Economy of Turkey

Istanbul is the largest city in Europe[a] and the chief financial and economical center of Turkey.

Currency| Turkish lira (TRY, ₺)

Fiscal year

| Calendar year[2]

Trade organisations

| G-20, OECD, EU Customs Union, WTO, MIKTA, BSEC, ECO, OTS and others

Country group

* Emerging market[3]
* Upper-middle income economy
* Newly industrialized country[4]
* Diversified, industrializing economy[5]
* Industrial country[6]

Statistics
Population|  85,664,944[7]
GDP|

* $1.437 trillion (nominal, 2025)[8]
* $3.614 trillion (PPP, 2025)[8]

GDP rank|

* 16th (Nominal, 2025)
* 12th (PPP, 2025)

GDP growth

* 5.1% (2023)
* 3.2% (2024)
* 2.7% (2025)[8]

GDP per capita

* $16,709 (nominal; 2025)[8]
* $42,451 (PPP; 2025)[8]

GDP per capita rank

* 63rd (Nominal; 2025)
* 52th (PPP; 2025)

GDP by sector

* Manufacturing: 22.1%
* Wholesale and retail trade: 13.5%
* Transport and storage: 10.0%
* Agriculture, forestry and fishing: 6.5%
* Construction: 4.9%
* (2022)[9]

Inflation (CPI)

|  35% (2025)[10]

Population below poverty line

* 14.4% at 50% of the median equivalised income (2022)[11]
* 30.4% at risk of poverty or social exclusion (AROPE 2024)[12]

Gini coefficient

|  44.8 medium (2024)[13]

Human Development Index

* 0.853 very high (2023, 51st)[14]
* 0.708 high (2023, IHDI 60th)[14]

Corruption Perceptions Index

|  34 out of 100 points (2023; 115th rank)

Labour force

* 34,796,000 (2023)[15]
* about 3.2 million Turks work abroad[2]
* 57.3% employment rate (2023)[16]

Labour force by occupation

* Agriculture, forestry and fishing: 14.8%
* Secondary sector: Industry: 20.8%
* Secondary sector: Construction: 6.4%
* Services: 58.0%
* (2023)[17]

Unemployment|

* 8.5% (2023)[15]
* 16.3% youth unemployment rate (15 to 24 year-olds; October 2023)[15]

Average gross salary

| ₺47,346 / €1,334 (per month, 2024)[18][19]

Average net salary

| ₺33,913 / €956 (per month, 2024)[18][19]

Main industries

* Machinery
* tourism
* textile
* electronics
* construction
* shipbuilding
* autos
* mining
* steel
* iron
* copper
* boron
* defence
* petroleum
* food processing
* cotton

External
Exports|  $261.9 billion[b] (2024)[20]

Export goods

* Transport equipment
* machinery
* metal manufactures
* apparel
* electronics
* foodstuffs
* textile
* plastic[21]

Main export partners

* European Union 41.5%
* United States 6.2%
* United Kingdom 5.8%
* Russia 5.0%
* Iraq 3.3%
* (2024)[22]

Imports|  $344.1 billion[b] (2024)[23]

Import goods

* Fuels
* machinery
* chemicals
* semi-finished goods
* transport equipment[24]

Main import partners

* European Union 32.1%
* China 13.1%
* Russia 12.8%
* United States 4.7%
*  Switzerland 3.2%
* (2024)[22]

FDI stock

* $180.3 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[2]
* Abroad: $47.44 billion (31 December 2017 est.)[2]

Current account

|  −1.74% of GDP (2021)[25]

Gross external debt

|  $500 billion (2024) (28th)[26]
Public finances

Government debt

|  29.5% of GDP (2024)[8]

Foreign reserves

|  $144.343 billion (2025) (22nd)[27]

Budget balance

|  −5.4% (of GDP) (2023) [28]
Revenues| $234.9 billion (2022 est.)[2]
Expenses| $269.1 billion (2022 est.)[2]
Economic aid| donor: $8.399 billion, 0.79% of GNI (2018)[29][30]

Credit rating

* Standard & Poor's:[31]
* BB-
* Outlook: Stable
(November 2024)

* * *

* Moody's:[32]
* B1
* Outlook: Positive
(July 2024)

* * *

* Fitch:[33]
* BB-
* Outlook: Positive
(September 2024)

* * *

* Scope:[34]
* BB-
* Outlook: Stable (December 2024)

All values, unless otherwise stated, are in US dollars.

Economy of Turkey

Economic history

* 2000s boom
* 2001 economic crisis
* Economic crisis (2018-present)

Money

* Turkish lira
* Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey

Stock exchange

* Borsa Istanbul
* Companies listed on ISE

Major projects

* Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline
* European Union–Turkey Customs Union
* Nabucco pipeline
* Southeastern Anatolia Project
* Land ownership

Related topics

* Energy in Turkey
* Geography of Turkey
* Minimum wage in Turkey
* Science and technology in Turkey
* Telecommunications in Turkey
* Tourism in Turkey
* Transport in Turkey

Turkey portal

* v
* t
* e

After becoming one of the early members of the Council of Europe in 1950, Turkey became an associate member of the EEC in 1963, joined the EU Customs Union in 1995 and started full membership negotiations with the European Union in 2005.[35][36]

The economy of Turkey is an emerging free-market economy.[37] It ranked as the 16th-largest in the world and 7th-largest in Europe by nominal GDP in 2025.[8] It also ranked as the 12th-largest in the world and 5th-largest in Europe by PPP in 2025.[8] Turkey's rapid economic growth since the 2000s was stranded by the economic crisis in 2018, but it began to recover in 2021.[8][38] Turkey's USD-based nominal GDP per capita and GDP-PPP per capita have eventually reached their all-time peak values in 2024.[8][38][39]

Turkey is a founding member of the OECD and G20. Ratified in 1995, the European Union–Turkey Customs Union has established a free trade area between Turkey and the European Union, which has increased bilateral foreign trade, investment and economic activity.[40]

As the fifth-most-visited destination in the world,[41] Turkey has a large tourism industry, which accounted for 12% of the country's total GDP in 2023.[42] First established in 2000, many technoparks were pioneered by Turkish universities, now hosting over 1,600 R&D centers that drew investment by both domestic and international corporations.[43] Turkey is also among the world's leading producers of motor vehicles, consumer electronics, home appliances and defense products. In 2021, the country was ranked eighth in the world in the technology rankings of the Economic Complexity Index.[44]

In the first quarter of the 21st century, there have been major developments in the financial and social aspects of Turkey's economy, such as increases in employment and average income since 2000.[45] A period of strong economic growth between 2002 and 2013 (except for 2009 due to the 2008 financial crisis)[46] was followed by a period of stagnation and recession in terms of USD-based nominal GDP figures between 2014 and 2020,[46] especially during the 2018 Turkish currency and debt crisis; even though Turkey's USD-based GDP-PPP and TL-based nominal GDP have continued to grow in this period.[46] Since 2021, there has been a steady recovery and rapid growth in Turkey's USD-based nominal GDP and GDP-PPP figures,[8][38] which have reached their all-time highest values in both 2023 and 2024.[8][38]

Growth-focused and populist financial policies, such as the preference to keep interest rates as low as possible (dubbed Erdoganomics)[47][48] have led to one of the world's highest inflation rates since 2018.[49] Following the Turkish parliamentary and presidential elections on May 14 and 28, 2023, and the appointment of Mehmet Şimşek as the Minister of Treasury and Finance on June 4, 2023, Turkey has adopted a more orthodox monetary policy regarding interest rates and has succeeded in gradually decreasing inflation from 85.5% in late 2022 to 42.1% in early 2025.[49][10]

## History

[edit]

Main articles: Economic history of the Ottoman Empire and Economic history of Turkey

## Data

[edit]

Change in per capita GDP of Turkey, 1913–2018. Figures are inflation-adjusted to 2011 International dollars.[citation needed] Turkey's CO2 emissions growth compared GDP growth General government net debt as percentage of GDP for selected European countries, including Turkey

The following table shows the main economic indicators from 1980 to 2024 (with IMF staff estimates in 2024–2029). Inflation below 10% is in green.[50]

Year  | GDP

(in Bil. US$PPP)

| GDP per capita

(in US$ PPP)

| GDP

(in Bil. US$nominal)

| GDP per capita

(in US$ nominal)

| GDP growth

(real)

| Inflation rate

(in Percent)

| Unemployment

(in Percent)

