Eisenhower Doctrine

American policy on the Middle East

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The Eisenhower Doctrine was a policy enunciated by U.S. president Dwight D. Eisenhower on January 5, 1957, within a "Special Message to the Congress on the Situation in the Middle East". Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, a Middle Eastern country could request American economic assistance or aid from U.S. military forces if it was being threatened by armed aggression.[1] Eisenhower singled out the Soviet threat in his doctrine by authorizing the commitment of U.S. forces "to secure and protect the territorial integrity and political independence of such nations, requesting such aid against overt armed aggression from any nation controlled by international communism."[2] The phrase "international communism" made the doctrine much broader than simply responding to Soviet military action. A danger that could be linked to communists of any nation could conceivably invoke the doctrine.

Most Arabs regarded the doctrine as a transparent ploy to promote Western influence in the Middle East by restraining Gamal Abdel Nasser's brand of Arab nationalism that opposed Western domination, and some like the Syrians[who?] publicly denounced the initiative as an insidious example of U.S. imperialism. Following the 1958 crisis in Lebanon and accusations by U.S. senators of exaggerating the threat of communism to the region, Eisenhower privately admitted that the real goal was combating Arab nationalism.[3]

## Background

[edit]

This section includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations. (August 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

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In the global political context, the doctrine was made in response to the possibility of a generalized war, threatened due to the Soviet Union's latent threat becoming involved in Egypt after the Suez Crisis.[4] Coupled with the power vacuum left by the decline of British and French power in the region after the U.S. protested against the conduct of their allies during the Suez War, Eisenhower thought that the strong position needed to better the situation was further complicated by the positions taken by Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser, who was rapidly building a power base and using it to play the Soviets and Americans against each other, taking a position of "positive neutrality" and accepting aid from the Soviets.[5]

On the regional level, the doctrine's intent was to provide the independent Arab regimes with an alternative to Nasser's political control, strengthening them while isolating communist influence through Nasser's isolation. It largely failed on that front, with Nasser's power quickly rising by 1959 to when he could shape the leadership outcomes in neighboring Arab countries such as Iraq and Saudi Arabia; in the meantime, his relationship with the Soviets deteriorated, allowing the U.S. to switch to a policy of accommodation.

The administration also saw the Middle East as being critical for future foreign policy regarding the U.S. and its allies. The region contains a large percentage of the world's oil reserves needed by the allies. Eisenhower's protests against longtime allies—Britain and France—during the Suez Crisis lead to the collapse of British and French influence in the Middle East, spawning fears of Soviet domination made more credible by Nasser's increasingly pro-Soviet disposition. The Eisenhower Doctrine was a backflip against the previous policy; the U.S. now had the burden of military action in the Middle East to itself.

The doctrine was not successfully applied in that year's crisis in Syria but was instead invoked in the Lebanon crisis the following year, when the U.S. intervened in response to a request by that country's then President Camille Chamoun.

## See also

[edit]

* Foreign policy of the Dwight D. Eisenhower administration
* Syrian Crisis of 1957
* United States foreign policy in the Middle East

## References

[edit]

1. ^ Buescher, John. "The U.S. and Egypt in the 1950s", Teachinghistory.org, accessed August 20, 2011.
2. ^ "The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957"; see http://history.state.gov/milestones/1953-1960/eisenhower-doctrine
3. ^ Little, Douglas (January 1996). "His Finest Hour? Eisenhower, Lebanon, and the 1958 Middle East Crisis". Diplomatic History. 20 (1): 27–54\. doi:10.1111/j.1467-7709.1996.tb00251.x.
4. ^ Lahav, Pnina. "The Suez Crisis of 1956 and Its Aftermath: A Comparative Study of Constitutions, Use of Force, Diplomacy and International Relations". Boston University Law Review.
5. ^ Peter L. Hahn, "Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957." Presidential Studies Quarterly 36.1 (2006): 38–47.

## Further reading

[edit]

* Brands, H.W. Into the Labyrinth: The United States and the Middle East, 1945–1993 (1994) excerpt pp. 69–72.
* Hahn, Peter L. "Securing the Middle East: The Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957." Presidential Studies Quarterly 36.1 (2006): 38–47. online
* Lesch, David W. "The 1957 American–Syrian Crisis: Globalist Policy in a Regional Reality", in The Middle East and the United States: History, Politics, and Ideologies; David W. Lesch and Mark L Hass eds., Westview Press, 2013 edition, pp. 111–127.
* Meiertöns, Heiko (2010): The Doctrines of US Security Policy – An Evaluation under International Law, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521766487.
* Takeyh, Ray. The Origins of the Eisenhower Doctrine: The US, Britain and Nasser's Egypt, 1953–57 (2000)
* Yaqub, Salim. Containing Arab nationalism: the Eisenhower doctrine and the Middle East (University of North Carolina Press, 2004).

