Eastern ethics in business

East and Southeast Asian ethics in business

This article is about Eastern ethics in business. For Eastern ethics, see Eastern philosophy.

Eastern ethics includes the ethics or ways of thinking derived from East and South East Asia. This includes Chinese, Middle Eastern, Indian and Japanese ethics and the influence of this in business. Through a combination of globalisation and growing diversity, Eastern ethics and spiritual practices have become prominent within businesses and their conduct.[1] Across the Eastern and Oriental region, differing ethics arise from historic philosophies, religions or ways of thinking and may prohibit or encourage specific conduct.

Part of a series on

Eastern philosophy

China

Confucianism

Classical

* Confucius
* Mencius
* Xun Zi
* Dong Zhongshu
* Wang Yun

Neo-Confucianism

* Han Yu
* Zhou Dunyi
* Zhang Zai
* Cheng Hao
* Cheng Yi
* Shao Yong
* Zhu Xi
* Lu Jiuyuan
* Wang Shouren
* Liu Zongzhou
* Li Zhi
* Wang Fuzhi
* Huang Zongxi
* Gu Yanwu
* Dai Zhen

New Confucianism

* Kang Youwei
* Liang Shuming
* Xiong Shili
* Feng Youlan
* Mou Zongsan
* Du Weiming

Daoism
Classical

* Laozi
* Zhuangzi
* Lie Yukou

Neo-Daoism

* Wang Bi
* Ruan Ji
* Guo Xiang
* Cheng Xuanying

Hundred Schools of Thought
Legalism

* Han Feizi
* Shang Yang

Mohism

* Mozi

Military and Strategy

* Sun Tzu

Han Buddhism

* Tientai
* Zhiyi
* Huayan school
* Fazang
* Guifeng Zongmi
* East Asian Mādhyamaka
* Jizang
* Chinese Chan
* Kumārajīva
* Bodhidharma
* Huineng
* Chinese Esoteric Buddhism

Tibetan Buddhism

* Sakya
* Sakya Pandita
* Nyingma
* Longchenpa
* Gelug
* Tsongkhapa
* Four Tenets system
* Rangtong-Shentong
* Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction

Modern

* Yan Fu
* Zhang Taiyan
* Sun Yat-sen
* Dai Jitao
* Li Dazhao
* Chen Duxiu
* Ai Siqi
* Mao Zedong
* Liu Shaoqi
* Zhang Chunqiao

General topics

* De
* Qi

India

Āstika (orthodox)

Vedic philosophy

* Agastya
* Aruni
* Ashtavakra
* Atri
* Vashistha
* Yajnavalkya

Mimamsa

* Jaimini

Vedanta

* Advaita
* Badarayana
* Gaudapada
* Adi Shankara
* Dvaita
* Madhvacharya
* Svābhāvika Bhedābheda
* Nimbarka
* Srinivasacharya
* Sri Vaishnavism
* Ramanuja
* Neo-Vedanta
* Vivekananda
* Aurobindo

Samkhya

* Kapila

Yoga

* Patanjali

Nyaya

* Gotama

Navya-Nyāya

* Gangesha Upadhyaya

Vaisheshika

* Kanada

Nāstika (heterodox)

* Ājīvika
* Charvaka
* Kashmir Shaivism
* Abhinavagupta
* Pratyabhijna
* Tantra

Tamil

* Valluvam
* Valluvar

Other

* Chanakya

General topics

* Ahimsa
* Atomism
* Atman
* Ātman (Hinduism)
* Ātman (Buddhism)
* Ātman (Jainism)
* Artha
* Anekantavada
* Brahman
* Dharma
* Indian logic
* Karma
* Kama
* Maya
* Moksha
* Nondualism
* Samadhi
* Pramana
* Yoga

Jainism

* Haribhadra
* Umaswati

Buddhism

* The Buddha

Traditions

* Madhyamika
* Nagarjuna
* Yogacara
* Vasubandhu
* Dharmakirti
* Indian logic
* Dignāga

Topics

* Dukkha
* Anatta
* Anicca
* Maitrī
* Nirvana
* Pratītyasamutpāda
* Emptiness

Japan

Traditions

Japanese Buddhism

* Japanese Zen
* Sōtō school
* Dogen
* Rinzai school
* Eisai
* Shingon
* Kukai

Japanese Confucianism

* Fujiwara Seika
* Hayashi Razan
* Nakae Tōju
* Itō Jinsai
* Ogyū Sorai

Kokugaku

* Motoori Norinaga

Modern Thought

Statism

Kyoto School

* Kitaro Nishida

Korea

Traditions

Korean Buddhism

* Wonhyo
* Uisang
* Hwaeom
* Uicheon
* Cheontae
* Jinul
* Seon

Korean Confucianism
Persons

* Chŏng Tojŏn
* Seo Gyeongdeok
* Yi Ŏnjŏk
* Yi Hwang
* Yi I
* Yi Ik
* Bak Jiwon
* Chŏng Yagyong
* Kim Jeong-hui
* Choe Han-gi

Topics

* Silhak, Seohak

Donghak

* Choe Je-u

Modern Thought
Persons

* Jaegwon Kim

Topics

* Minjung theology
* Juche

Philosophy portal

* v
* t
* e

## Chinese ethics

[edit]

Illustration of Confucius

### Confucian

[edit]

Confucianism originates from China and details the social values, institutions, rituals, virtues and transcendental ideals. Confucian ethics develops the personal characters and virtues of benevolence, ritual propriety, righteousness, wisdom and integrity.[2] These teachings were developed by Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.) and overlap with commercial activity and relations.