|
|
|
|
|
|
|

1980  | 159.2  | 3,516.3  | 96.6  | 2,133.7  | -0.8%  | 110.6%  | 7.2%
1981  | 181.9  | 3,926.5  | 97.9  | 2,113.1  | 4.4%  | 36.4%  | 7.2%
1982  | 199.7  | 4,215.0  | 88.9  | 1,876.6  | 3.4%  | 31.1%  | 7.6%
1983  | 217.4  | 4,486.2  | 85.0  | 1,753.3  | 4.8%  | 31.3%  | 7.5%
1984  | 240.6  | 4,857.9  | 82.6  | 1,668.5  | 6.8%  | 48.4%  | 7.4%
1985  | 258.8  | 5,116.5  | 92.8  | 1,835.2  | 4.3%  | 44.5%  | 6.9%
1986  | 282.3  | 5,471.0  | 102.3  | 1,983.1  | 6.9%  | 34.6%  | 7.7%
1987  | 318.3  | 6,051.1  | 118.9  | 2,260.7  | 10.0%  | 38.9%  | 8.1%
1988  | 336.5  | 6,280.3  | 125.0  | 2,333.2  | 2.1%  | 73.7%  | 8.7%
1989  | 350.6  | 6,427.2  | 147.7  | 2,707.9  | 0.3%  | 63.3%  | 8.6%
1990  | 397.4  | 7,159.3  | 207.5  | 3,738.2  | 9.3%  | 60.3%  | 8.0%
1991  | 414.7  | 7,344.8  | 208.4  | 3,691.4  | 0.9%  | 66.0%  | 7.7%
1992  | 449.5  | 7,831.6  | 219.2  | 3,818.8  | 6.0%  | 70.1%  | 7.9%
1993  | 497.2  | 8,523.4  | 248.6  | 4,261.6  | 8.0%  | 66.1%  | 8.4%
1994  | 480.1  | 8,101.2  | 179.4  | 3,026.7  | -5.5%  | 104.5%  | 8.0%
1995  | 525.4  | 8,729.4  | 233.6  | 3,880.9  | 7.2%  | 89.6%  | 7.1%
1996  | 572.5  | 9,368.7  | 250.5  | 4,099.2  | 7.0%  | 80.2%  | 6.1%
1997  | 626.2  | 10,096.0  | 261.9  | 4,221.9  | 7.5%  | 85.7%  | 6.3%
1998  | 652.8  | 10,376.8  | 275.8  | 4,384.5  | 3.1%  | 84.7%  | 6.4%
1999  | 640.4  | 10,035.0  | 256.6  | 4,020.3  | -3.3%  | 64.9%  | 7.2%
2000  | 700.3  | 10,819.4  | 274.3  | 4,238.0  | 6.9%  | 55.0%  | 6.0%
2001  | 674.9  | 10,288.1  | 202.2  | 3,082.9  | -5.8%  | 54.2%  | 7.8%
2002  | 729.6  | 10,988.4  | 240.2  | 3,617.2  | 6.4%  | 45.1%  | 9.8%
2003  | 786.9  | 11,712.5  | 314.8  | 4,684.7  | 5.8%  | 25.3%  | 9.9%
2004  | 887.2  | 13,045.3  | 409.1  | 6,015.7  | 9.8%  | 8.6%  | 9.7%
2005  | 997.3  | 14,483.1  | 506.2  | 7,350.9  | 9.0%  | 8.2%  | 9.2%
2006  | 1,099.5  | 15,768.3  | 555.1  | 7,961.1  | 6.9%  | 9.6%  | 8.7%
2007  | 1,186.2  | 16,804.9  | 680.5  | 9,640.6  | 5.0%  | 8.8%  | 8.9%
2008  | 1,218.8  | 17,042.0  | 770.8  | 10,778.1  | 0.8%  | 10.4%  | 9.8%
2009  | 1,167.4  | 16,089.1  | 648.8  | 8,941.4  | -4.8%  | 6.3%  | 13.0%
2010  | 1,281.0  | 17,376.4  | 776.6  | 10,533.5  | 8.4%  | 8.6%  | 11.0%
2011  | 1,454.1  | 19,459.8  | 838.5  | 11,221.4  | 11.2%  | 6.5%  | 9.0%
2012  | 1,550.7  | 20,504.4  | 880.1  | 11,637.9  | 4.8%  | 8.9%  | 8.3%
2013  | 1,703.7  | 22,221.4  | 957.5  | 12,489.0  | 8.5%  | 7.5%  | 8.9%
2014  | 1,860.5  | 23,945.5  | 938.5  | 12,079.3  | 4.9%  | 8.9%  | 9.9%
2015  | 2,022.9  | 25,691.1  | 864.1  | 10,973.6  | 6.1%  | 7.7%  | 10.3%
2016  | 2,116.2  | 26,513.6  | 869.3  | 10,891.2  | 3.3%  | 7.8%  | 10.9%
2017  | 2,282.3  | 28,242.5  | 858.9  | 10,628.9  | 7.5%  | 11.1%  | 10.9%
2018  | 2,406.5  | 29,345.6  | 779.7  | 9,508.0  | 3.0%  | 16.3%  | 10.9%
2019  | 2,468.7  | 29,688.0  | 759.5  | 9,132.9  | 0.8%  | 15.2%  | 13.7%
2020  | 2,546.9  | 30,490.5  | 720.1  | 8,612.3  | 1.9%  | 12.3%  | 13.1%
2021  | 2,953.9  | 35,063.5  | 817.5  | 9,654.1  | 11.4%  | 19.6%  | 12.0%
2022  | 3,009.8  | 35,293.4  | 905.8  | 10,621.4  | 5.5%  | 72.3%  | 10.8%
2023  | 3,277.5  | 38,390.9  | 1,129.9  | 13,235.8  | 5.1%  | 53.8%  | 10.5%
2024  | 3,456.7  | 40,283.3  | 1,344.3  | 15,665.9  | 3.0%  | 60.9%  | 10.4%
2025  | 3,614.5  | 41,913.6  | 1,455.4  | 16,876.5  | 2.7%  | 32.9%  | 10.4%
2026  | 3,801.0  | 43,865.0  | 1,477.3  | 17,048.6  | 3.2%  | 19.2%  | 10.4%
2027  | 4,002.5  | 45,976.9  | 1,565.5  | 17,982.6  | 3.4%  | 15.9%  | 10.4%
2028  | 4,226.6  | 48,333.7  | 1,660.5  | 18,988.9  | 3.6%  | 15.0%  | 10.4%
2029  | 4,471.8  | 50,917.766  | 1,764.2  | 20,088.2  | 3.8%  | 15.0%  | 10.4%

## Main economic sectors

[edit]

As of November 2023, there are 1,086,670 registered companies based in Turkey. The sector with the highest number of companies registered in the country is manufacturing with 241,362 companies. This is followed by wholesale trading and services with 197,476 and 187,325 companies respectively.[51]

### Agricultural sector

[edit]

The Atatürk Dam is the largest of the 22 dams in the Southeastern Anatolia Project. The program includes 22 dams, 19 hydraulic power plants, and the irrigation of 1.82 million hectares of land. The total cost of the project is estimated at $32 billion.

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Agriculture in Turkey.[edit]

Agriculture is still an important sector of Turkey's economy, and the country is one of the world's top ten agricultural producers.[52] Wheat, sugar beet, milk, poultry, cotton, vegetables and fruit are major products;[53] and Turkey is the world's largest grower of hazelnuts,[54] apricots,[53] and oregano.[55]

Half of Turkey's land is agricultural,[53] and farming employs about 15% of the workforce,[56] but under half a million farmers.[57][58] It provides about 10% of exports[59] and over 5% of gross domestic product (GDP).[60] Over 380 billion lira of agricultural subsidy is budgeted for 2024.[61]

Despite being a major food producer, Turkey is a net wheat importer, much of it coming from Russia and Ukraine.[62] Turkey is the European Union's fourth largest vegetable supplier and seventh largest fruit supplier. Turkey would like to extend the EU Customs Union Agreement to agricultural products.[63]

Around half of Turkey's agricultural greenhouse gas is due to cattle.[c] According to the World Bank, the sector should adapt more to climate change in Turkey and make technical improvements.[57] Strategic planning is the responsibility of the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, but no plan for 2024 onwards has yet been published.[65][66] Almost all the seeds used in Turkey are produced domestically.[67]

### Industrial sector

[edit]

This section needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (April 2019)

|

Heavy industry is tending to move out of the EU due to Turkey's laxer pollution regulations and cheaper energy.[68]

#### Consumer electronics and home appliances

[edit]

Turkey's Vestel is the largest TV producer in Europe, accounting for a quarter of all TV sets manufactured and sold on the continent in 2006.[69] By January 2005, Vestel and its rival Turkish electronics and white goods brand Beko accounted for more than half of all TV sets manufactured in Europe.[70] Another Turkish electronics brand, Profilo Telra, was Europe's third-largest TV producer in 2005.[71]

#### Textiles and clothing

[edit]

Turkey is the world's fifth-largest exporter of textiles, accounting for 10% of the country's GDP and employing 750 000 people in 2018. Turkish companies made clothing exports worth $13.98 billion in 2006; more than $10.67 billion of which (76.33%) were exported to the European Union.[72]

#### Motor vehicles and automotive products

[edit]

Main article: Automotive industry in Turkey

1966 Anadol A1 (left) and 1973 Anadol STC-16 (right) at the Rahmi M. Koç Museum in Istanbul. Devrim (1961) was the first Turkish car.

The automotive industry in Turkey, which plays an important role in the manufacturing sector of the Turkish economy, produced 1,352,648 motor vehicles in 2022,[73] ranking as the 13th largest producer in the world (production peaked at 1,695,731 motor vehicles in 2017, when Turkey also ranked 13th).[74] Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers. Togg, or Turkey's Automobile Joint Venture Group Inc. is the first all-electric vehicle company of Turkey.[75]

Togg T10X SUV[76] and Togg T10S sedan produced by Togg,[77] a Turkish automotive company which manufactures EVs[78][79][76]

The automotive industry is an important part of the economy since the late 1960s. The companies that operate in the sector are mainly located in the Marmara Region. With a cluster of car-makers and parts suppliers, the Turkish automotive sector has become an integral part of the global network of production bases, exporting over $22.94 billion worth of motor vehicles and components in 2008.[80][81]

Global car manufacturers with production plants include Fiat/Tofaş, Oyak-Renault, Hyundai, Toyota, Honda and Ford/Otosan. Turkish automotive companies like TEMSA, Otokar and BMC are among the world's largest van, bus and truck manufacturers.[citation needed] Togg is a new Turkish automotive company established in 2018 for producing EVs.[78][82] Togg's factory in Gemlik, Bursa Province, was inaugurated on 29 October 2022, the 99th anniversary of the Turkish Republic.[79]

Turkey's annual auto exports, including trucks and buses, surpassed 1 million units for the first time in 2016 as foreign automakers' investment in new models and a recovery in its mainstay European market lifted shipments. According to the industry group Automotive Manufacturers Association (OSD), Turkey-based car plants exported 1.14 million units in 2016, up 15% from the year before.[83] Auto exports hit a record high for the fourth straight year. Production grew 9% year on year in 2016 to 1.48 million units, setting a new record for the second consecutive year. Nearly 80% of vehicles produced in Turkey were exported.[84]

#### Multiple unit trains, locomotives and wagons

[edit]

Istanbul Metro's M8 line is among the new lines with fully automated driverless trains and platform screen doors for increasing passenger safety.

TÜLOMSAŞ (1894), TÜVASAŞ (1951) and EUROTEM (2006) are among the major producers of multiple unit trains, locomotives and wagons in Turkey, including high-speed EMU and DMU models.[citation needed]

Bozankaya is a Turkish manufacturer of rolling stock including metro, tram and trolleybus vehicles in Ankara.

#### Defence industry

[edit]

Main article: Defense industry of Turkey

The TAI TF Kaan, a twin engine fifth generation air superiority fighter, completed its maiden flight on February 21, 2024.[85][86][87][88] TAI Anka-3, a flying wing type stealth UCAV, completed its maiden flight on December 28, 2023.[89][90] TCG Anadolu (L-400) during the naval parade for celebrating the centennial of the Turkish Republic on October 29, 2023. Baykar Bayraktar TB3[91][92][93] and the jet-powered, low-observable Baykar MIUS Kızılelma are two UCAVs designed to operate on TCG Anadolu.[94][95][96][97] The construction of the first MUGEM-class aircraft carrier began on January 2, 2025.[98]

Turkey has many modern armament manufacturers. Annual exports reached $1.6 billion in 2014.[99] MKEK, TAI, Aselsan, Roketsan, FNSS, Nurol Makina, Otokar, and Havelsan are major manufacturers. On 11 July 2002, Turkey became a Level 3 partner of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter (JSF) development program. TAI builds various aircraft types and models, such as the F-16 Fighting Falcon for the Turkish Air Force.[100][101] Turkey has recently launched domestically built new military/intelligence satellites including a 0.8m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-1) for use by the Turkish Armed Forces and a 2m resolution reconnaissance satellite (Project Göktürk-2) for use by the Turkish National Intelligence Organization.[citation needed]

Other important products include the TAI TF Kaan, TF2000-class destroyer, Milgem class corvette, Baykar MIUS Kızılelma UCAV, Baykar Akıncı HALE UCAV, Baykar Bayraktar TB2 MALE UCAV, TAI Aksungur MALE UCAV, TAI Anka MALE UAV/UCAV, Aselsan İzci UGV, Altay main battle tank, T-155 Fırtına self-propelled howitzer, J-600T missile, T-129 attack helicopter, A400M, Roketsan UMTAS anti-tank missile, Roketsan Cirit laser-guided rocket, Panter howitzer, ACV-300, Otokar Cobra and Akrep, BMC Kirpi, FNSS Pars 6x6 and 8x8 APC, Nurol Ejder 6x6 APC, TOROS artillery rocket system, Bayraktar Mini UAV, ASELPOD, and SOM cruise missile.[citation needed]