## External links

[edit]

* Text of the January 5, 1957 Special Message to Congress

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Dwight D. Eisenhower

* 34th President of the United States (1953–1961)
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Pro-Western|

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Foreign relations of the United States

Bilateral relations

| Africa|

| Central|

* Angola
* Cameroon
* Central African Republic
* Chad
* Democratic Republic of the Congo
* Republic of the Congo
* Equatorial Guinea
* Gabon
* São Tomé and Príncipe

|

East|

* Burundi
* Comoros
* Djibouti
* Eritrea
* Ethiopia
* Kenya
* Madagascar
* Malawi
* Mauritius
* Mozambique
* Rwanda
* Seychelles
* Somalia
* Somaliland
* South Sudan
* Tanzania
* Uganda
* Zambia
* Zimbabwe

North|

* Algeria
* Egypt
* Libya
* Morocco
* Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
* Sudan
* Tunisia

Southern|

* Botswana
* Eswatini
* Lesotho
* Namibia
* South Africa

West|

* Benin
* Burkina Faso
* Cape Verde
* Côte d'Ivoire
* The Gambia
* Ghana
* Guinea
* Guinea-Bissau
* Liberia
* Mali
* Mauritania
* Niger
* Nigeria
* Senegal
* Sierra Leone
* Togo

Americas|

| Caribbean|

* Antigua and Barbuda
* Bahamas
* Barbados
* Cuba
* Dominica
* Dominican Republic
* Grenada
* Haiti
* Jamaica
* St. Kitts and Nevis
* St. Lucia
* St. Vincent and the Grenadines
* Trinidad and Tobago

|

Central|

* Belize
* Costa Rica
* El Salvador
* Guatemala
* Honduras
* Mexico
* Nicaragua
* Panama

Northern|

* Canada
* trade

South|

* Argentina
* Bolivia
* Brazil
* Chile
* Colombia
* Ecuador
* Guyana
* Paraguay
* Peru
* Suriname
* Uruguay
* Venezuela

Asia|

| Central|

* Kazakhstan
* Kyrgyzstan
* Tajikistan
* Turkmenistan
* Uzbekistan

|

East|

* China
* Hong Kong
* Macau
* Japan
* Mongolia
* North Korea
* South Korea
* Taiwan

South|

* Afghanistan
* Bangladesh
* Bhutan
* India
* Maldives
* Nepal
* Pakistan
* military
* Sri Lanka

Southeast|

* Brunei
* Cambodia
* Indonesia
* Laos
* Malaysia
* Myanmar
* Philippines
* Singapore
* Thailand
* Timor-Leste
* Vietnam

Western|

* Armenia
* Azerbaijan
* Bahrain
* Georgia
* Iran
* Iraq
* Israel
* military
* Jordan
* Kuwait
* Lebanon
* Oman
* Palestine
* Qatar
* Saudi Arabia
* Syria
* United Arab Emirates
* Yemen

Europe|

| Eastern|

* Belarus
* Bulgaria
* Czech Republic
* Hungary
* Moldova
* Transnistria
* Poland
* Romania
* Russia
* Slovakia
* Ukraine

|

Northern|

* Denmark
* Estonia
* Finland
* Iceland
* Ireland
* Latvia
* Lithuania
* Norway
* Sweden
* United Kingdom
* Special Relationship
* Bermuda
* Cayman Islands

Southern|

* Albania
* Andorra
* Bosnia and Herzegovina
* Croatia
* Cyprus
* Northern Cyprus
* Greece
* Holy See
* Italy
* Kosovo
* Malta
* Montenegro
* North Macedonia
* Portugal
* San Marino
* Serbia
* Slovenia
* Spain
* Turkey

Western|

* Austria
* Belgium
* France
* Germany
* Liechtenstein
* Luxembourg
* Monaco
* Netherlands
* Switzerland