### Classical Confucians

[edit]

Benevolence (or Ren) is a Confucian ethic that necessitates a person to uphold this characteristic within a business or non-business interaction which mirrors the historic expectation of rulers demonstrating benevolence.[3] Mencius (Mencius, 1970, p. 49) stated that "What is the point of mentioning the word ‘profit’? All that matters is that there should be benevolence and rightness" which entails that profit in business is reasonable if delivered through benevolence and rightness.[4] Business practices are also considered to be carried out with sincerity as indicated by the Analects. On a government level, benevolence is expected to ensure welfare and responsibilities are fulfilled with moral leadership.[3]

### Neo-Confucians

[edit]

Neo-Confucian considers an approach based on speculative metaphysical truth combined with personal self-cultivation in social ethics.[3] This theory was established by Zhu Xi during the Song dynasty and was derived through the classical Confucius texts from the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects and Mencius.[5] His theory states that people are considered good by the way they display their endowments and social and familial environment. In terms of business, profits, wealth, position and selfish desires are intolerable when engaging in commercial activity as these human desires override the moral principle of self-cultivation and allowing the purified mind to naturally respond to these situations.[6]

Under the Ming dynasty, Wang Yangming had a different approach to Neo-Confucian ethics in commercial activity to Zhu. His ethical approach centralises on the combination of action and knowledge, or personal morality, defining social well-being. Vulgar Learning saw memorisation, recitation, broad learning and textual studies were considered knowledge accrued externally but should instead rely on the moral principles (li) of the external world.[7] By uniting thought and action people should act in accordance to Heaven and Earth and should be reflected in business activity.[8]

## Middle Eastern ethics

[edit]

Part of a series on

Islam

Beliefs

* Oneness of God

* Angels
* Holy books

* Prophets
* Judgement Day

* Predestination

Practices

* Profession of faith
* Prayer

* Almsgiving
* Fasting
* Pilgrimage

* Texts
* Foundations

* Quran
* Sunnah (Hadith, Sirah)

* Tafsir (exegesis)
* Ijtihad
* Aqidah (creed)
* Qisas al-Anbiya (Stories of the Prophets)
* Mathnawi (poems)

* Fiqh (jurisprudence)
* Sharia (law)

History

* Timeline
* Jahiliyyah
* Muhammad
* Ahl al-Bayt
* Sahabah
* Rashidun
* Caliphate
* Imamate
* Spread of Islam
* Succession to Muhammad
* Abbasid Caliphate
* Al-Andalus
* Golden Age
* Seljuk Empire
* Ilkhanate
* Timurid Renaissance
* Gunpowder empires
* Ottoman Empire
* Saudi Arabia

Culture and society

* Academics
* Animals
* Art
* Association football
* Calendar
* Cats
* Children
* Circumcision
* Democracy
* Demographics
* Diaspora
* Denominations
* Sunni
* Shia
* Ibadi
* Economics
* Education
* Ethics
* Exorcism
* Feminism
* Festivals
* Finance
* Liberalism
* Madrasa
* Moral teachings
* Mosque
* Music
* Mysticism
* Philosophy
* Poetry
* Politics
* Proselytizing
* Science
* Sexuality
* LGBTQ
* Slavery
* Concubinage
* Social welfare
* Women

Related topics

* Arabic language
* Apostasy
* Criticism
* Muhammad
* Quran
* Hadith

* Freedom of speech
* Other religions
* Islamism
* Violence
* terrorism
* war
* Islamophobia
* Jihad
* Jihadism
* Salafi jihadism
* Deobandi jihadism
* Military laws
* Peace
* Pacifism
* Glossary

* Islam portal

* v
* t
* e

### Islam

[edit]

In the Middle East, Islam is the most dominant religion in this region as 62% Muslims globally live here, and provides an ethical structure for commercial conduct and practices for people.[9] Islam originated in the seventh century, 610 A.D., through Muhammed (570 A.D. – 632 A.D.) after receiving an angelic visitation that is believed to be the final prophet from God regarding faith to humanity.[10] There is also a firm belief in one God, Allah, and all conduct, including commercial conduct, undertaken by an individual is associated with worshipping Allah. Virtuous or vicious conduct is judged under the Quran and Sunnah from the Hadith.

