Education in Vietnam

Education in VietnamMinistry of Education and Training

Minister| Nguyễn Kim Sơn
National education budget (2020)
Budget| Est. 4.1% of GDP[1]
General details
Primary languages| Vietnamese
System type| Public, private
Literacy (2019)
Total| 95.8%[1]
Male| 97%[1]
Female| 94.6%[1]
Primary| 8.5 million[2]
Secondary| 5.45 million[2]
Post secondary| 2,563,431[2]
Attainment (2014)
Secondary diploma| 94%[4]
Post-secondary diploma| 441,800[3]

Education in Vietnam is a state-run system of public and private education run by the Ministry of Education and Training. It is divided into five levels: preschool, primary school, secondary school, high school, and higher education. Formal education consists of twelve years of basic education. Basic education consists of five years of primary education, four years of secondary education, and three years of high school education. The majority of basic education students are enrolled on a daily basis. The main goals are general knowledge improvement, human resources training and talent development.[5]

Vietnam has undergone major political upheaval and social inequality throughout its recent history and is attempting to modernise. Historically, education in Vietnam followed the Chinese Confucian model, using Chữ Hán (for the Vietnamese language and for Chinese) as the main mode of literature and governance. This system promoted those who were talented enough to be mandarins or royal courtiers in Vietnam and China. This system was then completely overhauled and replaced by a French model system during French colonial times,[6] which has since been replaced and overhauled again during the formation of independent Vietnam and the creation of Chữ Quốc Ngữ alphabet in the 1920s.[6]

Vietnam is known for its curriculum that is deemed highly competitive. High school education is one of the most significant social issues in the country: designated schools known as "High Schools for the Gifted" (Trường Trung học phổ thông chuyên) offer additional extensive courses, are generally regarded as prestigious, and demand high entrance examination test scores. Higher education is seen as fundamental in Vietnam. Entrance to university is determined through the National High School Examination (THPTQG) test. The higher the entrance test score, the more highly regarded the institution will be.

Currently experiencing a high GDP growth rate, Vietnam is attempting to expand its education system. In 2012, estimated national budget for education was 6.3%.[1] In the last decade, Vietnamese public reception of the country's education system has been mixed due to its inflexible nature and its tests. Citizens have been critical of the curriculum, which has led to social issues including depression, anxiety, and increasing suicide rates.[7] There have been comments from the public that schools should opt for a more flexible studying program, with less emphasis on tests and more focus on developing life skills.[8] In response to public opinion, the Ministry of Education and Training has implemented a number of education reforms.[9][10][11] Tertiary enrollment rates were only 3% in 1995 but increased to around 30% by 2019.[12] Regardless, more work is needed to be done to improve education at all levels, from pre-primary, to primary, to secondary, to post-secondary.[13][14][15][16]

## Establishments

[edit]

Regarding ownership, as prescribed in Article 44 of Vietnam's Education Law, there are four types of educational establishments:

* Public education establishments: established and monitored by the State. The State also nominates their administrators and decides staff quota. The State invests in infrastructure and allocates funding for their regular spending tasks.
* Semi-public educational establishments: set up by the State on the basis of mobilizing organizations and individuals in the society to jointly invest in infrastructure.
* People-founded educational establishments: Social or economic organizations apply for permission from the State to set up an institution with non-State budget capital.
* Private educational establishments: Individuals or groups of individuals apply for permission from the State to set up and invest in the institution by themselves.

The semi-public, people-founded and private educational establishments are referred collectively to as non-public educational establishments.[17]

## School grades

[edit]

In Vietnam, a school year is divided into two semesters: the first begins in mid or late in August (although the admission day or opening ceremony is 5 September) and lasts until the end of December, while the second begins right after the first, which is about mid-January and ends in May.

Level/Grade | Typical age

|

Preschool
Pre-school playgroup | 3-4
Kindergarten | 4-5
Primary school
First grade | 6-7
Second grade | 7-8
Third grade | 8-9
Fourth grade | 9-10
Fifth grade | 10-11
Middle school (Junior high school)
Sixth grade | 11-12
Seventh grade | 12-13
Eighth grade | 13-14
Ninth grade | 14-15
High school
Tenth grade | 15-16
Eleventh grade | 16-17
Twelfth grade | 17-18
Post-secondary education (Higher education)
Junior college[A] | Ages vary (2–3 years)
University[A] | Ages vary (usually 4 years)
Postgraduate education
Master | Ages vary (usually 2 years)
Ph.D | Ages vary (usually 4 years)

## Academic grading

[edit]

Main article: Academic grading in Vietnam

## Preschool

[edit]

Public kindergartens usually admit children ranging from 18 months to 5 years of age. Sometimes, four- or five-year-old children are taught the alphabet and basic arithmetic. This level of education is not compulsory but tends to be popular in cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Da Nang, Hai Phong, Can Tho and Vung Tau.