#### Steel-Iron industry

[edit]

Turkey ranks 8th in the list of countries by steel production. In 2013, total steel production was 35.134 million tonnes.[102] Turkey's crude steel production reached a record high of 34.1 million tons in 2011.[103] Notable producers (above 2 million tonnes) and their ranks among top steel producing companies.[104]

* Erdemir (7.1 million tonnes) (47th) (Only Erdemir-Turkey; Erdemir-Romania is not included)
* Habaş (4.4 million tonnes) (72nd)
* İçdaş (3.6 million tonnes) (76th)
* Diler (2.3 million tonnes) (108th)
* Çolakoğlu (2.1 million tonnes) (110th)

#### Science and technology

[edit]

Main article: Science and technology in Turkey

Turkey boasts over 80 technoparks where around 6,000 national and multinational companies engage in R&D activities.[105] TÜBİTAK is the leading agency for developing science, technology and innovation policies in Turkey.[106] The Turkish Academy of Sciences is an autonomous scholarly society acting to promote scientific activities in Turkey.[107] TAEK is the official nuclear energy institution of Turkey. Its objectives include academic research in nuclear energy, and the development and implementation of peaceful nuclear tools.[108]

Turkish government companies for research and development in military technologies include Turkish Aerospace Industries, ASELSAN, HAVELSAN, ROKETSAN, MKE, among others. Turkish Satellite Assembly, Integration and Test Center is a spacecraft production and testing facility owned by the Ministry of National Defence and operated by the Turkish Aerospace Industries. The Turkish Space Launch System is a project to develop the satellite launch capability of Turkey. It consists of the construction of a spaceport, the development of satellite launch vehicles as well as the establishment of remote earth stations.[109][110][111][obsolete source]

### Construction and contracting sector

[edit]

Main article: Turkish construction and contracting industry

The Turkish construction and contracting industry is made up of a large number of businesses. In 2016 a total of 39 Turkish construction and contracting companies were listed in the Top 250 International Contractors List prepared by the Engineering News-Record.[112][113] From the beginning of the 1970s to the end of 2022, Turkish contractors have completed more than 11,605 projects in 133 countries.[114] Their business volume abroad has reached 472 billion US Dollars in 2022.[114]

IFC and the skyline of Ataşehir district on the Asian side of Istanbul. The construction sector plays an important role in Turkey's economy.

As Turkey is prone to strong earthquakes, the buildings that were constructed before the post-1999 safety standards and regulations remain a major concern, with many ongoing urban redevelopment and reconstruction projects, especially in large cities. In 2019, an amnesty plan to register illegally constructed buildings for generating extra tax revenues to the government brought in $3.1 billion, but the plan was criticized for ignoring safety issues.[115] The two major earthquakes on February 6, 2023, in southern Turkey have revealed that some of the recently built structures that collapsed were not constructed in accordance with the latest safety regulations.[116]

### Service sector

[edit]

#### Banking and finance

[edit]

Main article: Banking in Turkey

The Turkish Central Bank and other state-owned banks such as Ziraat Bank, VakıfBank and Halkbank have their new headquarters at the Istanbul Financial Center (IFC) in Ataşehir.[117][118][119]

During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Bankalar Caddesi (Banks Street) in Istanbul was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the headquarters of the Ottoman Bank (established as the Bank-ı Osmanî in 1856, and later reorganized as the Bank-ı Osmanî-i Şahane in 1863)[120] and the Ottoman Stock Exchange (1866) were located.[121] Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of Levent and Maslak.[121]

Originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange (Dersaadet Tahvilat Borsası) in 1866, and reorganized to its current structure at the beginning of 1986, the Istanbul Stock Exchange (ISE) is the sole securities market of Turkey.[122] In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange moved to its current building in the Istinye quarter.[123] The Istanbul Gold Exchange was also established in 1995.

The Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey (Türkiye Cumhuriyet Merkez Bankası) was founded in 1930 as a privileged joint-stock company. The CBRT possesses the sole right to issue notes. It also has the obligation to provide for the monetary requirements of the state agricultural and commercial enterprises.

The "New Turkish lira" (TRY) was introduced on 1 January 2005.[124] On 1 January 2009, the New Turkish lira was renamed once again as the "Turkish lira", with the introduction of new banknotes and coins.

Banking came under stress beginning in October 2008, as a result of the 2008 financial crisis. Turkish banking authorities warned state-run banks against the pullback of loans from the larger financial sectors.[125]

Söğütözü business district in Ankara, Turkey's capital and second largest city

Turkey's economy resumed its growth between 2009 and 2013, which was followed by a period of stagnation and recession between 2014 and 2020. Turkey's GDP began to recover and grow again in the period between 2020 and 2024.

In 2020, the total value of assets of the banking sector in Turkey amounted to more than $800 billion.[126] As of January 2021, there were a total of 48 banks operating with 9,880 branches in Turkey and 71 branches abroad.[127] As of October 2021[update], the foreign currency deposits of the citizens and residents in Turkish banks stood at $234 billion, equivalent to around half of all deposits.[128][129] As of October 2024[update], the foreign currency reserves of the Turkish Central Bank were $85 billion, its gold reserves were $67.4 billion, while its official reserve assets stood at $159.8 billion.[130]

#### Transport

[edit]

Main article: Transport in Turkey

Turkish Airlines, flag carrier of Turkey, has been selected by Skytrax as Europe's best airline for five years in a row (2011–2015).[131][132] With destinations in 129 countries worldwide, Turkish Airlines is the largest carrier in the world by number of countries served as of 2024[update].[133] Istanbul Airport is the main international airport serving Istanbul, Turkey. It is a major hub in the world.

In 2013 there were ninety-eight airports in Turkey,[134] including 22 international airports.[135] As of 2015[update], Istanbul Atatürk Airport is the 11th busiest airport in the world, serving 31,833,324 passengers between January and July 2014, according to Airports Council International.[136] The new (third) international airport of Istanbul is planned to be the largest airport in the world, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per annum.[137][138][139]

The 1915 Çanakkale Bridge on the Dardanelles strait, connecting Europe and Asia, is the longest suspension bridge in the world.[140][141][142]

The state-owned utility Turkish State Railways operates the 12,740–km railway network, 23rd longest in the world. Since 2003, Turkish State Railways has also been investing in high-speed rail lines, which at 2,175 km (1,353 mi) ranked ninth longest in the world.[143]

A TCDD HT80000 high-speed train of the Turkish State Railways at the ATG terminal in Ankara

As of 2010, the country had a roadway network of 426,951 km, including 2,080 km of expressways and 16,784 km of divided highways.[144]

As of 2010, the Turkish merchant marine included 1,199 ships (604 registered at home), ranking 7th in the world.[145] Turkey's coastline has 1,200 km of navigable waterways.[145]

In 2008, 7,555 kilometres (4,694 mi) of natural gas pipelines and 3,636 kilometres (2,259 mi) of petroleum pipelines spanned the country's territory.[145]

#### Communications

[edit]

Main article: Communications in Turkey

As of 2008, there were 17,502,000 operational landline telephones in Turkey, which ranked 18th in the world;[145] while there were 65,824,000 registered mobile phones in the country, which ranked 15th in the world during the same year.[145] The largest landline telephone operator is Türk Telekom, which also owns TTNET, the largest internet service provider in Turkey.[citation needed] The largest mobile phone operators in the country are Turkcell, Vodafone Turkey, Avea and TTNET Mobil.[citation needed]

The telecommunications liberalisation process started in 2004 after the creation of the Telecommunication Authority, and is still ongoing.[citation needed] Private sector companies operate in mobile telephony, long-distance telephony and Internet access. Additional digital exchanges are permitting a rapid increase in subscribers;[citation needed] the construction of a network of technologically advanced intercity trunk lines, using both fiber-optic cable and digital microwave radio relay, is facilitating communication between urban centres.[145]

The remote areas of the country are reached by a domestic satellite system, while the number of subscribers to mobile-cellular telephone service is growing rapidly.[145]

The main line international telephone service is provided by the SEA-ME-WE 3 submarine communications cable and by submarine fiber-optic cables in the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea that link Turkey with Italy, Greece, Israel, Bulgaria, Romania, and Russia.[145] In 2002, there were 12 Intelsat satellite earth stations; and 328 mobile satellite terminals in the Inmarsat and Eutelsat systems.[145]

Türksat A.Ş. is the primary communications satellite operator of Turkey, controlling the Turksat series of satellites. Göktürk-1, Göktürk-2 and Göktürk-3 are Turkey's earth observation satellites for reconnaissance, operated by the Turkish Ministry of National Defense. BILSAT-1 and RASAT are the scientific observation satellites operated by the TÜBİTAK Space Technologies Research Institute, which (together with Turkish Aerospace Industries and Aselsan) also takes part in the production of Turkey's satellites.[citation needed]

As of 2001, there were 16 AM, 107 FM, and 6 shortwave radio stations in the country.[145][needs update]

As of 2015, there were 42,275,017 internet users in Turkey, which ranked 15th in the world;[145] while as of 2012, there were 7,093,000 internet hosts in the country, which ranked 16th in the world.[145]

#### Tourism

[edit]

Main article: Tourism in Turkey

In 2023, Turkey was the fifth most visited destination in the world, with 55.2 million foreign tourists visiting the country.[146][147] In 2019, Turkey ranked sixth in the world in terms of the number of international tourist arrivals, with 51.2 million foreign visitors.[148]

Over the years, Turkey has emerged as a popular tourist destination for many Europeans, competing with other Mediterranean countries such as Greece, Italy and Spain. Resorts in provinces such as Antalya and Muğla (which are located on the Turkish Riviera) have become very popular among tourists.[149]

#### Medical tourism

[edit]

Main article: Health care in Turkey

Başakşehir Çam and Sakura City Hospital in Istanbul

There are numerous private hospitals in Turkey, which has benefited from medical tourism in recent years. Health tourism generated revenues worth $1 billion in 2019 for Turkey's economy.[150] A total of 662,087 patients were treated at Turkish hospitals in 2019 within the scope of health tourism, with around 60% of the income being obtained from plastic surgeries.[150]

## Largest companies

[edit]

Main article: List of companies of Turkey

In 2024, ten publicly traded Turkish companies were listed in the Forbes Global 2000 list – an annual ranking of the top 2000 public companies in the world by Forbes magazine.[151] The banking industry leads with four companies in the list followed by the airline, automotive and retailer with one company each. There are also three conglomerates. As of 2024, the listed public companies were:

World Rank | Company | Industry | Revenue
(billion $) | Profits
(billion $) | Assets
(billion $) | Market Value
(billion $)

|
|
|
|
|
|

309 | Koç Holding | Conglomerate | 67.36 | 3.03 | 96.8 | 19.27
525 | İş Bankası | Banking | 17.6 | 3.03 | 100.05 | 11.49
539 | Turkish Airlines | Airline | 21.17 | 6.84 | 35.55 | 13.81
666 | Akbank | Banking | 14.7 | 2.57 | 64.06 | 10.15
759 | VakıfBank | Banking | 16.34 | 1.33 | 96.81 | 6.59
878 | Sabancı Holding | Conglomerate | 23.13 | 0.64 | 74.23 | 6.64
893 | Ford Otosan | Automotive Industry | 17.29 | 2.06 | 7.35 | 13.15
957 | Halkbank | Banking | 15.81 | 0.65 | 77.98 | 3.9
1384 | Anadolu Grubu | Conglomerate | 15.77 | 0.82 | 13.27 | 2.78
1446 | BIM | Retailer | 13.79  | 0.64  | 5.02  | 9.02

## Long-term GDP forecasts

[edit]

Main articles: List of countries by GDP (PPP) and List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)

The following "OECD Long Term Projections" table was published in February 2022 for the 16 largest economies by GDP using PPP exchange rates from 2030 to 2060.[152]

The top 16 largest economies in the world (GDP at 2010 constant PPP in billions USD)  Country  | 2021  | Country  | 2030  | Country  | 2040  | Country  | 2050  | Country  | 2060

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

China | 26,656  |  China | 36,977  |  China | 47,306  |  China | 54,765  |  China | 62,140
United States | 22,675  |  United States | 24,302  |  United States | 28,063  |  India | 33,363  |  India | 42,204
India | 10,181  |  India | 16,603  |  India | 25,083  |  United States | 32,119  |  United States | 36,527
Japan | 5,585  |  Japan | 5,632  |  Indonesia | 7,507  |  Indonesia | 9,846  |  Indonesia | 12,320
Germany | 4,743  |  Indonesia | 5,309  |  Japan | 5,908  |  Japan | 6,060  |  Turkey | 7,068
Russia | 4,328  |  Germany | 4,566  |  Germany | 4,914  |  Turkey | 5,934  |  Japan | 6,333
Indonesia | 3,507  |  Russia | 4,233  |  Turkey | 4,776  |  Germany | 5,362  |  Germany | 5,891
Brazil | 3,328  |  Brazil | 3,759  |  Russia | 4,624  |  Brazil | 5,168  |  Brazil | 5,746
France | 3,231  |  Turkey | 3,653  |  Brazil | 4,492  |  Russia | 4,882  |  Mexico | 5,407
United Kingdom | 3,174  |  United Kingdom | 3,375  |  Mexico | 3,832  |  Mexico | 4,620  |  Russia | 5,340
Turkey | 2,749  |  France | 3,267  |  United Kingdom | 3,800  |  United Kingdom | 4,249  |  United Kingdom | 4,768
Mexico | 2,613  |  Mexico | 3,073  |  France | 3,679  |  France | 4,148  |  France | 4,736
Italy | 2,610  |  South Korea | 2,675  |  South Korea | 2,866  |  Italy | 2,959  |  Italy | 3,366
South Korea | 2,436  |  Italy | 2,499  |  Italy | 2,692  |  South Korea | 2,880  |  Australia | 3,104
Canada | 2,027  |  Spain | 2,094  |  Canada | 2,370  |  Saudi Arabia | 2,698  |  Saudi Arabia | 3,066
Spain | 1,959  |  Canada | 2,062  |  Saudi Arabia | 2,362  |  Canada | 2,694  |  Canada | 3,046

## External trade and investment

[edit]

See also: Free trade agreements of Turkey

As of 2016, the main trading partners of Turkey are the European Union, Russia, the United Kingdom, the UAE, Iraq, and China, many being top in both export as well as import.[153] Turkey has taken advantage of a customs union with the EU, signed in 1995, to increase industrial production for exports, while benefiting from EU-origin foreign investment into the country.[154] In addition to the European-Turkish Customs Union, the Turkish government has signed free-trade agreements with 22 countries.[155]

A very large aspect of Turkey trade revolves around the automotive industry, where its top exports are cars, accounting for $13.2 billion. Other top exports from the country are gold, delivery trucks, vehicle parts and jewelry, which are respectively, $6.96 billion, $5.04 billion, $4.64 billion, and $3.39 billion. These values are calculated using the 1992 revision of the Harmonized System classification. Comparatively, it imports many of the same industries, such as, gold valued at $17.1 billion, refined petroleum at $9.8 billion, cars at $8.78 billion, vehicle parts at $6.34 billion and scrap iron at $5.84 billion.[156]

The construction and contracting companies, such as Enka, Rönesans Holding and Tekfen, have been significant players in the country's economy.[157] As the Turkish emissions trading system has not yet been legislated the country has no carbon price, so large exporters to the European Union will have to pay the EU Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism from 1 January 2026.[158]

Turkey had many improvements in the ease of doing business index. Its rank increased from 68th in 2017 to 33rd in 2020. As of 2021, it was performing better than countries like the Netherlands and Belgium.[159][160][161][vague]

Trade statistics[162][163][164] Year  | 1975  | 1980  | 1985  | 1990  | 1995  | 2000  | 2005  | 2010  | 2015  | 2020  | 2023

|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|

Goods exports, billion US$  | 1.5  | 2.9  | 8.3  | 13.0  | 22.0  | 30.9  | 78.5  | 121.0  | 154.9  | 168.4  | 251.0
Goods imports, billion US$  | 4.5  | 7.5  | 11.2  | 22.5  | 35.1  | 52.9  | 111.4  | 177.3  | 203.9  | 206.3  | 337.3
Net trade, billion US$  | −3.0  | −4.6  | −2.9  | −9.5  | −13.1  | −22.0  | −32.9  | −56.3  | −49.0  | −37.9  | −86.3

## Natural resources

[edit]

### Energy

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Energy in Turkey § Economics.[edit]

According to some studies a coal-phase out in favour of renewable energy would increase employment.[165][166]

Turkey's energy trade deficit was over US$80 billion in 2022,[167] causing a large foreign trade deficit.[168] Europe supports energy efficiency and renewable energy via the €1 billion Mid-size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF) to finance investments in these areas.[169][170] Energy subsidies amounted to 200 billion lira in 2021.[171] Up to 150kWh per month of free electricity is provided to two million poor families.[172]

Fatih Birol, the head of the International Energy Agency said in 2019 that, because of its falling price, the focus should be on maximizing onshore wind power in Turkey.[173] The economics of coal power has been modelled by Carbon Tracker.[174] They estimate that for new plants both wind and solar is already cheaper than coal power.[175] And they forecast that existing coal plants will be more expensive than new solar by 2023 and new wind by 2027.[175]

Most energy deals in 2019 were for renewables, and over half the investment in these was from outside the country.[176] The external costs of fossil fuel consumption in 2018 has been estimated as 1.5% of GDP.[177] The government sets the price of residential gas and electricity,[178] and as of 2018[update], for residential consumers, "high cost is the most important problem of Turkey's energy system".[179]

In 2022, the energy import bill was 97 billion USD. Keeping consumer prices low is a political priority.[167] In 2024, Shura estimated the costs of moving to clean energy at about half the benefits, which are mostly due to reduced air pollution and carbon emissions.[180]

#### Renewable energy

[edit]

These paragraphs are an excerpt from Renewable energy in Turkey.[edit]

Renewables supply a quarter of energy in Turkey, including heat and electricity. Some houses have rooftop solar water heating, and hot water from underground warms many spas and greenhouses. In parts of the west hot rocks are shallow enough to generate electricity as well as heat. Wind turbines, also mainly near western cities and industry, generate a tenth of Turkey’s electricity. Hydropower, mostly from dams in the east, is the only modern renewable energy which is fully exploited. Hydropower averages about a fifth of the country's electricity, but much less in drought years.[181] Apart from wind and hydro, other renewables; such as geothermal, solar and biogas; together generated almost a tenth of Turkey’s electricity in 2022.[182] Over half the installed capacity for electricity generation is renewables.[183]: section 4.2.1

Turkey has a long history of wood burning, windmills, and bathing in hot springs. Many dams were built from the mid-20th to early 21st century, but some say that governments have not allowed civil society enough influence on energy policy, leading to protests against building dams, geothermal power plants, and at least one wind farm.[184] Despite Turkey’s sunny climate solar power is underdeveloped. As the electricity system is already flexible increasing to 70% renewables is easily feasible.[185]: 21 Solar power could be expanded more quickly if the electricity grid was improved faster and energy policy revised, especially by abolishing fossil fuel subsidies.

Many hybrid power plants are planned, and batteries are being integrated. Companies with a lot of renewables include the state electricity generation company (mainly hydro), Aydem, and Kalyon. If renewables could help phase-out coal by 2030, instead of by the national net zero greenhouse gas emissions target year of 2053, that would have significant health benefits and reduce inflation in Turkey.[186] As of 2022 renewables are not sufficient to meet that target year.[187] Various electric vehicles are being manufactured, which will use some of the increased renewable generation and help reduce air pollution.

#### Fossil fuels

[edit]

##### Gas

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Gas in Turkey.[edit]

The Kanuni has drilled in the Black Sea.[188]

Natural gas supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy.[189][190] The country consumes 50 to 60 billion cubic metres of natural gas each year,[191][192] nearly all of which is imported. A large gas field in the Black Sea started production in 2023.[193]

After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine began, several European countries stopped buying Russian oil or gas, but Turkey's relations with Russia are good enough that it continues to buy both.[194][195] Turkey receives almost half of its gas from Russia.[192] As of 2023[update] wholesale gas is expensive and a large part of the import bill.

Households buy the most gas, followed by industry and power stations.[196] Over 80% of the population has access to gas,[197] and it supplies half the country's heating requirements.[191] As the state-owned oil and gas wholesaler BOTAŞ has 80% of the gas market,[189]: 16  the government can and does subsidize residential and industrial gas consumers.[198] All industrial and commercial customers, and households using more than a certain amount of gas, can switch suppliers.[189]

##### Oil

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Oil in Turkey.[edit]

Tankers, like this one in the Bosporus, are one way to export oil from Central Asia.

Oil supplies over a quarter of Turkey's energy.[199][200] Because the country produces very little oil,[201] it is almost completely dependent on imports of oil and oil products such as petrol and diesel,[202] over half of which is consumed in the country's road vehicles.[203] Turkey is the world's largest user of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for road transport.[204]

Because Turkey produces only 7% of the oil it consumes, the country's total imports are worth more than its exports, which is a problem for its economy.[205] After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine began, several European countries stopped buying Russian oil, petrol and diesel but Turkey's relations with Russia are such that it supplies most such imports.[206][207][208]

##### Coal

[edit]

This section is an excerpt from Coal in Turkey.[edit]

Government-owned Turkish Coal Operations Authority mine in Yeniköy, Milas

Coal supplies a quarter of Turkey's primary energy,[209] and the country is one of the largest consumers in the world.[210] The heavily subsidised coal industry generates over a third of the country's electricity[211] and emits a third of Turkey's greenhouse gases.

Coal is a major contributor to air pollution, and damages health across the nation, being burnt even in homes and cities.[212] Most coal is burnt in power stations, and it is estimated that a phase out of coal power in Turkey by 2030 instead of by the 2050s would save over 100 thousand lives.[213] Flue gas emission limits are in place, but data from mandatory reporting is not made public.