In Islamic culture, Muslims are expected to adhere to the five pillars of Islam and Islamic code of ethics and thereby acting in accordance to what is considered halal, not haram.[11] A businessperson is expected to act in an ethical manner with Allah at the foremost intention and then ethically with other businessmen. Islamic ethics dictate abstinence from corruption, misuse of power and fraud, whilst simultaneously encouraging efficiency, integrity, collaboration and respect amongst employees.[12] This all falling under the indivisible concept of oneness, called Tawhid, which details the importance between an individual and their god, other individuals and their environment.[13]

Considering the legal landscape, Islam still remains a part in the written laws and underpins the ongoing commercial and trading practices.[14] The Sharia once formulated a significant part of the written law in Muslim countries; however, since the 19th century, numerous countries have become influenced by Western colonial powers and have seen a mix between Western Laws integrating with Sharia Law.[15] These countries include Pakistan, Israel and Egypt whilst Turkey has adopted a more secular legal system. In the 20th century, the Sharia has become more adaptive to modern circumstances and still preserves the ethical foundations of Islam. This is seen particularly in Iran and Saudi Arabia which have traditionally upheld a classical Sharia.[16] Businesses operating in countries that experience a legal system that is prominently dictated by Islamic law experience restraints in operation if their activity compels interest on consumers by protecting the welfare of parties included.[17] Also, the strict nature of Islamic law restricts the way businesses engage in interest or risky activity.[17]

## Indian ethics

[edit]

### Hinduism

[edit]

Lord Ganesha (Ganpati)

Hinduism is considered part of the four major religions in the world and exceeds over 1.1 billion followers. Hinduism, also referred to as Sanatana Dharma, translates to the eternal law or way.[18] It is also the oldest religion out of the major four. Though Hinduism is present around the world, the predominant countries that practice Hindu and would operate their businesses under this include Nepal, Mauritius and India.[19]

Ethical business considerations derived from Hinduism has become an important part of defining people's actions. The Gita details how the ethics of Hindu teachings influence business practices and involves how Dharma, meaning duty or ethics, encourages individuals to follow callings to move higher in life and to attain this duty and is relevant in business practices and trade.[18] Another teaching, Tat-Twam-Asi, highlights the way nature, individuals and spirits intertwine. These teachings hold businesses to consider a holistic approach on their commercial outlook.

Lord Ganesha in Hindu is a God that is tasked to "remove obstacles", "patron of sciences and arts" as well as the "deva of wisdom and intelligence" as Dunn and Jensen (2019) claim.[20] The elephant often symbolises Ganesha as the ears represent and encourage greater listening, the small mouth promotes lesser talking, the big stomach associates with one's greater ability to digest the bad, neutral and good things in life, the little eyes with attentive concentration and the trunk for high efficiency and flexibility.[20] This becomes identifiable in business work ethics as people aim to resemble Lord Ganesha and his features.

### Neo Hinduism

[edit]

Neo Hinduism has underpinned the success of businesses and consumer lifestyles through a rapid economic growth seen in India. Hinduism asserts the importance of wealth and success as a feature of an acceptable life more dominantly than other religions such as Islam, Christianity and Buddhism.[21] Nevertheless, too much personal wealth is not expected to deliver happiness as society should be able to benefit from this selfless and moral behaviour.

### Buddhism

[edit]

Part of a series on

Buddhism

* Glossary
* Index
* Outline

History

* Timeline
* The Buddha
* Pre-sectarian Buddhism
* Councils
* Silk Road transmission of Buddhism
* Decline in the Indian subcontinent
* Later Buddhists
* Buddhist modernism

* Dharma
* Concepts

* Four Noble Truths
* Noble Eightfold Path
* Dharma wheel
* Five Aggregates
* Impermanence
* Suffering
* No-self
* Dependent Origination
* Middle Way
* Mettā
* Emptiness
* Morality
* Karma
* Rebirth
* Saṃsāra
* Cosmology

Buddhist texts

* Buddhavacana
* Early Texts
* Tripiṭaka
* Mahayana Sutras
* Pāli Canon
* Sanskrit literature
* Tibetan canon
* Chinese canon
* Post-canon

Practices

* Three Jewels
* Buddhist paths to liberation
* Five precepts
* Perfections
* Meditation
* Philosophical reasoning
* Devotional practices
* Merit making
* Recollections
* Mindfulness
* Wisdom
* Sublime abidings
* Aids to Enlightenment
* Monasticism
* Lay life
* Buddhist chant
* Pilgrimage
* Vegetarianism

Nirvāṇa

* Awakening
* Four Stages
* Arhat
* Pratyekabuddhayāna
* Bodhisattva
* Buddha

Traditions

* Theravāda
* Pāli
* Mahāyāna
* Hinayana
* Chinese
* Vajrayāna
* Tibetan
* Navayana
* Newar

Buddhism by country

* Bhutan
* Brazil
* Cambodia
* China
* India
* Indonesia
* Japan
* Korea
* Laos
* Malaysia
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* New Zealand
* Russia
* Singapore
* US
* Sri Lanka
* Taiwan
* Thailand
* Tibet
* Vietnam

* Buddhism portal

* v
* t
* e

Buddhism was founded in 500 BCE by Prince Siddartha Gautama (Gautama Buddha) in India.[22] It is practiced by 535 million people predominantly across most Asian countries such as India, Cambodia, Thailand, Laos, Mongolia, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Bhutan.[23] Buddhism focuses more on an experimental and knowledge based system. The teachings of Buddha centralise on the Three Universal Truths, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path and have the main belief of reincarnation.[24]