Oceania|

| Australasia|

* Australia
* New Zealand

|

Melanesia|

* Fiji
* Papua New Guinea
* Solomon Islands
* Vanuatu

Micronesia|

* Kiribati
* Marshall Islands
* Micronesia
* Nauru
* Palau

Polynesia|

* Cook Islands
* Samoa
* Tonga
* Tuvalu

Former states|

* Artsakh
* Grand Duchy of Baden
* Kingdom of Bavaria
* Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg
* Federal Republic of Central America
* Greater Republic of Central America
* Congo Free State
* Czechoslovakia
* East Germany
* Republic of Genoa
* German Empire
* Kingdom of Hanover
* Hanseatic Republics
* Hawaiian Kingdom
* Grand Duchy of Hesse
* Mecklenburg-Schwerin
* Mecklenburg-Strelitz
* Duchy of Nassau
* North German Confederation
* Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
* Orange Free State
* Ottoman Empire
* Papal States
* Duchy of Parma
* Prussia
* Russian Empire
* Ryukyu Kingdom
* Kingdom of Sardinia
* Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe
* Soviet Union
* Republic of Texas
* Grand Duchy of Tuscany
* Kingdom of the Two Sicilies
* United Arab Republic
* Kingdom of Württemberg
* Yugoslavia

Multilateral relations

* Africa
* Arab League
* Asia
* East Asia
* European Union
* Latin America
* Middle East
* United Nations
* C5+1
* Major non-NATO ally
* Third Border Initiative
* International organizations

Doctrines, policies, concepts

| Presidential
doctrines|

* Proclamation of Neutrality
* Monroe
* Roosevelt Corollary
* Good Neighbor policy
* Truman
* Eisenhower
* Kennedy
* Johnson
* Nixon
* Carter
* Reagan
* Clinton
* Bush
* Obama

|

Other doctrines|

* Lodge Corollary
* Stimson
* Kirkpatrick
* Weinberger
* Powell
* Rumsfeld
* Wolfowitz

Policies and
concepts|

* Blowback
* China policy
* Containment
* Domino theory
* Foreign aid
* Middle East policy
* Non-interventionism
* Progressive realism
* Rollback
* Special Relationship

* v
* t
* e

Soviet Union–United States relations

Diplomatic posts|

| Embassy|

* Washington D.C. Embassy
* Ambassadors
* Mrs. George Pullman House

|

Consulates|

* New York Consulate
* John Henry Hammond House
* San Francisco Consulate

United Nations|

* Headquarters
* Representatives
* Russian Mission Residency

Other|

* Elmcroft Estate
* Killenworth
* Lothrop Mansion
* Pioneer Point

* United States Embassy in Moscow
* Ambassadors
* Spaso House

Diplomacy|

| World War II
Summits|

* Declaration of the Four Nations
* Lend-Lease
* Lend-Lease Sherman tanks
* Moscow Conference (1941)
* Moscow Conference (1942)
* Moscow Conference (1943)
* Moscow Conference (1944)
* Moscow Conference (1945)
* Potsdam Conference
* Council of Foreign Ministers
* Tehran Conference
* Yalta Conference

|

Cold War
Summits|

* 1973 United States–Soviet Union wheat deal
* Berlin Conference (1954)
* Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls
* Council for American–Soviet Trade
* Dartmouth Conference
* Eighteen Nation Committee on Disarmament
* European Advisory Commission
* Geneva Accords (1988)
* Geneva Conference (1973)
* Geneva Summit (1955)
* Geneva Summit (1985)
* Glassboro Summit Conference
* Governors Island Summit
* Helsinki Summit (1990)
* Lacy-Zarubin Agreement
* Madrid Conference
* Letter
* Malta Summit
* Moscow Summit (1972)
* Moscow Summit (1974)
* Moscow Summit (1988)
* Mutual and Balanced Force Reductions
* NATO Double-Track Decision
* Reykjavík Summit
* Stalin Note
* State visit by Nikita Khrushchev to the United States
* United Nations Security Council Resolution 135
* United States restitution to the Soviet Union
* US/USSR Acceptance of Law Governing Innocent Passage
* Vienna summit
* Washington Summit (1987)
* Washington Summit (1973)
* Vladivostok Summit Meeting on Arms Control

Policies|

* Containment
* Détente
* Linkage
* Rollback
* Stimson Doctrine
* Welles Declaration
* Triangular diplomacy
* Zero Option