## Primary

[edit]

Primary students in Da Nang, Vietnam.

Children normally start primary education (tiểu học) at the age of six. Education at this level lasts for 5 years and is compulsory for all children. The country's literacy rate is over 90%.[18]

According to the Multiple Indicators Cluster Survey 2006 of Vietnam's General Statistics Office, 96% of six to 11-year-old children enrolled in primary school. There was still a disparity in the primary education completion rate among different ethnicity groups. While primary completion rate for Kinh students was 86%, the rate for ethnic minority children was only 61%.[19]

In the school year 2009–2010, Vietnam had 15,172 primary schools and 611 combined primary and lower secondary schools. The total enrollment was 7.02 million pupils, of whom 46% were girls.[20]

The renovated primary education curriculum in Vietnam is divided into two phases as follows:

* Phase 1 includes Grades 1, 2 and 3 with 9 subjects: Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Morality, Nature and Society, Arts, Physical Education, and (since 2020) Experience Activities, Information Technology and Foreign Language.
* Phase 2 includes Grades 4 and 5 with 12 subjects: Vietnamese Language, Information Technology, Mathematics, Morality, Science (Nature and Society), History, Geography, Basic Techniques, Music, Arts, Physical Education and (since 2023) Experience Activities and Foreign Language.[18]

## Secondary

[edit]

Secondary education (Vietnamese: trung học) consists of lower secondary education or junior high school (Vietnamese: trung học cơ sở) followed by high school or upper secondary high school (Vietnamese: trung học phổ thông).

### Lower

[edit]

Trưng Vương Lower Secondary School

Lower secondary school (Vietnamese: trung học cơ sở) or Junior high school includes sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth grade. Until its abolition in 2006, students had to pass the Intermediate Graduation Examination (IGE) presented by the local Department of Education and Training to graduate. The IGE comprises Math, Literature, and Foreign Language tests. This educational level is homogeneous throughout most of the country, except in very remote provinces, which expect to popularize and standardize middle education within the next few years. Intermediate education is not compulsory in Vietnam.

The Lower Secondary Education's weekly schedule includes the following subjects and activities: Vietnamese Language (Literature), Mathematics, Natural Science (Biology, Physics, Chemistry), History and Geography, Civics, Foreign Language, Physical Education, Technology, Art, Music, Optional Subjects, Class Activities and School Activities, Vocational-oriented activities (3 periods per month in Grade 8 or in some cases, the summer between 7th and 8th Grade) and Extra-curricular activities (4 periods per month in all grades). Ιn the end of year 8, student will participate in secondary vocational exam to earn extra-mark for the 10th grade examination.

The Technology subject aims to show the link between theory and practice. It includes four parts: home economics (in Grade 6), agriculture-forestry and aquaculture (in Grade 7), Industry (in Grade 8) and optional modules (in Grade 9).[20]

#### Middle school

[edit]

All subjects are compulsory for students.

* Literature: mostly Vietnamese literature, occasionally combined with foreign literature including Chinese, French, American and Russian
* Mathematics
* Years 6: two separate subjects – Arithmetic and Geometry
* Years 7–10: two separate subjects – Algebra and Geometry
* Year 11: three separate subjects – Algebra, Calculus and Geometry
* Year 12: two separate subjects – Calculus, and Geometry
* Natural Science (Year 6–9, from 2021)
* Physics (from year 10 onward since 2024)
* Chemistry (from year 8 onward until 2023; year 10 onward starting 2024)
* Biology (from year 10 onward since 2024)
* History and Geography (Year 6–9, from 2021)
* History (from year 10 onward starting 2024)
* Geography (from year 10 onward starting 2024)
* Civics: generally consists of economics, philosophy (Marxism-Leninism), politics, jurisprudence and ethics
* Foreign language: English is the predominant foreign language with the option to add a second foreign language (usually French); Mandarin, Russian, Japanese, German and Korean are taught at some specialized schools
* Technology (Vocational Training): consists of Agriculture/Horticulture, Mechanics, Electronics, Design, etc.
* Informatics: recently introduced, yet to be implemented in poorer regions. Students study basic programming in languages such as Pascal, C/C++ and Python (from 2020)
* Physical Education (P.E)
* National Defense and Security Training (since year 10)
* Music and Arts (until the first half of year 9 until 2022, after which Music and Arts has been introduced from year 10 onward since)