Workplaces have increasingly started to integrate more spiritual principles into their culture and management systems on the basis of Buddhist ethics and influences. It has also made a growing presence in western countries such as the US, indicative of the increasing cultural diversity that has been brought about by globalisation. Buddhism has seen values and ethics of an increase in greater personal responsibility, motivation towards greater collaboration and open mindedness become embedded within business practices.[25]

The Buddhist ethical concept of Karma gives people control over their choice of actions, words and thoughts.[26] By choosing to deviate from harmful actions will allow people to avoid the potential cause of suffering in the future, synonymous with a cause and effect cycle.[27] Greater personal responsibility is achieved through Karma whereby evoking ownership over negative and positive actions and reflecting on the consequences. This ethic fosters a more integrated and less irritable or stressful behaviour within businesses that limits the way of blaming others for personal failures rather than on oneself.[28] For example, if managers are generous towards their suppliers or have donated towards charity, it is expected that there will be an eventual positive effect for the business.[29]

Zen refers to recognising the meaning of life without being influenced by logic or language and embodies the attainment of enlightenment.[30] The ethics surrounding Zen emulate the Buddhist ethics of precepts, compassion and monastic codes.[31] Motivation towards healthy detachment in a business environment draws on the mindfulness of Zen to free people from suffering at work.[31] This reduces work related stress and anxiety as it encourages people to alter their psychological stance to become more accepting and open minded.[31] This is seen in the way businesses eliminate clusters that do not add value to the business through removing people, processes or objects that would otherwise cause such stress .[32]

Buddhism defines that two qualities must develop simultaneously and equally: compassion (karuna) and wisdom (panna).[33] The ethical conduct of perceiving one another as filial figures enables a model of compassion and kinship, which when applied to the workplace environment builds encouragement and motivation towards achieving goals.[28] This extends to how the Dalai Lama said that it is through the interconnectedness coalesced with the interdependence of people and objects that have fabricated the way the world lives.[34] In business, this ethic infers that acknowledgement of the work by different people such as the cleaner, employer or consumer, operates in an interconnected matter and produces the best work.[34] This continues in the way tasks are fulfilled with respect and through a teamwork to generate better outcomes and also corresponds with the Buddhist ethical behaviour.[34]

## Japanese ethics

[edit]

### Buddhism

[edit]

Pictured is Watsuji Tetsuro

In Japan, there is an understanding that each individual phenomenon has their own soul or spirit (numen) that is affiliated with other unique numens in the world. It is known that in an environment where definite norms exist, it is a "transcendental normative environment" and is supported by Buddhism (Dunfee, 1961).[35] Work has its own numen in which Japanese people associate this with a greater life force, a reflection of ethics. It is recognised that becoming an expert in a field often infers reaching a godlike (kami) stage. This is emphasised in the way Japanese employees continuously improve, through Kaizen, their products, work ethic and decisions to reach the path of universal numen.[36]

