original on June 29, 2014. Retrieved May 29, 2014. See also: Polizzotti, Mark, Highway 61 Revisited, Continuum, 2006, ISBN 0-8264-1775-2, pp. 139-141
20. ^ "Century after Minnesota lynchings, black man convicted of rape 'because of his race' up for pardon". Washington Post. June 12, 2020. Archived from the original on January 21, 2022. Retrieved June 18, 2020.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Fedo, Michael (2000). The Lynchings in Duluth. St. Paul, MN: Minnesota Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-87351-386-X.

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1920 Duluth lynchings.

* Clayton Jackson McGhie Memorial
* Clayton Jackson McGhie Memorial Scholarship Fund, Duluth Superior Area Community Foundation/
* Memorial Facebook page
* Olsen, Ken. "Duluth Remembers 1920 Lynching". Tolerance.org. Archived from the original on March 1, 2006. Retrieved March 9, 2006.

46°47′21″N 92°05′48″W﻿ / ﻿46.7893°N 92.0968°W﻿ / 46.7893; -92.0968

* "Duluth Lynchings Online Resources". Minnesota Historical Society. 2003. Archived from the original on February 7, 2006. Retrieved February 15, 2019.

* v
* t
* e

Lynching in the United States

List of lynching victims in the United States

| Before 1900|

* Francis McIntosh (1836)
* Elijah Parish Lovejoy (1837)
* Josefa Segovia (1851)
* Pancho Daniel (1858)
* Joshua Boyd (1863)
* Henry Plummer (1864)
* Bill Sketoe (1864)
* Clubfoot George (1864)
* Steve Long, Ace and Con Moyer (1868)
* Wyatt Outlaw (1870)
* John W. Stephens (1870)
* Alexander Boyd (1870)
* Jim Williams (1871)
* David Jones (1872)
* Jo Reed (1875)
* Arthur St. Clair (1877)
* Michael Green (1878)
* Joseph Standing (1879)
* Big Nose George Parrott (1881)
* Charles Thurber (1882)
* John Wesley Heath (1884)
* Eliza Woods (1886)
* Samuel "Mingo Jack" Johnson (1886)
* Amos Miller (1888)
* Joseph Vermillion (1889)
* George Meadows (1889)
* Ellen Watson (1889)
* Brown Washington (1890)
* Jim Taylor (1891)
* Dick Lundy (1891)
* Joe Coe (1891)
* Robert Lewis (1892)
* Ephraim Grizzard (1892)
* Samuel J. Bush (1893)
* John Peterson (1893)
* Alfred Blount (1893)
* Henry Smith (1893)
* Richard Puryear (1894)
* Stephen Williams (1894)
* Amos Hicks (1894)
* Jacob Henson (1896)
* William Andrews (1897)
* Joseph H. McCoy (1897)
* John Anderson (1898)
* John Henry James (1898)
* F. W. Stewart (1898)
* Sam Hose (1899)
* Benjamin Thomas (1899)