Over 90% of coal mined in Turkey is lignite (brown coal),[209] which is more polluting than other types of coal.[214] Turkey's energy policy encourages mining lignite for coal-fired power stations in order to reduce gas imports;[211] and coal supplies over 40% of domestic energy production.[215] Coal burning peaked in 2018,[216] and mining in 2022 at about 100 million tonnes.[216] Most coal is imported,[217][218] as in contrast to local lignite production, Turkey imports most of its bituminous coal from Russia.[219] The largest coalfield in Turkey is Elbistan.[220] Turkey is bidding to host the 2026 United Nations Climate Change Conference, in which getting agreement on coal phase-out will be very important.[221]

### Minerals

[edit]

Marble quarries in Turkey

In 2019, the country was the world's 2nd largest producer of chromium;[222] the largest producer of boron;[223] 6th largest producer of antimony;[224] 9th largest producer of lead;[225] 13th largest producer of iron ore;[226] 11th largest producer of molybdenum;[227] 4th largest producer of gypsum;[228] 15th largest producer of graphite;[229] in addition to being the 11th largest producer of salt.[230]

As a gold producer Turkey is currently ranked 22nd globally. Hosting some of the largest gold deposits on the European continent it is currently Europe's largest gold producer, producing 42 tonnes of gold in 2020.[231] World class deposits include Kisladag Mine 17Moz and Copler 10Moz.[citation needed]

## Environment

[edit]

See also: Environmental issues in Turkey

Almost all "post-COVID" stimulus was detrimental to the environment, with Russia being the only worse country.[232] In the 21st century, Turkey's fossil fuel subsidies are around 0.2% of GDP,[233][234] including at least US$14 billion (US$169 per person) between January 2020 and September 2021.[235] Data on finance for fossil fuels by state-owned banks and export credit agencies is not public.[236]

As of 2023 fossil gas is subsidized more than electricity - equalizing the subsidies would benefit the environment.[237]

## Employment

[edit]

This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (November 2021)

|

The minimum wage in Turkey is ₺ 22,104 (US$ 630.36) as of January 1, 2025.[238][239]

TurkStat estimated unemployment at 9.4% in 2023. The province with the highest unemployment rate was Hakkari at 23.3% and the province with the lowest unemployment rate was Sinop at 4.8%.[240]

In 2021, trade unions complained that according to TurkStat data the unemployment rate was falling, whereas the data provided by the government's Employment Agency (İŞKUR) showed that it was rising.[241][needs update?] Environmentalists argue that some actions to improve the environment would also benefit the economy. For example, investing in wind power in Turkey and solar power in Turkey would create jobs and is competitive with fossil fuels.[242]

## Poverty

[edit]

Main article: Poverty in Turkey

Turkey made steady progress in reducing poverty from the early 2000s to the mid-2010s, after which the trend levelled off.[243][244][vague] In 2022, social security expenditure stood at 12.4% of GDP according to OECD data.[245]

## Regional disparities

[edit]

See also: List of Turkish provinces by GDP

According to Eurostat data, Turkish GDP per capita adjusted by purchasing power standards stood at 64 percent of the EU average in 2018.[246] Istanbul has the largest GDP, while Kocaeli comes first in GDP per capita.[247]

The country's wealth is mainly concentrated in the northwest and west, while the east and southeast suffer from poverty, lower economic production and higher levels of unemployment.[248] However, in line with the rapid growth of Turkey's GDP during the first two decades of the 21st century (with brief periods of stagnation and recession), parts of Anatolia began reaching a higher economic standard. These cities are known as the Anatolian Tigers.[249]

### Richest and poorest NUTS-2 regions (GDP PPP 2022)

[edit]

|  | Region  | GDP per capita 2022

|
|

in euros | As % of EU-28 average
Turkey | 23,800 | 67%
Richest | Istanbul | 38,700 | 109%
| Kocaeli | 31,500 | 89%
| Ankara | 31,100 | 88%
| Tekirdağ | 29,700 | 84%
| Izmir | 29,500 | 83%
| Bursa | 25,700 | 73%
| Antalya | 23,900 | 68%
| Balıkesir | 21,600 | 61%
| Aydın | 20,900 | 59%
| Manisa | 20,000 | 56%
| Adana | 20,000 | 56%
| Konya | 19,100 | 54%
| Zonguldak | 18,700 | 53%
| Kırıkkale | 17,700 | 50%
| Kayseri | 17,500 | 49%
| Gaziantep | 17,400 | 49%
| Kastamonu | 16,700 | 47%
| Hatay | 15,700 | 44%
| Samsun | 14,000 | 39%
| Erzurum | 13,900 | 39%
| Trabzon | 13,200 | 37%
| Malatya | 12,900 | 37%
| Mardin | 12,200 | 34%
| Ağrı | 9,800 | 28%
| Şanlıurfa | 9,100 | 26%
Poorest | Van | 8,600 | 24%

Source: Eurostat – ESA[250][251]

### Richest and poorest NUTS-1 regions (GDP PPP 2022)

[edit]

|  | Region  | GDP per capita 2022

|
|

in euros | As % of EU-28 average
Turkey | 23,800 | 67%
Richest | Istanbul | 38,700 | 109%
| East Marmara | 28,600 | 81%
| West Anatolia | 27,400 | 77%
| West Marmara | 25,800 | 73%
| Aegean | 24,200 | 68%
| Mediterranean | 19,900 | 56%
| Central Anatolia | 17,600 | 50%
| West Black Sea | 15,500 | 44%
| East Black Sea | 13,200 | 37%
| Southeast Anatolia | 12,500 | 35%
| Northeast Anatolia | 11,800 | 33%
Poorest | Central East Anatolia | 10,500 | 30%

Source: Eurostat – ESA[250][251]

## See also

[edit]

* Economic history of Turkey
* National debt of Turkey
* List of companies of Turkey
* List of countries by labour force
* List of countries by real GDP growth rate
* List of countries by total wealth
* Ista-Burs Megaregion

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ Istanbul straddles both Europe and Asia, with its commercial and historical centre and two-thirds of the population in Europe, the rest in Asia.

Istanbul total (2023) = 15,655,924[1]
European side (25 districts) = 10,030,990[1]
Anatolian side (14 districts) = 5,624,934[1]
2. ^ a b Goods
3. ^ Total 72 Mt: 27 Mt enteric fermentation + 61% of 9 Mt manure management = 32 Mt + unknown share of agricultural soils.[64]: 240, 257