Watsuji Tetsuro’s work on Japanese ethics considers the balanced yet dual relationship an individual has with themselves and with society.[37] His analysis of these ethics have been obtained predominantly from Buddhist ethical standards as well as ancient Japanese cultural understandings.[38] Tetsuro argues that trust is built within an individual (ningen sonzai) as it has already been established through existing relationships with people which encourages them to act ethically.[37] The idea of trust amongst business practices to maintain the relationship amongst customers is carried out through conduct such as the use of safe working conditions and quality products. Here, a person’s sense of truth is promoted through their business behaviour to act ethically and truthfully and aligns with the social matrix.[37] Tetsuro claims that untruthful individuals in a business can create a "certain distortion" amongst "group spirit" and an openness to "communal sense" to society is needed (Tetsuro, 1935).[38] He concludes that through the Eastern way of thinking, Japanese people believe relations should be long term looking as it is offensive if relationships are made for short term gains.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Gockel, A. (2004). The Trend Toward Spirituality in the Workplace: Overview and Implications for Career Counseling. Journal of Employment Counseling, 41(4), 156–167.
2. ^ Berling, Judith. "Confucianism". Center for Global Education. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
3. ^ a b c Kit-Chun, J (2002). "Confucian Business Ethics and the Economy". `{{cite journal}}`: Cite journal requires `|journal=` (help)
4. ^ Taylor, Rodney L. (1990). The Religious Dimensions of Confucianism. Albany: State University of New York Press. p. 17\. ISBN 9780791403112. Retrieved 6 May 2019.
5. ^ Thompson, K. (n.d.). Zhu Xi (Chu His, 1130–1200). Retrieved May 14, 2019, from https://www.iep.utm.edu/zhu-xi/#H2
6. ^ Gardner, D. (1990). Learning to Be a Sage: Selections from the Conversations of Master Chu, Arranged Topically, Berkeley: University of California Press.
7. ^ Kim, Y. (n.d.). Wang Yangming(1472–1529). Retrieved May 13, 2019, from https://www.iep.utm.edu/wangyang/
8. ^ Chan, W. (1963). Instructions for Practical Living, and other Neo-Confucian Writings. New York and London: Columbia University Press.
9. ^ Pew Research Center. (2017). World's Muslim Population More Widespread Than You Might Think. Retrieved March 12, 2019, from https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/01/31/worlds-muslim-population-more-widespread-than-you-might-think/
10. ^ Prophet Muhammad (570–632). (2011). Retrieved May 15, 2019, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/muhammad_1.shtml
11. ^ Samir, A. A. (2009). Business ethics in islam: The glaring gap in practice. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 2(4), 278–288. doi:10.1108/17538390911006340
12. ^ Samir, A. A. (2009). Business ethics in islam: The glaring gap in practice. International Journal of Islamic and Middle Eastern Finance and Management, 2(4), 278–288.
13. ^ Alhabshi, S.O. (1993), "Management ethics from Islamic perspective", Proceedings: Arab Management Conference, University of Bradford, Bradford, UK.
14. ^ Mullin Marta, J.,K., Singhapakdi, A., Attia, A., & Vitell, S. J. (2004). Some important factors underlying ethical decisions of middle-eastern marketers. International Marketing Review, 21(1), 53–67.
15. ^ The Origins of Islamic Law. (2019). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from http://www.crf-usa.org/america-responds-to-terrorism/the-origins-of-islamic-law.html Archived 2016-01-05 at the Wayback Machine
16. ^ The Origins of Islamic Law. (2019). Retrieved May 12, 2019, from http://www.crf-usa.org/america-responds-to-terrorism/the-origins-of-islamic-law.html Archived 2016-01-05 at the Wayback Machine
17. ^ a b Cerimagic, S. (2010). The Effects of Islamic Law on Business Practices. Education, Business and Society: Contemporary Middle Eastern Issues, 3(1), pp.40–47.
18. ^ a b Flood, G. (2009). Hindu Concepts. Retrieved June 5, 2019, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/concepts/concepts_1.shtml#h2
19. ^ Hinduism. (2018). Retrieved June 5, 2019, from https://www.history.com/topics/religion/hinduism
20. ^ a b Dunn, S., & Jensen, J. (2019). Hinduism and Hindu Business Practices. International Journal of Business Administration, 10(1).
21. ^ INDIA: Hinduism shapes encounter with modernity. (2010, Feb 17). OxResearch Daily Brief Service.
22. ^ Siderits, M. (2019). Buddha. Retrieved May 15, 2019, from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/buddha/
23. ^ Buddhist Countries 2019. (2019). Retrieved May 16, 2019, from http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/buddhist-countries/
24. ^ Marques, J. (2010). Toward greater consciousness in the 21st century workplace: How Buddhist Practices Fit in. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 211–225.
25. ^ Marques, J. (2010). Toward greater consciousness in the 21st century workplace: How Buddhist Practices Fit In. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 211–225.
26. ^ Easwaran, E. (2017). Buddhist Ethics. Retrieved May 14, 2019, from https://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/glossary/buddhist-ethics/
27. ^ Hurst, K. (2019). Cause and Effect Meaning: The 12 Laws of Karma List. Retrieved May 16, 2019, from http://www.thelawofattraction.com/12-laws-karma/
28. ^ a b Marques, J. (2010). Toward greater consciousness in the 21st century workplace: How buddhist practices fit in: JBE JBE. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 211–225.
29. ^ Hara, M. (2013). Karma: A Business Philosophy. Retrieved May 16, 2019, from https://www.business2community.com/strategy/karma-business-philosophy-0617861
30. ^ Zen Buddhism. (2002). Retrieved May 17, 2019, from http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/buddhism/subdivisions/zen_1.shtml
31. ^ a b c Marques, J. (2010). Toward Greater Consciousness in the 21st Century Workplace: How Buddhist Practices Fit in: JBE JBE. Journal of Business Ethics, 92(2), 211–225.
32. ^ Shane, D. (2015). 7 Zen Principles Make You Happier and More Successful in Business. Retrieved May 16, 2019, from https://smallbiztrends.com/2014/02/7-zen-principles-in-business.html
33. ^ Rahula, W. (n.d.). The Nobel Eightfold Path. Retrieved May 13, 2019, from https://tricycle.org/magazine/noble-eightfold-path/
34. ^ a b c Gould, S. J. (1995). The buddhist perspective on business ethics: Experiential ex: JBE JBE. Journal of Business Ethics, 14(1), 63.
35. ^ Gove, P. (1961). Webster's Third New International Dictionary. Riverside Press.
36. ^ Taka, I. (1994). Business Ethics: A Japanese View. Business Ethics Quarterly, 4(1), 53–78.
37. ^ a b c Koehn, D. (1999). What can eastern philosophy teach us about business ethics?: JBE JBE. Journal of Business Ethics, 19(1), 71–79.
38. ^ a b Stanford University. (2014). Watsuji Tetsuro. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/watsuji-tetsuro/#Eth

* v
* t
* e

East Asia

Countries and regions|

* China
* Hong Kong
* Macau
* Mainland
* Japan
* Ryukyu
* Korea
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Jeju
* Mongolia
* Taiwan