|

1900–1940|

* Fred Rochelle (1901)
* Ballie Crutchfield (1901)
* George Ward (1901)
* Walker Davis (1903)
* J. D. Mayfield (1903)
* George White (1903)
* David Wyatt (1903)
* Marie Thompson (1904)
* Paul Reed and Will Cato (1904)
* Bunk Richardson (1906)
* Ed Johnson (1906)
* Slab Pitts (1906)
* William Burns (1907)
* Earnest Williams (1907)
* Jim Miller (1909)
* James Hodges (1909)
* Matthew Chase (1909)
* "Mose" Creole (1909)
* "Pie" Hill (1909)
* William "Froggie" James and Henry Salzner (1909)
* Grant Richardson (1910)
* King Johnson (1911)
* Name unknown (TX) (1911)
* Laura and L. D. Nelson (1911)
* Will Porter (1911)
* Zachariah Walker (1911)
* Mary Jackson (1912)
* Rob Edwards (1912)
* George Saunders (1912)
* Robert Perry (1913)
* ? Anderson (1913)
* Charles Fisher (1914)
* John Evans (1914)
* Leo Frank (1915)
* Name unknown (MS) (1915)
* Jesse Washington (1916)
* Anthony Crawford (1916)
* Jeff Brown (1916)
* Paulo Boleta (1916)
* Frank Little (1917)
* Charles Jones (1917)
* Ell Persons (1917)
* Robert Prager (1918)
* Mary Turner and her unborn baby (1918)
* Hazel "Hayes" Turner (1918)
* George Taylor (1918)
* Jim McIlherron (1918)
* Olli Kinkkonen (1918)
* Wallace Baynes (1919)
* Will Brown (1919)
* Wesley Everest (1919)
* John Hartfield (1919)
* Jay Lynch (1919)
* Berry Washington (1919)
* Willie Baird (1920)
* Roy Belton (1920)
* Dick Rowland (attempted) (1921)
* Henry Lowry (1921)
* James Harvey and Joe Jordan (1922)
* Joe Pullen (1923)
* Samuel Smith (1924)
* L. Q. Ivy (1925)
* Raymond Byrd (1926)
* James Clark (1926)
* Fred N. Selak (1926)
* Tom Payne (1927)
* John Carter (1927)
* Dan Anderson (1927)
* Will Sherod (1927)
* Bernice Raspberry (1927)
* Owen Flemming (1927)
* Joseph Upchurch (1927)
* Joe Smith (1927)
* Albert Williams (1927)
* Thomas Bradshaw (1927)
* Winston Pounds (1927)
* Thomas Williams (1927)
* Henry Choate (1927)
* Leonard Woods (1927)
* J. C. Collins (1928)
* George Hughes (1930)
* James Cameron (1930)
* Lynching of Raymond Gunn (1931)
* Matthew Williams (1931)
* Shedrick Thompson (1932)
* George Armwood (1933)
* Cordie Cheek (1933)
* Claude Neal (1934)
* Austin Callaway (1940)
* Elbert Williams (1940)

After 1940|

* Felix Hall (1941)
* Johannes Kunze (1943)
* Robert "Bobbie" Hall (1943)
* Willie James Howard (1944)
* Recy Taylor (1944)
* John Cecil Jones (1946)
* Willie Earle (1947)
* Lamar Smith (1955)
* George W. Lee (1955)
* Emmett Till (1955)
* Judge Edward Aaron (1957)
* Willie Edwards (1957)
* Mack Charles Parker (1959)
* Louis Allen (1964)
* Lemuel Penn (1964)
* Frank Morris (1964)
* James Reeb (1965)
* Vernon Dahmer (1966)
* Wharlest Jackson (1967)
* Carol Jenkins (1968)
* Henry Marrow (1970)
* Marian Pyszko (1975)
* Betty Gardner (1978)
* Arthur McDuffie (1979)
* Michael Donald (1981)
* Yusef Hawkins (1989)
* James Byrd Jr. (1998)
* James Craig Anderson (2011)
* Ahmaud Arbery (2020)