Advanced classes consists of either:

* Natural sciences: Students follow an advanced curriculum (and different textbooks) in mathematics, physics, chemistry and biology
* Social sciences: Students follow an advanced curriculum (and different textbooks) in literature, history, geography and foreign language

At the start of secondary school, students can enroll in Specialist Classes if they pass the class entrance exam, which usually consists of a Mathematics exam, a Literature exam, a Foreign Language exam and an exam of the subject that the student wants to specialize in. The specialised subject can be any of the subjects listed above, except Technology, Physical Education, Civics and Music/Arts. If the specialised subjects Students enrolled in these programs have a heavier workload than regular secondary school students. The workload varies from school to school, but grade 11 students are generally expected to study grade 12 courses concurrently. Other courses include university-level courses. Some schools go as far as requiring their students to finish secondary school by the end of grade 10.

Only prestigious schools offer these unstandardized classes.

### High school

[edit]

Hanoi-Amsterdam High School for the Gifted Ho Chi Minh City schoolgirls in ao dai uniform.

High school or upper secondary school education (Vietnamese: trung học phổ thông) consists of grades ten to twelve. There is often an entrance examination for high schooling. The score determines the schools at which students are able to enroll. The higher the score, the more prestigious the school.[21]

#### Graduation exam

[edit]

All high school students in Vietnam are required to take a high school graduation exam (Kỳ thi Tốt nghiệp Trung học phổ thông), which is administered by the Ministry of Education and Training, at the end of grade 12 to get a diploma called the Graduation Diploma of General Upper Secondary Education (Bằng tốt nghiệp Trung học phổ thông). They still have to take the regular end-of-term examinations before taking the National High School Exam.

The Ministry of Education and Training announced that for the graduation examination of 2017, five papers would be included: Mathematics, Literature, Foreign language, Natural Sciences, and Social Sciences. Three papers are mandatory for all students: Mathematics, Literature (the only remaining essay-based exam paper which is the spiritual successor of 1075-1919 exams), and Foreign language. Foreign language exam can be one of the following: English, French, German, Chinese, Japanese, Russian or Korean (since 2021). Apart from three mandatory papers, student must complete a fourth paper by choosing either natural sciences (a combination of Physics, Chemistry, and Biology) or Social Sciences (a combination of History, Geography, and Civic Education). In some cases, before 2020, students can take both the Natural Sciences and Social Sciences and will choose the paper with the higher result to be evaluated.[22]

## University

[edit]

Vietnam National University, Hanoi

From 2002 to 2014, university entrance is based on the scores achieved in the Universities and Colleges Selection Examination (TSĐHCĐ). Since 2015, the Universities and Colleges Selection Examination have been abolished (along with the High School Graduation Examination), to be replaced by a unified test, which is the National High School Examination (THPTQG). The THPTQG was stopped after 2019, then High School Graduation Examination (TNTHPT) was held again, with the results able to be used by universities for admission or consider admission based on the results of new self-organized admission tests, such as Aptitude Test (VNU, VNU-HCM, HNUE, HCMUE, and Vietnamese police academies), or Thinking Skills Assessment (HUST).

High school graduates need high scores to be admitted to universities. Securing a place in a public university is considered a major step in a successful career, especially for rural or otherwise disadvantaged people. The pressure on the candidates therefore remains very high, despite the measures taken to reduce the importance of these exams. The demand for student placements into universities outweighed the supply, where around 1.3 million students would choose to enroll into universities, but only 600,000 could be supplied due to lack of teaching staff at the tertiary level or post-secondary level. This prompted major calls for the government to help expand the tertiary sector, especially with increasing trend of enrolments into university from 1990 to 2019.[12][23] Additionally, university admissions is highly competitive.[24][25]

Normally, candidates take three exams for the fixed group of subjects they choose. There are many fixed groups of subjects, the main ones being:

* Group A: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry
* Group A1: Mathematics, Physics, English
* Group B: Mathematics, Biology, Chemistry
* Group C: Literature, History, Geography
* Group D: Literature, Foreign Language, Mathematics

Group D consists of six subgroups based on the languages they provide in universities:

* Group D1: entrance exam subject is English; major language in university is English
* Group D2: entrance exam subject is Russian; major language in university is Russian
* Group D3: entrance exam subject is French; major language in university is French
* Group D4: entrance exam subject is Chinese; major language in university is Mandarin
* Group D5: entrance exam subject is German; major language in university is German
* Group D6: entrance exam subject is Japanese; major language in university is Japanese

Besides these, there are groups for artistic and cultural education:

* Group H: Literature, Visual Art Talents
* Group M: Literature, Mathematics, Singing and Expressive Reading, Instrument Performance (optional)
* Group N: Literature, Tone and Melody, Vocal
* Group R: Literature, History, Journalism
* Group S: Literature, Theatrical Talents
* Group T: Mathematics, Biology, Sports
* Group V: Mathematics, Physics, Drawing

In 2007, Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training started to use multiple choice exam format for several subjects during the university entrance examination. These subjects include Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Foreign Language. Each multiple choice exam lasts 90 minutes. The foreign language exam consists of 80 multiple choice questions; meanwhile, the Physics, Chemistry, Biology exam has 50 questions. Math, Literature, History and Geography exams use composition format.

Starting from the entrance exam of 2013, 10 artistic and cultural universities will remove Literature from the exam of the group H, N and S. Instead, the results of three years in high school and the scores of the HGE will be used to evaluate the candidates.[26]

Starting from 2015, high school graduation and university entrance merged to one exam. Each student will take at least four subjects for the exam including three compulsory — mathematics, literature and foreign language (mostly English) — and one sub-subject such as physics, chemistry, geography, biology, history. After the result has been given, the student can use their score to pass the high school graduation exam and to go to their desired college with three chosen points from the four given.

### Types

[edit]

See also: List of universities in Vietnam and National Key Universities of Vietnam

Vietnamese Government decree (decree 43/2000/ND-CP, dated August 30, 2000) identified three types of higher education institutions:

* University system (đại học), which is a multidisciplinary institution offering fields of study and which has research capacities. Six major university systems in Vietnam are Vietnam National University, Hanoi; Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City; Hue University; University of Da Nang; Thai Nguyen University; and Hanoi University of Science and Technology.
* University (or college; trường đại học), which is more narrowly focused in its curriculum, sometimes on a single study area.
* Academy (học viện), which is also narrowly focused in terms of study area but which may have a specialized research capacity.[27]

The current Vietnamese government also maintains a national key university policy. This is a list of universities with high achievements and training quality, classified according to the scientific fields that the university offers. These universities will receive more benefits in operation and management, for example: priority to receive support packages to build training programs and facilities, approve projects to open new majors and education programs, being able to educate and self-award a doctoral degree without first approval from the Ministry of Education and Training.

Other post-secondary forms of education also include junior college or community colleges, professional secondary schools, and vocational schools which offer degrees or certificates. Several universities offer college vocational degrees as well as shorter general and specific industry-tailored training courses.

In the school year 2010–2011, Vietnam had 163 universities (including senior colleges and institutes) and 223 junior colleges, in which 50 senior colleges and 30 junior colleges are non-public.[28]

The presence of international universities are increasing. Universities such as PSB International College, RMIT, Eastern International University and University of Hawaii offer degrees in fields such as business, English as a Second Language and Information Technology. Running an international education system in Vietnam is challenging. Quality control and affordability are key issues, as well as red tape. Additionally, in the past, Viet Nam had followed a Soviet Union model where research and teaching institutes were separated instead of being together.

### Qualifications

[edit]

* Associate Degree (Vietnamese: Cao đẳng): a three-year program delivered by junior colleges (including teachers colleges and others) and/or by some universities as additional training programs.
* Bachelor's degree (Vietnamese: Cử nhân): a four- to six-year program — six years for students studying medical and dental sciences; five years for students of industrial engineering; and four years for the majority of other undergraduate degrees such as Social Sciences. Graduates receive degrees with a title corresponding to their field of study such as bachelor (cử nhân), engineer (kỹ sư), medical doctor (bác sĩ), or lawyer (luật sư), etc.[29]

Most of Vietnam's universities also offer master's (two years) and Doctor of Philosophy (four years) degrees.