Ethnic groups|

* Ainu
* Han Chinese
* subgroups
* Hui
* Japanese
* Yamato
* Koreans
* in China
* in Japan
* in Sakhalin
* Manchu
* Miao
* Mongolic
* Mongols
* in China
* Khalkha in Mongolia
* Qiang
* Ryukyuans
* Indigenous Taiwanese
* Tibetans
* Tujia
* Uyghurs
* Yi
* Zhuang
* other ethnic groups in China
* unrecognized
* historical

Culture|

* Age reckoning
* Architecture‎
* Art
* Chinese
* Japanese
* Korean
* Taiwanese
* Blepharoplasty
* Buddhism
* Calligraphy
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Sinosphere
* Dance
* Chinese knotting
* Chinese dragon
* Festivals
* Gardens
* Chinese characters
* Hip-and-gable roof
* Languages
* Literature
* Mādhyamaka
* Music
* Mythology
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Scripts
* Seal
* Sino-Xenic pronunciations
* Surnames
* Television
* Typography
* Yogācāra
* Chinese zodiac

Environment|

* East Asia Climate Partnership
* Monsoon
* Rainy season
* Flora

Economy and Politics|

* China–Japan–South Korea trilateral summit
* Comprehensive Economic Partnership for East Asia
* Capitalism
* East Asia Summit
* East Asian Bureau of Economic Research
* East Asian Community
* Four Asian Tigers
* Human rights in East Asia
* Ports
* Stock exchanges

History|

* Archaeology
* Archaeological cultures
* Bronze Age
* Iron Age
* Former countries

Sports|

* China–Japan–Korea Friendship Athletic Meeting
* East Asian Football Federation
* East Asian Games
* East Asian Judo Championships
* East Asian martial arts
* East Asian Youth Games
* EAFF E-1 Football Championship

Education|

* Association of East Asian Research Universities
* CrossAsia
* East Asian Economic Review
* East Asia Image Collection
* East Asia Law Review
* East Asian studies
* Journal of East Asian Studies
* Ludwigshafen East Asia Institute

Military|

* Horses in East Asian warfare
* Bansenshūkai
* Miyamoto Musashi
* Sun Tzu
* The Art of War
* The Book of Five Rings
* Yi Sun-sin

Science and technology|

* Needham Research Institute
* Printing
* Swords
* Traditional medicine

* v
* t
* e

Philosophy

Branches

| Branches|

* Applied philosophy
* Logic
* Metaphilosophy
* Philosophy of education
* Philosophy of information
* Philosophy of language
* Philosophy of mathematics
* Philosophy of religion
* Philosophy of science
* Political philosophy
* Practical philosophy
* Social philosophy
* Theoretical philosophy

|

Aesthetics|

* Aesthetic response
* Formalism
* Institutionalism

Epistemology|

* Empiricism
* Fideism
* Naturalism
* Particularism
* Rationalism
* Skepticism
* Solipsism

Ethics|

* Consequentialism
* Deontology
* Virtue

Free will|

* Compatibilism
* Determinism
* Hard
* Incompatibilism
* Hard
* Libertarianism

Metaphysics|

* Atomism
* Dualism
* Idealism
* Monism
* Naturalism
* Realism

Mind|

* Behaviorism
* Eliminativism
* Emergentism
* Epiphenomenalism
* Functionalism
* Objectivism
* Subjectivism

Normativity|

* Absolutism
* Particularism
* Relativism
* Nihilism
* Skepticism
* Universalism

Ontology|

* Action
* Event
* Process

Reality|

* Anti-realism
* Conceptualism
* Idealism
* Materialism
* Naturalism
* Nominalism
* Physicalism
* Realism

By era

| By era|

* Ancient
* Western
* Medieval
* Renaissance
* Early modern
* Modern
* Contemporary

|

Ancient|

| Chinese|

* Agriculturalism
* Confucianism
* Legalism
* Logicians
* Mohism
* Chinese naturalism
* Taoism
* Yangism

|

Greco-Roman|

* Presocratic
* Ionians
* Pythagoreans
* Eleatics
* Atomists
* Sophists
* Cyrenaics
* Cynicism
* Eretrian school
* Megarian school
* Academy
* Peripatetic school
* Hellenistic philosophy
* Pyrrhonism
* Stoicism
* Epicureanism
* Academic Skepticism
* Middle Platonism
* School of the Sextii
* Neopythagoreanism
* Second Sophistic
* Neoplatonism
* Church Fathers

Indian|

* Hindu
* Samkhya
* Nyaya
* Vaisheshika
* Yoga
* Mīmāṃsā
* Ājīvika
* Ajñana
* Cārvāka
* Jain
* Anekantavada
* Syādvāda
* Buddhist
* Abhidharma
* Sarvāstivadā
* Pudgalavada
* Sautrāntika
* Madhyamaka
* Svatantrika and Prasangika
* Śūnyatā
* Yogacara
* Tibetan

Persian|

* Mazdakism
* Mithraism
* Zoroastrianism
* Zurvanism

Medieval|

| East Asian|

* Neotaoism
* Tiantai
* Huayan
* Chan
* Zen
* Neo-Confucianism
* Korean Confucianism

|

European|

* Christian
* Augustinianism
* Scholasticism
* Thomism
* Scotism
* Occamism
* Renaissance humanism