Multiple victims

* Death of Joseph Smith (Joseph Smith, Hyrum Smith) (1844)
* Marais des Cygnes, KS, massacre (1858)
* Great Hanging at Gainesville, TX (1862)
* New York City draft riots (1863)
* Detroit race riot (1863)
* ? Lachenais and four others (1863)
* Fort Pillow, TN, massacre (1864)
* Plummer Gang (1864)
* Memphis massacre (1866)
* Gallatin County, KY, race riot (1866)
* New Orleans massacre of 1866
* Reno Brothers Gang (1868)
* Camilla, GA, massacre (1868)
* Steve Long and two half-brothers (1868)
* Pulaski, TN, riot (1868)
* Samuel Bierfield and Lawrence Bowman (1868)
* Opelousas, LA, massacre (1868)
* Bear River City riot (1868)
* Chinese massacre of 1871
* Meridian, MS, race riot (1871)
* Colfax, LA, massacre (1873)
* Election riot of 1874 (AL)
* Juan, Antonio, and Marcelo Moya (1874)
* Benjamin and Mollie French (1876)
* Ellenton, SC, riot (1876)
* Hamburg, SC, massacre (1876)
* Thibodeax, LA, massacre (1878)
* Mart and Tom Horrell (1878)
* Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer (1879)
* Elijah Frost, Abijah Gibson, Tom McCracken (1879)
* T.J. House, James West, John Dorsey (1880)
* New Orleans 1891 lynchings (1891)
* Ruggles Brothers (CA) (1892)
* Thomas Moss, Henry Stewart, Calvin McDowell (TN) (1892)
* Porter and Spencer (MS) (1897)
* Phoenix, SC, election riot (1898)
* Wilmington, NC, insurrection (1898)
* Julia and Frazier Baker (1898)
* Pana, IL, riot (1899)
* Watkinsville lynching (1905)
* 1906 Atlanta race massacre
* Kemper County, MS (1906)
* Walker family (1908)
* Springfield race riot of 1908
* Slocum, TX, massacre (1910)
* Laura and L.D. Nelson (1911)
* Harris County, GA, lynchings (1912)
* Newberry, FL, lynchings (1916)
* East St. Louis, IL, riots (1917)
* Lynching rampage in Brooks County, GA (1918)
* Jenkins County, GA, riot (1919)
* Longview, TX, race riot (1919)
* Elaine, AR, race riot (1919)
* Omaha race riot of 1919
* Knoxville riot of 1919
* Red Summer (1919)
* Duluth, MN, lynchings (1920)
* Ocoee, FL, massacre (1920)
* Tulsa race massacre (1921)
* Perry, FL, race riot (1922)
* Rosewood, FL, massacre (1923)
* Jim and Mark Fox (1927)
* Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith (1930)
* Tate County, MS (1932)
* Thomas Harold Thurmond and John M. Holmes (1933)
* Roosevelt Townes and Robert McDaniels (1937)
* Beaumont, TX, Race Riot (1943)
* O'Day Short, wife, and two children (1945)
* Moore's Ford, GA, lynchings (1946)
* Harry and Harriette Moore (1952)
* Anniston, AL (1961)
* Freedom Summer Murders (James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, Michael Schwerner) (1964)
* Henry Hezekiah Dee and Charles Eddie Moore (1964)

| General|

* Lynching
* Indiana White Caps
* Jim Crow laws
* Ku Klux Klan
* Nadir of American race relations
* Red Shirts
* Jews

|

Anti-lynching movement|

* American anti-lynching activists
* American Crusade Against Lynching
* Jessie Daniel Ames
* Martin C. Ansorge
* Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching
* Flossie Bailey
* William O'Connell Bradley
* Ella Barksdale Brown
* Father Divine
* "Flag Salute"
* N.A.A.C.P.
* National Conference on Lynching
* Paul Robeson
* "Strange Fruit"
* Ida B. Wells

| Legislation|

* Dyer Anti-Lynching Bill
* Costigan-Wagner Bill
* Justice for Victims of Lynching Act
* Emmett Till Unsolved Civil Rights Crime Act
* Emmett Till Antilynching Act

|

Defenders of lynching|

* Theodore G. Bilbo
* Cole L. Blease
* Julian S. Carr
* Sidney Johnston Catts
* Thomas Dixon Jr.
* Rebecca Latimer Felton
* John Temple Graves
* John Trotwood Moore
* John T. Morgan
* James Rolph
* Goodloe Sutton
* Benjamin Tillman
* James K. Vardaman
* Thomas E. Watson

Memory|

* America's Black Holocaust Museum
* Civil Rights Memorial
* The Legacy Museum
* National Memorial for Peace and Justice
* National Museum of African American History and Culture
* Southern Poverty Law Center

Related articles|

* James Allen (collector)
* "And you are lynching Negroes"
* Attack on John Shillady
* Battle of Liberty Place
* The Birth of a Nation
* The Clansman
* Deaths in police custody
* Fury (1936 film)
* Hang 'Em High
* Lynching postcard
* Mississippi Burning
* Mississippi Cold Case
* Murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson (1965)
* The Ox-Bow Incident
* Parade (musical)
* Reconstruction era
* Red Summer
* Scottsboro Boys
* Silent Parade
* Stone Mountain
* Summer in Mississippi
* Sundown town (list)
* They Won't Forget
* "The United States of Lyncherdom" (Twain)
* United States v. Shipp
* Vendetta (1999 film)
* Wilmington insurrection of 1898

Categories|

* Lynching in the United States
* Lynching deaths in the United States

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