## Teaching quality issues

[edit]

The higher education system has been criticised by Vietnam's diaspora, such as outdated curricula, a lecturer-centered method of teaching and learning, a lack of linkage between teaching and research activities, and a large discord between theory and practical training that leads to a large number of graduates being unable to find a job, while skills shortages drive inflation to double-digit levels. Vietnamese students perceive themselves to have a lack of knowledge despite being taught a lot due to the fact that the main purpose of studying was to pass exams or to achieve high test scores without real-life implementation. According to the survey on graduate employment in 2009-2010 conducted by Center for Policy Studies and Analysis- University of Social Sciences and Humanities, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, among 3000 respondents, 26.2% were unemployed. Among those employed, 61% lacked sufficient working skill, 43% lacked experience, and 32% felt insecure in providing professional expertise.[30]

Teaching methods delivered in the public system are mainly teacher-oriented. Class discussions are uncommon as students are expected to be studious and passively attentive in the classroom. This method may be a manifestation of Confucian culture and is in contrast to British and American pedagogy, where interaction and debate is prominent.[31]

Advanced and specialized high school students are generally expected to study additional courses, which can amount to a total of nine periods a day. Parents also enroll their children into extensive tutoring sessions, which is not to be confused with cram schools, because the tutoring sessions are taken regardless of any upcoming tests or exams. The average monthly salary of local Vietnamese public teachers is between US$60 and US$100, so many supplement their income by moonlighting, working in the private sector or tutoring. Students who do not attend these sessions are always at a disadvantage, as materials appearing on tests and exams are often covered only in tutoring sessions.

Public schools are underfunded. Only primary schools are subsidized by the government, to 50% of the total tuition cost. Enrollment rates are high and primary education quality, particularly in poor areas, is below the required standard.[32] Moreover, the drop-out rate after fifth grade is also high for those in rural and mountainous area since most students cannot afford to attend secondary school or university due to poverty. Participatory Poverty Assessments (PPAs) found that for many poor households, child labor is considered more valuable than school attendance in short-term economics. Regular school absenteeism also leads to poor academic performance. For poor families, the opportunity cost of sending their children to school is perceived to be high and the long-term benefit of education cannot outweigh the short-term economic losses.[32] In response to these challenges, the Ministry of Education and Training has implemented a number of educational reforms from 2015 onward.[9][10][11]

## English as a second language

[edit]

Private language centers offering English as a second language are in high demand in the larger cities of Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. Examinations such as IELTS (International English Language Testing System) or TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language), but especially IELTS, have become more popular means of verified International English examinations for universities and other ventures in Viet Nam.[33]

Stringent immigration/visa system is now being more strictly enforced (where previously the regulations were only enforced if visiting teachers fell foul of the criminal legal system). Now schools are routinely inspected for foreign teachers (ostensibly to ensure the tax codes are applied) and, as part of this process, degrees and teaching qualifications must be verified by the holder's embassy or relevant authority. Copies must be filed with immigration authorities. Similar regulations for opening bank accounts and registration of residences of foreigners mean unqualified teachers remain but are often consigned to the "back-street" schools or may be susceptible to disreputable school owners and landlords. The penalties for abuse of these regulations are substantial with respect to rents or incomes of schools.

The country has implemented OECD guidelines to the education sector with respect to English language skills of high school and university graduates. This means that for high school graduates to apply for university entry, overseas study (high school or university), or graduate from an undergraduate university course, individuals must achieve an internationally recognised and standardised test of English (IELTS, TOEIC, TOEFL, etc., or sometimes worryingly "an equivalent, designed, created and marked by local instructors, with scores/levels varying from course/degree/university/institution). This recent development has caused further changes in this sector, attracting further experienced IELTS trainers, retaining existing trainers and creating demands for teacher training from such agencies as British Council and IDP."