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2023". Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
2. ^ a b c d e f "Turkey (Turkiye)". CIA.gov. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 10 August 2023.
3. ^ "World Economic Outlook Database Groups and Aggregates Information April 2024". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund.
4. ^ N. Gregory Mankiw (2007). Principles of Economics (4th ed.). Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-324-22472-6.
5. ^ "Turkey-Turkiye". The World Factbook (2025 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency.
6. ^ Black, John; Hashimzade, Nigar; Myles, Gareth (2009). "industrial countries". A Dictionary of Economics. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199237043.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-923704-3.
7. ^ "The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2024". www.tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. 6 February 2024. Archived from the original on 6 February 2024. Retrieved 6 February 2024.
8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 Edition. (Türkiye)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 April 2025. Retrieved 22 April 2025.
9. ^ "Annual Gross Domestic Product, 2022". Turkstat. 31 August 2023.
10. ^ a b "Consumer Prices". TCMB. Retrieved 1 March 2025.
11. ^ "Poverty and Living Conditions Statistics, 2022". Turkstat. 8 May 2023.
12. ^ "Persons at risk of poverty or social exclusion by age and sex". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat.
13. ^ "Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey". ec.europa.eu. Eurostat.
14. ^ a b "Human Development Report 2025" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 6 May 2025. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 May 2025. Retrieved 6 May 2025.
15. ^ a b c "İşgücü İstatistikleri, Ekim 2023" [Labor Statistics, October 2023]. tuik.gov.tr. Turkish Statistical Institute. Retrieved 1 January 2024.
16. ^ "Employment rate by sex, age group 20-64". ec.europa.eu/eurostat. Eurostat. Retrieved 20 July 2024.
17. ^ "Labour Force Statistics, Quarter III: July-September, 2023". Turkstat. 17 November 2023.
18. ^ a b Taxing Wages 2024: Tax and Gender through the Lens of the Second Earner | READ online.
19. ^ a b Taxing Wages 2024: Tax and Gender through the Lens of the Second Earner | OECD iLibrary.
20. ^ "Exports in 2024".
21. ^ "Turkey (TUR) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners | OEC". Archived from the original on 1 November 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2020.
22. ^ a b "Monthly Foreign Trade Statistics Tables - December2024". Turkish Statistical Institute. Retrieved 31 January 2025.
23. ^ "Exports in 2024".
24. ^ "Imports Products of Turkey". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 5 October 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
25. ^ "Maxinomics". maxinomics.com. Maxinomics. Retrieved 9 November 2022.
26. ^ "External Debt | Economic Indicators | CEIC".
27. ^ "Info" (PDF). tcmb.gov.tr.
28. ^ "Public Finance". Ministry of Treasury and Finance. Retrieved 21 January 2024.
29. ^ "Turkish Emergency Humanitarian Assistance". mfa.gov.tr. 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2023.
30. ^ "Turkey ranks second in the world for humanitarian aid, named most generous donor". Daily Sabah. 15 August 2017. Retrieved 21 June 2017.
31. ^ "Sovereigns rating list". Standard & Poor's. Retrieved 3 May 2024.
32. ^ "Turkiye, Government of". Moody's. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
33. ^ "Turkiye". Fitch. Retrieved 16 October 2023.
34. ^ "Scope upgrades Türkiye's long-term ratings to BB- and revises the Outlooks to Stable". Scope Ratings. 6 December 2024. Retrieved 8 December 2024.
35. ^ "Chronology of Turkey-EU relations". Turkish Secretariat of European Union Affairs. Archived from the original on 15 May 2007. Retrieved 30 October 2006.
36. ^ "Interview with European Commission President Jose Manuel Barroso on BBC Sunday AM" (PDF). European Commission. 15 October 2006. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2006. Retrieved 17 December 2006.
37. ^ "Political and economic situation". eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
38. ^ a b c d "GDP, current prices: Billions of U.S. dollars". International Monetary Fund.
39. ^ Tekingunduz, Alican. "Türkiye's GDP projected to hit $1.3T by end of 2024 — Vice President Yilmaz". Türkiye's GDP projected to hit $1.3T by end of 2024 — Vice President Yilmaz. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
40. ^ "Turkey : Customs Unions and preferential arrangements - European Commission". taxation-customs.ec.europa.eu. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
41. ^ "Tourism on Track for Full Recovery as New Data Shows Strong Start to 2023". www.unwto.org. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
42. ^ "Türkiye's Travel & Tourism Sector Reached Record-Breaking New Heights Last Year". wttc.org. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
43. ^ "Amadeus R&D Center Inaugurated in Istanbul". www.invest.gov.tr. 5 August 2024. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
44. ^ "ECI Rankings (HS96)". The Observatory of Economic Complexity. Retrieved 5 January 2025.
45. ^ "Overview". World Bank. Retrieved 4 April 2021.
46. ^ a b c "Turkey, 2002-2024". IMF World Economic Outlook Database, October 2023.
47. ^ "Erdoganomics is spreading across the world". The Economist. 6 July 2023.
48. ^ Sinan Tavsan (5 June 2023). "Turkey's new cabinet hints at less unorthodox Erdoganomics". asia.nikkei.com.
49. ^ a b "Annual inflation in Turkey reaches record 25-year high of 85.5%". euronews.com. Euronews. 3 November 2022.
50. ^ "Report for Selected Countries and Subjects". IMF. Retrieved 25 December 2024.
51. ^ "Industry Breakdown of Companies in Turkey". HitHorizons. Archived from the original on 4 October 2023. Retrieved 9 September 2023.
52. ^ "Türkiye". International Fund for Agricultural Development. Retrieved 12 April 2023.
53. ^ a b c "Turkey – Country Commercial Guide". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. 26 July 2022.
54. ^ "Hazelnuts: Turkey remains top producer". Mundus Agri. 23 March 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2023.
55. ^ Uğural, İsmail (29 March 2023). "Türkiye supplies 80% of world production of Oregano". Turkish Agrinews. Retrieved 19 April 2023.
56. ^ "Labour Force Statistics, 2022". Turkstat. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
57. ^ a b "Turkey's farmers battle with soaring costs and mounting debt". Financial Times. 4 May 2022. Retrieved 13 May 2022.
58. ^ "Number of farmers in Turkey plummets below half a million". Gazete Duvar. 21 April 2022. Retrieved 10 September 2022.
59. ^ "World Bank Provides $341 Million Boost to Advance Green and Competitive Growth of Turkey's Agricultural Sector". World Bank. 30 March 2022.
60. ^ "Gayri̇ Safi̇ Yurti̇çi̇ Hasila Değerler" [Gross Domestic Product Values] (PDF). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (Turkey).
61. ^ "Turkey to privatize highways, bridges, and hydroelectric power plants to reduce current account deficit". Gercek News. 1 November 2023. Archived from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2023.
62. ^ Gostev, Aleksandr; Liklikadze, Koba (30 April 2022). "Analysis: Erdogan Hoping Russian Invasion Of Ukraine Can Bolster Turkish Regional Power". Radio Free Europe.
63. ^ Valero, Jorge (2 August 2023). "EU and Turkey Discuss Easing Trade Relations Amid Warmer Ties". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 11 August 2023.
64. ^ "Türkiye. 2023 National Inventory Report (NIR)". unfccc.int. Turkstat. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
65. ^ "Kamuda Stratejik Yönetim |". www.sp.gov.tr. Retrieved 28 November 2023.
66. ^ 2019–23 strategic plan (updated in 2022) (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry.
67. ^ "Bakan Pakdemirli: 'Ülkemizde kullanılan tohumlukların yüzde 96'sı yurt içinde üretilmektedir'" [Minister Pakdemirli: '96 percent of the seeds used in our country are produced domestically']. gazete banka. 21 December 2021. Archived from the original on 13 November 2023.
68. ^ Macguire, Gavin (6 February 2025). "Turkey's growing power pollution a sign of things to come". Reuters. Retrieved 16 June 2025.
69. ^ Michael Kuser. "The Unknown TV Giant". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 13 June 2006.
70. ^ Boulden, Jim (17 January 2005). "Turkey switches on to TV market". CNN. Archived from the original on 13 December 2020. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
71. ^ "Europe's No. 3 TV Manufacturer, a Private Company: PROFILO-TELRA". Business Wire. BNET. 19 August 2005. Archived from the original on 30 May 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
72. ^ "The Export Performance of the Turkish Clothing Industry in 2006 Archived 2007-11-28 at the Wayback Machine," ITKIB
73. ^ "Türkiye Otomotiv Sanayi 2022". Otomotiv Sanayi Derneği. Retrieved 6 December 2023.
74. ^ "2021 Statistics | www.oica.net". oica.net. Retrieved 26 August 2022.
75. ^ Unveren, Burak (30 October 2022). "Turkey launches TOGG car, Erdogan's prestige project". Deutsche Welle. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
76. ^ a b Dan Mihalascu (4 November 2022). "Turkey's National Carmaker Togg Starts Production Of 2023 C SUV EV". insideevs.com.
77. ^ "TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
78. ^ a b Jay Ramey (30 December 2019). "Turkey Bets on EVs with the Pininfarina-Designed TOGG". autoweek.com. Archived from the original on 2 June 2022. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
79. ^ a b "'A game changer': Türkiye inaugurates its first national car plant". TRT World. 30 October 2022.
80. ^ "Otomotiv İhracatı 2008'de 22 Milyar 944 Milyon Dolara Ulaştı". Haberler. Archived from the original on 8 December 2015. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
81. ^ 29.08.2011 Pazartesi 15:58. "2008'de otomotiv ihracatı rekor kırdı". bankakredimnet. Archived from the original on 13 March 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2011.`{{cite web}}`: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
82. ^ "TOGG Official Website". togg.com.tr. Retrieved 3 April 2020.
83. ^ Sano, Akihito (15 February 2017). "Turkish auto exports hit 1m for first time in 2016". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 24 September 2024.
84. ^ "Turkish auto exports hit 1m for first time in 2016". Nikkei Asian Review.
85. ^ Joseph Trevithick (10 January 2023). "Unique Sensor Setup Emerges On Turkey's Stealthy New Fighter". twz.com.
86. ^ Joseph Trevithick (17 March 2023). "Our First Full Look At Turkey's New TF-X Stealthy Fighter". twz.com.
87. ^ Clément Charpentreau (21 February 2024). "Turkey's KAAN fifth-gen fighter jet conducts first test flight". Aerotime.
88. ^ Tony Osborne (7 May 2024). "Turkish Kaan Fighter Jet Makes Much-Anticipated Second Flight". Aviation Week.
89. ^ "Turkey's ANKA III Fighter Drone Makes Debut Flight". Bloomberg Television. 29 December 2023.
90. ^ "Turkish Stealth Drone Makes Debut Flight After Years of Secrecy". Bloomberg. 29 December 2023.
91. ^ Trevithick, Joseph (19 November 2024). "TB3 Operates From Turkey's 'Drone Carrier' Amphibious Assault Ship For The First Time". The War Zone. Retrieved 19 November 2024.
92. ^ "Bayraktar TB3 UAV successfully continues ship tests". baykartech.com. Baykar Technology. 26 November 2024.
93. ^ "Bayraktar TB3 PT-2 59th Test". Baykar Technology. 26 November 2024.
94. ^ Emma Helfrich (11 April 2023). "Turkey's 'Drone Carrier' Amphibious Assault Ship Enters Service". thedrive.com.
95. ^ Tayfun Özberk (1 May 2022). "Here Is How UAVs Will Be Recovered Aboard TCG Anadolu". navalnews.com. Naval News.
96. ^ "Flight of the Baykar MIUS Kızılelma UCAV at Teknofest 2023". Savunma Sanayii. 30 April 2023.
97. ^ "Bayraktar Kızılelma's Formation Flights – A First in Aviation History". Baykar Technologies. 5 June 2023.
98. ^ Tayfun Ozberk (2 January 2025). "Turkish Navy starts construction of 3 major projects: MUGEM Aircraft Carrier, TF-2000 Destroyer, MILDEN Submarine". navalnews.com. Naval News.
99. ^ "Savunma Sanayi İhracat Artışı, Türkiye Ortalamasının Dört Katından Fazla Oldu". Milliyet. Retrieved 27 February 2015.
100. ^ "Turkey signs $1.78 bln deal to buy warplanes". Reuters. 11 May 2007.
101. ^ "Turkey signs contract to buy 30 F-16 block 50+ jets". F-16.net.
102. ^ "İstatıstıkler". Turkish Steel Exporters Association (in Turkish). Retrieved 6 December 2023.
103. ^ Turkish Steel Producers Association. "Turkish Steel Producers Association". dcud.org.tr. Archived from the original on 9 January 2014.
104. ^ Gözlem Gazetesi. "Gözlem Gazetesi". gozlemgazetesi.com. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011.
105. ^ Frank-Jürgen Richter (20 September 2023). "Developing an Innovation-Oriented Society". horasis.org. Horasis. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
106. ^ "Who We Are? – The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey". tubitak.gov.tr.
107. ^ "Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi". tuba.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 21 February 2014. Retrieved 17 February 2014.
108. ^ "Turkish Atomic Energy Authority – Mission of TAEK". Archived from the original on 8 June 2014. Retrieved 9 August 2014.
109. ^ "Space Launch System Project". Undersecretariat for Defence Industries. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
110. ^ Bekdil, Burak Ege (28 July 2013). "Turkey's Sat-Launcher Plans Raise Concerns". Defense News. Archived from the original on 30 August 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
111. ^ Bekdil, Burak Ege (12 December 2013). "Turkey Spends Big on Innovation". Defense News. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013. Retrieved 20 December 2013.
112. ^ "Turkish contractors rank second in world for ninth straight year". 26 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
113. ^ "The Top 250 International Contractors". Enr.construction.com. 24 August 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2018.
114. ^ a b "Turkish International Contracting Services, 1972-2022". Turkish Contractors Association. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
115. ^ Caglayan, Birsen Altayli (26 February 2019). "Turkish cities could become 'graveyards' with building amnesty". Reuters. Retrieved 11 March 2019.
116. ^ "Turkey-Syria earthquakes: deficiencies in building structures and construction shortcuts were main cause of casualties | University of Cambridge". www.cam.ac.uk. 5 February 2024. Retrieved 14 September 2024.
117. ^ Tuba Ongun (17 April 2023). "Istanbul Finance Center opens with inauguration of banking section". Anadolu Agency.
118. ^ "Image of the Istanbul Financial Center". bloomberg.com. 10 May 2023.
119. ^ "Istanbul Financial Center: Properties". ifm.gov.tr. Retrieved 13 May 2023.
120. ^ "Ottoman Bank Museum: History of the Ottoman Bank". Obarsiv.com. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
121. ^ a b "Ottoman Bank Museum". Ottoman Bank Museum. Archived from the original on 18 May 2009. Retrieved 18 June 2009.
122. ^ "Istanbul Stock Exchange: History of the Istanbul Stock Exchange". Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
123. ^ "Istanbul Stock Exchange: "İMKB'nin Kuruluşundan İtibaren Önemli Gelişmeler" (Timeline of important events since 1985)". Imkb.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 25 February 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
124. ^ "Turkey knocks six zeros off lira". BBC. 31 December 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2008.
125. ^ Turkey warns against potential Bank Runs Archived 5 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine
126. ^ "Leading banks in Turkey by total assets, 2020". Statista. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
127. ^ "Banking System in Turkey". www.allaboutturkey.com. Retrieved 14 January 2024.
128. ^ "The Fate of Turkey's Battered Lira Hangs With Local Investors". bloomberg.com. Bloomberg. 14 October 2021.
129. ^ "Turkish lira falls out of favour with local investors again". aljazeera.com. Al Jazeera. 14 October 2021.
130. ^ "International Reserves and Foreign Currency Liquidity - October 2024". tcmb.gov.tr. Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey. Retrieved 5 December 2024.