Indian|

* Vedanta
* Acintya bheda abheda
* Advaita
* Bhedabheda
* Dvaita
* Nimbarka Sampradaya
* Shuddhadvaita
* Vishishtadvaita
* Navya-Nyāya

Islamic|

* Aristotelianism
* Averroism
* Avicennism
* Illuminationism
* ʿIlm al-Kalām
* Sufi

Jewish|

* Judeo-Islamic

Modern|

* Anarchism
* Classical Realism
* Collectivism
* Conservatism
* Determinism
* Dualism
* Edo neo-Confucianism
* Empiricism
* Existentialism
* Foundationalism
* Historicism
* Holism
* Humanism
* Anti-
* Idealism
* Absolute
* British
* German
* Objective
* Subjective
* Transcendental
* Individualism
* Kokugaku
* Liberalism
* Materialism
* Modernism
* Monism
* Naturalism
* Natural law
* Nihilism
* New Confucianism
* Neo-scholasticism
* Pessimism
* Pragmatism
* Phenomenology
* Positivism
* Reductionism
* Rationalism
* Social contract
* Socialism
* Transcendentalism
* Utilitarianism

People|

* Cartesianism
* Kantianism
* Neo
* Kierkegaardianism
* Krausism
* Hegelianism
* Marxism
* Newtonianism
* Nietzscheanism
* Spinozism

Contemporary|

| Analytic|

* Applied ethics
* Analytic feminism
* Analytical Marxism
* Communitarianism
* Consequentialism
* Critical rationalism
* Experimental philosophy
* Falsificationism
* Foundationalism / Coherentism
* Internalism and externalism
* Logical positivism
* Legal positivism
* Meta-ethics
* Moral realism
* Quinean naturalism
* Normative ethics
* Ordinary language philosophy
* Postanalytic philosophy
* Quietism
* Rawlsian
* Reformed epistemology
* Systemics
* Scientism
* Scientific realism
* Scientific skepticism
* Transactionalism
* Contemporary utilitarianism
* Vienna Circle
* Wittgensteinian

|

Continental|

* Critical theory
* Deconstruction
* Existentialism
* Feminist
* Frankfurt School
* Hermeneutics
* Neo-Marxism
* New Historicism
* Phenomenology
* Posthumanism
* Postmodernism
* Post-structuralism
* Social constructionism
* Structuralism
* Western Marxism

Miscellaneous|

* Kyoto School
* Objectivism
* Postcritique
* Russian cosmism
* more...

* By region

| By region|

| African|

* Bantu
* Egyptian
* Ethiopian
* Africana

|

Eastern|

* Buddhist
* Chinese
* Indian
* Indonesian
* Japanese
* Korean
* Taiwanese
* Vietnamese

Middle Eastern|

* Iranian
* Islamic
* Jewish
* Pakistani
* Turkish

Western|

* American
* Australian
* British
* Scottish
* Canada
* Czech
* Danish
* Dutch
* Finland
* French
* German
* Greek
* Italian
* Maltese
* Polish
* Slovene
* Spanish

Miscellaneous|

* Amerindian
* Aztec
* Romanian
* Russian
* Yugoslav

* Philosophy portal
* Category

* v
* t
* e

Theology

Conceptions of God

| Theism|

| Forms|

*   * Deism
* Dystheism
* Henotheism
* Hermeticism
* Kathenotheism
* Nontheism
* Monolatry
* Monotheism
* Urmonotheismus
* Mysticism
* Panentheism
* Pandeism
* Pantheism
* Polydeism
* Polytheism
* Spiritualism
* Theistic finitism
* Theopanism

|

Concepts|

*   * Deity
* Divinity
* Gender of God and gods
* Goddess
* Numen

Singular god
theologies|

| By faith|

* Abrahamic religions
* Baháʼí Faith
* Judaism
* Christianity
* Islam
* Buddhism
* Hinduism
* Jainism
* Sikhism
* Tenrikyo
* Zoroastrianism

|

Concepts|

* Absolute
* Brahman
* Emanationism
* Logos
* Supreme Being

God as|

* Time
* Good (Ahura Mazda, Father of Greatness)

Trinitarianism|

* Athanasian Creed
* Comma Johanneum
* Consubstantiality
* Homoousian
* Homoiousian
* Hypostasis
* Perichoresis
* Shield of the Trinity
* Trinitarian formula
* Trinity
* Trinity of the Church Fathers
* Trinitarian universalism

Eschatology|

* Afterlife
* Apocalypticism
* Fate of the unlearned
* Fitra
* Heaven / Hell

| By religion|

* Buddhist
* Christian
* Hindu
* Islamic
* Jewish
* Taoist
* Zoroastrian

|

Feminist|

* Buddhism
* Christianity
* Hinduism
* Islam
* Judaism
* Mormonism
* Goddesses

Other concepts|

* Attributes of God in Christianity / in Islam
* Binitarianism
* Demiurge
* Divine simplicity
* Divine presence
* Egotheism
* Exotheology
* Hermeneutics
* Holocaust
* Godhead in Christianity
* Latter Day Saints
* Great Architect of the Universe
* Great Spirit
* Apophatic theology
* Olelbis
* Open theism
* Personal god
* Phenomenological definition
* Philo's view
* Process
* Tian
* Unmoved mover