### National Foreign Languages 2020 Project

[edit]

In 2008, the Vietnamese government officially approved the Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in the National Education System in the 2008-2020 Period plan through Decision No. 1400/QD-TTg. Among other things, it set the ambitious goal of seeing 100 percent of students enrolled in a 10-year foreign language education program by 2020. By 2017, however, the goal was well out of reach so the program was extended to 2025 through Decision 2080/QD-TTg.[34]

## See also

[edit]

* Vietnam portal
* Education portal

* Vietnamese studies

## Notes

[edit]

1. ^ a b In Vietnam, tertiary education is divided into two types: university education (giáo dục đại học)–which offers research-orientated programs and lasts for four years, and college education (giáo dục cao đẳng)–which offers vocational programs and lasts for two or three years.

## References

[edit]

1. ^ a b c d e "The World Factbook: Vietnam". Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
2. ^ a b c "Số liệu thống kê giáo dục Việt Nam 2019" [Education statistics in Vietnam 2019] (in Vietnamese). General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Retrieved 5 June 2021.
3. ^ "Số liệu thống kê giáo dục đại học, cao đẳng" [Education statistics for higher education (university, college) in Vietnam] (in Vietnamese). General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
4. ^ "Số liệu thống kê tốt nghiệp THPT theo địa phương" [Secondary graduation statistics by provinces] (in Vietnamese). General Statistics Office of Vietnam. Retrieved 6 November 2016.
5. ^ "World Data on Education. 7th Ed" (PDF). UNESCO. Archived from the original (PDF) on 1 September 2022. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
6. ^ a b Nguyen, Van Hien; Nguyen, Vu Bich Hien; Vu, Thi Mai Huong; Hoang, Thi Kim Hue; Nguyen, Thi Minh Nguyet (2 July 2020). "Vietnamese Education System and Teacher Training: Focusing on Science Education". Asia-Pacific Science Education. 6 (1): 179–206. doi:10.1163/23641177-BJA10001.
7. ^ Hoang, Lien (1 November 2013). "Ending Vietnam's 'Suicide Season'". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
8. ^ "Suicide cases show Vietnamese students lack life skills". Lao Động (via Vietnamnet). 27 March 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
9. ^ a b Linh, Thuy (11 November 2015). "Vietnam's ambitious education reform plans come in for praise". Thanh Niên. Archived from the original on 12 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
10. ^ a b Tran, Van Hoa (21 April 2016). "Grading Vietnam's higher education reforms". East Asia Forum. Retrieved 8 November 2016.
11. ^ a b Vinh Quoc, Le (10 September 2015). "Rối bời đổi mới giáo dục" [Education reform in limbo]. Người lao động (in Vietnamese). Retrieved 8 November 2016.
12. ^ a b "School enrollment, tertiary (% gross) - Vietnam | Data". data.worldbank.org. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
13. ^ "Tertiary Education". World Bank. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
14. ^ "Home". www.oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
15. ^ "Transforming higher education in Vietnam". University World News. Retrieved 8 January 2022.
16. ^ Parajuli, Dilip; Vo, Dung. "Improving The Performance Of Higher Education In Vietnam" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 October 2021.
17. ^ "Decrees - Institute for Research on Educational Development". Archived from the original on 2 August 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
18. ^ a b "Vietnam's Ministry of Education and Training (2006). 'Vietnam Primary Education'. Retrieved on 2012-03-03". Archived from the original on 26 March 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
19. ^ "Retrieved on 2012-03-04". Archived from the original on 4 July 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
20. ^ a b UNESCO (2011) "World Data on Education. 7th Ed." Archived 2022-09-01 at the Wayback Machine. UNESCO. Retrieved 11 March 2013.
21. ^ "Welcome to World Bank Intranet". message.worldbank.org. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
22. ^ "Thi đại học và thi tốt nghiệp THPT quốc gia 2017 như thế nào?" (in Vietnamese). Ministry of Education and Training Vietnam, via Luyện thi THPT quốc gia. 13 October 2016. Retrieved 26 October 2016.
23. ^ "Home". www.oecd-ilibrary.org. Retrieved 3 January 2022.
24. ^ "Students focus on IELTS, neglect science subjects". VietNamNet. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
25. ^ "Universities told to change enrollment methods". VietNamNet. Retrieved 20 January 2022.
26. ^ "Khối H, N, S được miễn thi môn Ngữ văn" (in Vietnamese). Dantri.com. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
27. ^ Sheridan, G. (2010), 'Vietnam higher education sector analysis.', ADB Technical Assistance Consultants’ Report. Retrieved on 2012-02-20.
28. ^ "Cổng thông tin điện tử Bộ Giáo dục và Đào tạo". moet.gov.vn. Retrieved 6 March 2024.
29. ^ "Sheridan, G. (2010),'Vietnam higher education sector analysis.' ADB Technical Assistance Consultants' Report. Retrieved on 2012-02-20" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 April 2012. Retrieved 4 March 2012.
30. ^ "CEPSTA » Cepsta on newspaper »Approximately 60% graduated students don't find a job, Cepsta on newspaper »Approximately 60% graduated students don't find a job". cepsta.net:80. Archived from the original on 20 August 2012. Retrieved 19 April 2022.
31. ^ Napier, Nancy K.; Hoang, Vuong Quan (3 October 2013). What We See, Why We Worry, Why We Hope: Vietnam Going Forward. Boise State University CCI Press. ISBN 978-0-9855305-8-7.
32. ^ a b "'Education for All in Vietnam: high enrollment, but problems of quality remain.' (2010). Retrieved on 2012-03-04". Archived from the original on 5 July 2012. Retrieved 5 March 2012.
33. ^ VnExpress. "Vietnam's IELTS fever explained - VnExpress International". VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam. Retrieved 6 June 2023.
34. ^ the-shiv (12 August 2024). "How to Start an English Centre in Vietnam in 2024". the-shiv. Retrieved 28 August 2024.