131. ^ "Turkish Airlines is named the Best Airline in Europe at the 2012 World Airline Awards held at Farnborough Air Show". Skytrax. 12 July 2012. Archived from the original on 25 April 2013. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
132. ^ "Turkish Airlines named best airline in Europe for fifth year in a row – BUSINESS". 17 June 2015.
133. ^ "Turkish Airlines: International Flight Destinations". Turkish Airlines. Archived from the original on 19 May 2016. Retrieved 22 June 2016.
134. ^ "CIA World Factbook: Turkey". Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
135. ^ "Study in Turkey: International Airports in Turkey". Archived from the original on 25 December 2013. Retrieved 17 November 2014.
136. ^ "Year to date Passenger Traffic". ACI. 25 September 2014. Archived from the original on 13 August 2018. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
137. ^ "It will be the biggest airport of the world". 24 January 2013. Archived from the original on 29 January 2013. Retrieved 24 January 2013.
138. ^ "Istanbul's New Erdoğan-Backed Airport to Be Named After... Erdoğan". Newsweek. 14 August 2014.
139. ^ Gianluca Mezzofiore (14 August 2014). "Erdogan Airport: Istanbul's Super Hub 'to be Named After Turkey's President-Elect'". International Business Times UK.
140. ^ Tim Gibson (11 May 2022). "Turkey Has Built the World's Longest Suspension Bridge". The B1M.
141. ^ "Why Turkey Built the World's Longest Suspension Bridge". The B1M. 11 May 2022. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
142. ^ "Groundbreaking ceremony for bridge over Dardanelles to take place on March 18". Hürriyet Daily News. 17 March 2017. Retrieved 22 May 2022.
143. ^ Heper, Metin (2018). Historical Dictionary of Turkey.
144. ^ "Karayolları Genel Müdürlüğü". kgm.gov.tr. Archived from the original on 9 November 2016. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
145. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "CIA World Factbook: Turkey". Cia.gov. Archived from the original on 10 January 2021. Retrieved 29 August 2011.
146. ^ "Tourism on Track for Full Recovery as New Data Shows Strong Start to 2023". www.unwto.org. Retrieved 14 October 2023.
147. ^ "Global and regional tourism performance". www.unwto.org. Retrieved 2 February 2024.
148. ^ UNWTO Tourism Highlights: 2019 Edition | World Tourism Organization. 2019. doi:10.18111/9789284421152. ISBN 978-92-844-2115-2. S2CID 240665765.
149. ^ Eva Sandoval (4 December 2024). "A Turkish film and TV star's guide to Antalya, Turkey". bbc.com. BBC.
150. ^ a b "Health tourism earns above $1B to Turkey in 2019, under spotlight with COVID-19". Daily Sabah. Daily Sabah. 20 August 2020. Retrieved 8 April 2021.
151. ^ "The Global 2000". Forbes. 6 June 2024. Retrieved 13 June 2024.
152. ^ "Economic Outlook No 109 – February 2022 – Long-term baseline projections". Archived from the original on 20 January 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
153. ^ "Foreign Trade Statistics as of October 2012". Turkish Statistical Institute. 30 November 2006. Archived from the original (Word document) on 21 December 2012. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
154. ^ Bartolomiej Kaminski (1 May 2006). "Turkey's evolving trade integration into Pan-European markets" (PDF). World Bank. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 June 2007. Retrieved 29 August 2008.
155. ^ "T.C. Ticaret Bakanlığı". ticaret.gov.tr (in Turkish). Retrieved 8 September 2018.
156. ^ "OEC – Turkey (TUR) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners". oec.world. Retrieved 23 September 2019.
157. ^ Watch, Corporate (29 April 2021). "ENKA: key facts about the Turkish megacorp behind the Rioni Valley dams". Corporate Watch. Retrieved 5 September 2024.
158. ^ Ekonomim (27 May 2025). "AB'den yeni karar: Firmaların yüzde 90'ı karbon vergisinden muaf olacak". Ekonomim (in Turkish). Retrieved 12 June 2025.
159. ^ "World Bank Group to Discontinue Doing Business Report". World Bank. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
160. ^ Zumbrun, Josh (16 September 2021). "World Bank Cancels Flagship 'Doing Business' Report After Investigation". The Wall Street Journal. ISSN 0099-9660. Retrieved 16 September 2021.
161. ^ Machen, Ronald; Jones, Matthew; Varghese, George; Stark, Emily (15 September 2021). "Investigation of Data Irregularities in Doing Business 2018 and Doing Business 2020" (PDF). World Bank. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2021.
162. ^ "Goods exports (BoP, current US$) - Turkey". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 26 January 2025.
163. ^ "Goods imports (BoP, current US$) - Turkey". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 26 January 2025.
164. ^ "Net trade in goods (BoP, current US$) - Turkey". World Bank Open Data. Retrieved 26 January 2025.
165. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), p. 37.
166. ^ "Coal Phase-out in the Turkish Power Sector towards net-zero emission targets: An Integrated Assessment of Energy-Economy-Environment Modeling" (PDF).
167. ^ a b Siccardi, Francesco. "Understanding the Energy Drivers of Turkey's Foreign Policy".
168. ^ "Turkey's trade deficit jumps 137 per cent in 2022". Duvar. 31 January 2023. Retrieved 12 June 2023.
169. ^ "A New Strategy for EU-Turkey Energy Cooperation". Turkish Policy Quarterly. 27 November 2018. Archived from the original on 21 December 2018. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
170. ^ "Turkey Mid-Size Sustainable Energy Financing Facility (MidSEFF)". Stantec. Archived from the original on 24 October 2020. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
171. ^ Devranoglu, Nevzat; Butler, Daren (30 December 2022). "Factbox: Turkey's raft of pre-election spending to swell budget". Reuters. Retrieved 31 December 2022.
172. ^ "2 milyon 22 bin ailenin 80 liraya kadar elektrik faturasını devlet ödeyecek". Diken. 28 February 2019. Archived from the original on 28 February 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
173. ^ "IEA head: Turkey could benefit from energy resource glut in upcoming period". Daily Sabah. 30 December 2019. Archived from the original on 31 December 2019. Retrieved 12 March 2020.
174. ^ "Global Coal Power Economics Model Methodology" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
175. ^ a b "Wind vs. Coal Power i Turkey/Solar PV vs. Coal in Turkey" (PDF). Carbon Tracker. 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 March 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
176. ^ Energy Deals 2019 (Report). PricewaterhouseCoopers. February 2020. Archived from the original on 12 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
177. ^ TarantoAydınalp_KöksalDal (2020).
178. ^ "Erdoğan announces discounts on residence electricity and natural gas prices ahead of Turkey's elections". Hürriyet Daily News. 25 December 2018. Archived from the original on 27 December 2019. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
179. ^ "Voters in Turkey keep energy policy in mind when voting: Survey". Hürriyet Daily News. 19 March 2019. Archived from the original on 9 June 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
180. ^ "Net Zero 2053: The Socioeconomic Impact of Transitioning to Carbon-Free Energy in Türkiye" (PDF).
181. ^ Lessons from global experiences for accelerating energy transition in Turkey through solar and wind power (PDF) (Report). Shura. 2019. Retrieved 19 February 2019.
182. ^ "Executive Summary: Net Zero 2053: A Roadmap for the Turkish Electricity Sector" (PDF). Shura. 2023. "the share of the renewables is almost 40%"
183. ^ First Biennial Transparency Report of Türkiye (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Environment, Urbanisation and Climate Change. November 2024.
184. ^ Tezcür, Günes Murat (2022). The Oxford Handbook of Turkish Politics. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-006489-1.
185. ^ Integration of Renewable Energy into the Turkish Electricity System (Report). Shura. 28 April 2022. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
186. ^ Hanson, Matt A. (27 June 2024). "Turkey's Potential to Lead EU Decarbonization". Non Profit News | Nonprofit Quarterly. Retrieved 11 November 2024.
187. ^ Ergenç, Ceren; Göçer, Derya (5 May 2023). "China's Response to Türkiye's Volatile Authoritarianism". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace.
188. ^ Kulovic, Nermina (4 February 2022). "Turkish drillship wraps up all planned well tests on Black Sea gas field". Offshore Energy. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
189. ^ a b c IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
190. ^ "Energy consumption by source, Turkey". Our World in Data. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
191. ^ a b "A Cold Winter: Turkey and the Global Natural Gas Shortage". Centre for Economics and Foreign Policy Studies (Edam). 6 October 2021. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
192. ^ a b "Ukraine War Complicates Turkey's Gas Challenge". Energy Intelligence. 9 March 2022. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
193. ^ "Can Sakarya pave the way for Turkey's gas independence?". IHS Markit. 25 April 2023. Retrieved 29 September 2023.
194. ^ Bakheit, Nesreen; Imahashi, Rurika (9 June 2022). "China, India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
195. ^ Dezem, Vanessa (28 June 2022). "EU Gas Swings as Russia-Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom". BNN Bloomberg. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
196. ^ Ergur, Semih (5 June 2022). "Increasing Usage of Natural Gas in Turkey and Its Effect on Local Economy". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
197. ^ 2021 Natural Gas Distribution Sector Report (PDF). Natural Gas Distribution Companies Association of Turkey (GAZBİR) (Report). Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2022. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
198. ^ Coskun, Orhan (31 March 2022). "Turkey may hike April industry, power plant gas prices more than 20% -sources". Reuters. Retrieved 14 July 2022.
199. ^ IEA (March 2021). Turkey 2021 – Energy Policy Review (Technical report). International Energy Agency. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
200. ^ "Energy consumption by source, Turkey". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
201. ^ "Oil and Gas – Turkey". International Trade Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 2 August 2022.
202. ^ Adal, Hikmet (25 February 2022). "Russia-Ukraine war: How will it affect Turkey's economy?". Bianet. Archived from the original on 25 February 2022. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
203. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 203.
204. ^ DifiglioGürayMerdan (2020), pp. 206.
205. ^ "Turkey's current account deficit at $4.1 bln in November; $48 billion in 2022". Reuters. 6 January 2023. Archived from the original on 8 January 2023. Retrieved 8 January 2023.
206. ^ Bakheit, Nesreen; Imahashi, Rurika (9 June 2022). "China, India and Turkey to siphon more Russian oil ahead of EU ban". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 9 March 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
207. ^ Dezem, Vanessa (28 June 2022). "EU Gas Swings as Russia-Turkey Flows Resume While Risks Loom – BNN Bloomberg". BNN Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 7 July 2022.
208. ^ "Russia top energy supplier to Turkey despite Western sanctions".
209. ^ a b "Türkiye - Countries & Regions". IEA. Retrieved 23 February 2024.
210. ^ "Turkey's Nuclear Ambitions: Will It Finally Reduce Coal Dependence?". P.A. Turkey. 14 February 2025. Retrieved 2 March 2025.
211. ^ a b "Coal". Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources (Turkey). Retrieved 1 November 2020.
212. ^ "Turkey failing to adopt international air quality standard values, groups say". Ahval. 30 March 2022. "Homes and businesses in many Turkish cities burn coal, including the cheap and highly polluting lignite, to produce energy for heating and other purposes."
213. ^ Curing Chronic Coal: The health benefits of a 2030 coal phase out in Turkey (Report). Health and Environment Alliance. 2022.
214. ^ "Lignite coal – health effects and recommendations from the health sector" (PDF). Health and Environment Alliance (HEAL). December 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 December 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2019.
215. ^ Ersoy (2019), p. 5.
216. ^ a b "Republic of Türkiye Ministry of Energy and Natural Resources - Coal". enerji.gov.tr. Retrieved 7 February 2025.
217. ^ Yackley, Ayla Jean (3 March 2022). "Turkish inflation pushes past 54% as food and energy prices soar". Financial Times. Retrieved 4 March 2022.
218. ^ "Social and Employment Impacts of Climate Change and Green Economy Policies in Türkiye". United Nations Development Programme. Retrieved 21 August 2022.
219. ^ Türkiye Electricity Review 2024 (PDF) (Report). Ember.
220. ^ "Turkey transfers operating rights of seven coal fields to private companies". Hürriyet Daily News. 12 October 2018. Archived from the original on 12 October 2018. Retrieved 12 October 2018.
221. ^ "Coal will be a central pillar of COP31, wherever it's held". Reccessary. Retrieved 11 February 2025.
222. ^ "USGS Chromium Production Statistics" (PDF).
223. ^ "USGS Boron Production Statistics" (PDF).
224. ^ "USGS Antimony Production Statistics" (PDF).
225. ^ "USGS Lead Production Statistics" (PDF).
226. ^ "USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics" (PDF).
227. ^ "USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics" (PDF).
228. ^ "USGS Gypsum Production Statistics" (PDF).
229. ^ "USGS Graphite Production Statistics" (PDF).
230. ^ "USGS Salt Production Statistics" (PDF).
231. ^ "Gold Mining Industry | Turkish Gold Miners Association". Retrieved 5 October 2021.
232. ^ Greenness of Stimulus Index – 6th Edition (Report). F4B. July 2021.
233. ^ Acar, Sevil; Challe, Sarah; Christopoulos, Stamatios; Christo, Giovanna (2018). "Fossil fuel subsidies as a lose-lose: Fiscal and environmental burdens in Turkey" (PDF). New Perspectives on Turkey. 58: 93–124\. doi:10.1017/npt.2018.7. S2CID 149594404. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 February 2020.
234. ^ Climate Policy Factbook (Report). BloombergNEF. 20 July 2021. p. 29.
235. ^ "Turkey". Energy Policy Tracker. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
236. ^ Climate Policy Factbook (Report). BloombergNEF. 20 July 2021. p. 32.
237. ^ "Executive Summary: Electrification of Türkiye's Residential and Industrial Process Heat" (PDF). Istanbul: SHURA Energy Transition Center. August 2023. Retrieved 11 July 2025.
238. ^ "Ce qui change en Turquie au 1ᵉʳ janvier 2025 : salaires, taxes et nouvelles règles". lepetitjournal.com (in French). Retrieved 9 February 2025.
239. ^ Khandelwal, Manish (25 December 2024). "Turkey Sets New Minimum Wage for 2025: What It Means for Foreign Workers". travelobiz. Retrieved 9 February 2025.
240. ^ "TÜİK Kurumsal". data.tuik.gov.tr. Retrieved 3 September 2024.
241. ^ "Unemployment rises according to Employment Agency, TurkStat says the opposite".
242. ^ Yilmaz, Onur; Yetisgin, Cansu (27 July 2020). "Turkey's 11th Development Plan Needs to be Updated to Ensure a Green Recovery for Sectors Affected by COVID-19". Climate Scorecard. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
243. ^ Freije-Rodriguez, Samuel; Celik, Cigdem (April 2023). "Poverty & Equity Brief" (PDF). The World Bank.
244. ^ "Turkey TR: Poverty Headcount Ratio at National Poverty Lines: % of Population | Economic Indicators | CEIC". www.ceicdata.com. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
245. ^ "Social Expenditure – Aggregated data". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
246. ^ "GDP per capita in PPS". Eurostat. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
247. ^ "TÜİK - Coğrafi İstatistik Portalı". cip.tuik.gov.tr. Retrieved 10 December 2024.
248. ^ Peet, John (21 October 2010). "Anchors aweigh". The Economist. Retrieved 30 October 2010.
249. ^ Atiyas, Izak; Bakis, Ozan; Gurakar, Esra Ceviker. "Anatolian Tigers and the Emergence of the Devout Bourgeoisie in Turkey". Economic Research Forum. Retrieved 28 April 2025.
250. ^ a b https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tgs00005/default/table?lang=en&category=t_na10.t_nama10.t_nama_10reg
251. ^ a b https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tgs00006/default/table?lang=en&category=t_na10.t_nama10.t_nama_10reg