Names of God in|

* Christianity
* Hinduism
* Islam
* Jainism
* Judaism

By faith

| Christian|

* History
* Outline
* Biblical canon
* Glossary
* Paterology
* Christology
* Pneumatology
* Cosmology
* Ecclesiology
* Eschatology
* Ethics
* Hamartiology
* Messianism
* Philosophy
* Political
* Practical
* Public
* Sophiology
* Soteriology

|

Hindu|

* Ayyavazhi theology
* Krishnology

Islamic|

* Oneness of God
* Prophets
* Holy Scriptures
* Angels
* Predestination
* Last Judgment

Jewish|

* Abrahamic prophecy
* Aggadah
* Denominations
* Kabbalah
* Philosophy

Pagan|

* Slavic Native Faith
* Wiccan

East Asian|

* Tenrikyo

Religion portal

* v
* t
* e

Asia articles

History|

| Chronology|

* Indian Ocean trade
* Silk Road
* Imperialism
* Decolonisation
* Cold War

|

By topic|

* Military conflicts
* Sovereignty

Geography|

* Cities
* metropolitan areas
* tallest buildings
* urban agglomerations
* Countries and territories
* by population
* Extreme points
* Islands
* Lakes
* Mountains
* Rivers

Geopolitical|

| Transcontinental regions|

* Asia–Pacific
* Caucasus
* EMEA
* Mediterranean world
* MENASA
* Greater Middle East/Middle East and North Africa
* Middle East/Near East
* Indo-Mediterranean
* Indo-Pacific
* Indian Ocean world
* Pacific Rim
* Pacific Asia

|

Intracontinental regions|

* Anatolia/Asia Minor
* Arabia
* South Arabia
* Cyprus
* Far East/Pacific Asia
* Greater China
* China proper
* Taiwan
* Tibet
* Xinjiang
* Indochina
* Malay world
* Manchuria
* Northeast China
* Outer Manchuria
* Greater Mongolia
* Inner Mongolia
* Mongolia
* Japan
* Korea
* Russian Far East
* Inner Asia
* Greater Central Asia
* Greater Iran
* Greater Khorasan
* Global Southeast
* Greater India
* Levant/Syria
* Southern Levant
* Mesopotamia
* Siberia
* South Caucasus
* Turkestan
* Afghan Turkestan
* Chinese Turkestan
* Russian Turkestan

Continental subregions|

* Central Asia
* Soviet Central Asia
* East Asia
* Northeast Asia
* North Asia
* South Asia
* Subregions
* Southeast Asia
* Mainland Southeast Asia
* Maritime Southeast Asia
* West Asia

Cultural|

* Austronesia
* Indosphere
* Sinosphere
* Nanyang
* Northern and southern China

Physical|

| Supercontinents|

* Afro-Eurasia
* Afro-Asia
* Eurasia

|

Subcontinents|

* Arabian subcontinent
* Indian subcontinent

Plateaus|

* Anatolian plateau
* Deccan Plateau
* Iranian plateau
* Mongolian Plateau
* Tibetan Plateau

Peninsulas|

* Anatolian Peninsula
* Arabian Peninsula
* Chukchi Peninsula
* Indian Peninsula
* Indochinese Peninsula
* Malay Peninsula
* Korean Peninsula
* Leizhou Peninsula
* Liaodong Peninsula
* Shandong Peninsula
* Sinai Peninsula
* Tsugaru Peninsula

Archipelagos|

* Japanese Archipelago
* Ryukyu Islands
* Malay Archipelago
* Indonesian Archipelago
* Maluku Islands
* Sunda Islands
* Greater Sunda Islands
* Lesser Sunda Islands
* Philippine Archipelago
* Visayan Islands
* Mergui Archipelago

Biogeographic|

* Eastern Asia
* Indo-Pacific
* Malesia
* Tropical Asia

Politics|

* Heads of government
* Heads of state
* Elections
* political parties
* Democracy
* Human rights
* Law
* Military
* Pan-Asianism

Intergovernmental|

* Asia Cooperation Dialogue (ACD)
* Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
* Bay of Bengal Initiative (BIMSTEC)
* Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)
* Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU)
* Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)
* Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO)
* Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf (CCASG / GCC)
* Mekong–Ganga Cooperation (MGC)
* Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP)
* South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)
* Shanghai Cooperation Organisation (SCO)

Economy|

* Countries by average wage
* Countries by GDP (PPP)
* Countries by HDI
* Currencies
* Stock exchanges
* Technology
* renewable energy
* Transport
* airports
* high-speed rail

Markets|

* Property markets

Society|

* Demographics
* Education
* Etiquette
* Health
* Languages
* Life expectancy
* People
* ethnic groups

Culture|

* Art
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Literature
* Music
* Philosophy
* Religion
* Sport

Future|

* Asian Century
* Chinese Century
* Indian Century
* Pacific Century

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal
* Maps

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template