Bibliography

* London, Jonathan D., ed. (2011). Education in Vietnam. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies. ISBN 978-9814279062.
* Dror, Olga (2018). Making Two Vietnams: War and Youth Identities, 1965–1975. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1108556163.

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* Northwest
* Central
* North Central
* South Central
* Central Highlands
* Southern
* Southeast
* Mekong Delta

Politics|

* Censorship
* Constitution
* Fatherland Front
* Foreign relations
* Human rights
* LGBT
* Law

| Communist Party|

* Central Committee
* General Secretary
* Permanent Member of the Secretariat
* History of central officeholders
* National Congress
* Politburo
* Central Secretariat
* Central Inspection Commission
* Central Military Commission

|

Executive|

* President
* Vice President
* Government
* Prime Minister
* Deputy Prime Ministers
* Ministers

Legislative|

* National Assembly
* Standing Committee
* Chairman
* Elections

Judiciary|

* Supreme People's Court
* Chief Justice
* Supreme People's Procuracy
* Procurator-General
* Military Courts

Military|

* Central Military Commission
* National Defense and Security Council

| Armed forces|

* Army
* Ground Force
* Border Guard
* Navy
* Air Force
* Coast Guard

|

Public Security
and Militia|

* Police
* Security
* Self-Defence Militia

Economy|

* Agriculture
* Banking
* Doi Moi ("Renovation")
* Đồng (currency)
* Energy
* Renewable energy
* Nuclear power
* Power stations
* Foreign aid
* Foreign trade
* Five-Year Plans
* Manufacturing
* Standards
* Automotive
* Poverty
* Science and Technology
* Traditional medicine
* Measurement
* Inventions
* Telecommunications
* Internet
* Censorship
* Tourism
* Visa policy
* Transport
* Expressways
* Railways
* Airports
* Water supply

Transport|

* Air transport
* Rail transport

Society|

* Education
* Universities
* Health
* HIV/AIDS
* COVID-19 and Deltacron hybrid variant
* Crime
* Gambling
* Prostitution
* Sex trafficking
* Human trafficking
* Corruption
* Public holidays
* Time
* Women

| Demographics|

* People
* Eunuchs
* Overseas community
* Language
* Alphabet
* Phonology
* Language and computers
* Ethnic groups
* Name
* Racism
* Religion
* Folk religions
* Buddhism
* Taoism
* Christianity
* Islam

|

Culture|

* Anthem
* Architecture
* Art
* Awards
* Cinema
* Animation
* Clothing
* Cuisine
* Dishes
* Ingredients
* Dance
* Emblem
* Festivals
* Flag
* Literature
* Poetry
* Mass media
* Television
* News Agency
* Voice
* Newspapers
* Music
* V-pop
* Traditional musical instruments
* Philosophy
* Anarchism
* Communism
* Nationalism
* Socialism
* Trotskyism
* Ho Chi Minh Thought
* Person Dignity Theory
* Sports
* Traditional games
* Martial arts
* Symbols
* Theater
* Vietnamese studies

* Outline
* Index

* Category
* Portal

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