* Difiglio, Carmine; Güray, Bora Şekip; Merdan, Ersin (November 2020). Turkey Energy Outlook. iicec.sabanciuniv.edu (Report). Sabanci University Istanbul International Center for Energy and Climate (IICEC). ISBN 978-605-70031-9-5.
* Ersoy, Mücella (2019). Turkish coal mining sector: Current State, Strategy for the Future (PDF) (Report). Turkish Coal Operations Authority.
* Taranto, Yael; Aydınalp Köksal, Merih; Dal, Eda (December 2020). The external cost of fossil fuel use in power generation, heating and road transport in Turkey. SHURA Energy Transition Center (Report).

## External links

[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Economy of Turkey.

* Turkey Trade Statistics, World Bank
* Green growth knowledge platform − Archived 29 June 2020 at the Wayback Machine

Links to related articles

* v
* t
* e

Turkey

History|

| Ancient and Middle Ages|

* Prehistory of Anatolia
* Classical Anatolia
* Byzantine Anatolia

|

Seljuks and Beyliks|

* Seljuk Empire
* Battle of Manzikert
* Sultanate of Rum
* Anatolian beyliks

Ottoman Empire|

* Rise
* Classical Age
* Conquest of Constantinople
* Transformation
* Ottoman Old Regime
* Tulip era
* Decline and modernization
* Tanzimat
* First Constitutional Era
* Second Constitutional Era
* Dissolution
* Partition

Republic of Türkiye|

* War of Independence
* Proclamation of the republic
* Atatürk's reforms
* Language reform
* Secularism
* One-party period
* Multi-party period

Overviews|

* Constitutional
* Economic
* Ottoman
* Military

Topics|

* Turkic migration
* Oghuz Turks
* Turkification
* Ancient peoples of Anatolia
* History of Anatolia
* History of Thrace

Geography|

| Regions
(west to east)|

* Marmara region
* Aegean region
* Mediterranean region
* Black Sea region
* Central Anatolia region
* Eastern Anatolia region
* Southeastern Anatolia region

|

Topics|

* Climate
* Climate change
* Earthquakes
* East Anatolian Fault
* North Anatolian Fault
* Environmental issues
* Air pollution
* Waste management
* Fauna
* Flora and vegetation
* Geology
* Lakes
* Mountains
* National parks
* Rivers
* Turkish Riviera
* Wildlife

Government|

| Branches|

* Legislative
* Executive
* Cabinet
* Judicial
* Constitutional Court
* Court of Cassation
* Court of Jurisdictional Disputes
* Council of State

|

Politics|

* Elections
* Parliamentary elections
* Presidential elections
* Electoral system
* Political parties
* Referendums

Topics|

* Administrative divisions
* Foreign relations
* Intelligence Services
* Ministry of the Interior
* National Police
* Gendarmerie
* The constitutional system
* Turkish Armed Forces
* Air Force
* Land
* Navy

Economy|

* Automotive
* Banking and Finance
* Construction
* Currency
* Defense
* Energy
* Coal
* Gas
* Oil
* Renewables
* Free trade agreements
* Science and technology
* Telecommunications
* Tourism
* Transportation
* Aviation
* Turkish Airlines
* Railways

Demographics|

* Turkish people
* Ethnic Kurds
* Minorities
* Languages
* Turkish language
* Religion
* Islam in Turkey
* Cities and towns
* Istanbul
* Ankara
* İzmir
* Immigration
* Life expectancy

Society|

* Education
* Universities
* Health care
* Human rights
* LGBT rights
* Individuals
* Law enforcement
* Crime
* Corruption
* Terrorism
* Marriage
* Poverty
* Women in Turkey

| Culture|

* Anthem
* Architecture
* Seljuk
* Ottoman
* Art
* Carpet
* Cinema
* Cuisine
* Ottoman
* Festivals
* Flag
* Folk dance
* Folklore
* Illumination
* Intangible cultural heritage
* Literature
* Media
* TV
* Newspapers
* Radio stations
* Miniature
* Music
* Names
* Painting
* Postage stamps
* Pottery
* Sports
* Football
* Oil wrestling
* Theater
* TV series
* Video games
* Wine
* World heritage sites

|

* Portal
* Category
* Commons
* WikiProject
* Outline

* v
* t
* e

Economy of Asia

Sovereign states|

* Afghanistan
* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* Brunei
* Cambodia
* China
* Cyprus
* Egypt
* Georgia
* India
* Indonesia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* Japan
* Jordan
* Kazakhstan
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Kuwait
* Kyrgyzstan
* Laos
* Lebanon
* Malaysia
* Maldives
* Mongolia
* Myanmar
* Nepal
* Oman
* Pakistan
* Philippines
* Qatar
* Russia
* Saudi Arabia
* Singapore
* Sri Lanka
* Syria
* Tajikistan
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste (East Timor)
* Turkey
* Turkmenistan
* United Arab Emirates
* Uzbekistan
* Vietnam
* Yemen

States with
limited recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Northern Cyprus
* Palestine
* South Ossetia
* Taiwan

Dependencies and
other territories|

* British Indian Ocean Territory
* Christmas Island
* Cocos (Keeling) Islands
* Hong Kong
* Macau

* Category
* Asia portal

* v
* t
* e

Economy of Europe

Sovereign states|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Armenia
* Austria
* Azerbaijan
* Belarus
* Belgium
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Bulgaria
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Czech Republic
* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* France
* Georgia
* Germany
* Greece
* Hungary
* Iceland
* Ireland
*   * Italy
* Kazakhstan
* Latvia
* Liechtenstein
* Lithuania
* Luxembourg
* Malta
* Moldova
* Monaco
* Montenegro
* Netherlands
* North Macedonia
* Norway
* Poland
* Portugal
* Romania
* Russia
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovakia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Sweden
* Switzerland
* Turkey
* Ukraine
* United Kingdom
* Vatican City

States with limited
recognition|

* Abkhazia
* Kosovo
* Northern Cyprus
* South Ossetia
* Transnistria

Dependencies and
other entities|

* Åland
* Faroe Islands
* Gibraltar
* Guernsey
* Isle of Man
* Jersey
* Svalbard

Other entities|

* European Union

*[v]: View this template
*[t]: Discuss this template
*[e]: Edit this template