Speeches|

* 1989 visit by Boris Yeltsin to the United States
* American University speech
* And you are lynching Negroes
* Chicken Kiev speech
* Evil Empire speech
* Ich bin ein Berliner
* Kitchen Debate
* Kuzma's mother
* Shoe-banging incident
* Tear down this wall!
* We will bury you

Other|

* Pushinka
* Soviet Military Power publication

Historical
Relations|

* Russia–United States
* Russian Empire–United States

Treaties and
Agreements|

| Arms Control|

* 1990 Chemical Weapons Accord
* Agreement on the Prevention of Nuclear War
* Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty
* INF
* McCloy–Zorin Accords
* Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
* SALT I
* NTM
* SALT II
* START I
* Threshold Test Ban Treaty
* Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe

|

Space|

* Outer Space Treaty
* Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space
* Agreement Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes

Territory|

* Four Power Agreement on Berlin
* Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany
* USSR–USA Maritime Boundary Agreement
* Wanfried agreement

World War II|

* Moscow Declarations
* Potsdam Agreement

Other|

* Baruch Plan
* Bush legs
* Moscow–Washington hotline
* U.S.–Soviet Incidents at Sea agreement

Legislation|

* Executive Order 8484
* Former Soviet Union Demilitarization Act of 1992
* FRIENDSHIP Act of 1993
* Jackson–Vanik amendment
* Russian Famine Relief Act
* Soviet Nuclear Threat Reduction Act of 1991

Science|

| Space|

* APAS
* Apollo–Soyuz
* Bion satellites
* Kosmos 782
* Kosmos 936
* Kosmos 1129
* Kosmos 1514
* Kosmos 1667
* Kosmos 1887
* Kosmos 2044
* International Cospas-Sarsat Programme
* Mir
* SAGE
* Space Race
* TOPAZ-I
* U.S.–Soviet Space Bridge
* Yardymly

|

Other|

* International Conference of Laser Applications
* Shvetsov M-25
* Uzel

Culture|

| Chess|

* US vs. USSR radio chess match 1945
* World Chess Championship 1972
* Bobby Fischer

|

Education|

* Anglo-American School of Moscow
* St. Petersburg
* Russian Cultural Center
* Russian Embassy School in Washington, D.C.
* Russian Mission School in New York

Literature|

* Amerika (magazine)
* Deep Black
* Eagles East
* International Publishers
* Russian Life
* Sovfoto
* The Admiral's Daughter
* Who's Who in the CIA
* X Article

Radio / Music|

* Ordinary People
* Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty
* Red Wave

Sports|

* 1972 Olympic men's basketball final
* 1976 Philadelphia Flyers–Red Army game
* Glasnost Bowl
* Goodwill Games
* Miracle on Ice
* Super Series
* USA–USSR Track and Field Dual Meet Series

TV / Film|

* Free to Be... a Family
* Soviet submissions for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film
* Stalingrad
* The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr. West in the Land of the Bolsheviks

Other|

* American National Exhibition
* Apollo-Soyuz (cigarette)
* In Soviet Georgia
* Soviet Interview Project
* White Coke

Cold War|

| Overview|

* Origins
* Timeline
* 1947–1948
* 1948–1953
* 1953–1962
* 1962–1979
* 1979–1985
* 1985–1991

* Nuclear arms race
* Space Race
* Timeline
* Espionage
* Americans
* Soviets
* Atomic spies
* Cold War in Asia

|

Operations|

* Operation Anadyr
* Operation Breakthrough
* Operation Cedar
* Operation Chrome Dome
* Operation Cyclone
* Operation Denver
* Operation Dropshot
* Operation Giant Lance
* Operation Gold
* Operation Ivy Bells
* Operation Keelhaul
* Operation Lincoln
* Operation Monopoly
* Operation RYAN
* Operation Safe Haven (1957)
* Operation Shocker
* Operation Sunrise

Projects|

* Project Azorian
* Project Coldfeet
* Project Dark Gene
* Project Genetrix
* Project Grab Bag
* Project HOMERUN
* Project Hula
* Project Moby Dick
* Project Mogul
* Venona project

Other|

* 7th Air Escadrille
* Active Measures Working Group
* Bomber gap
* CIA activities in the Soviet Union
* Cold War tensions and the polio vaccine
* GIUK gap
* Missile gap
* Nitrophenyl pentadienal
* NSC 68
* Plan Totality
* Red Scare
* Seven Days to the River Rhine
* Sheldon names
* Smolensk Archive
* SDI
* The Moscow rules
* United States aerial reconnaissance of the Soviet Union
* United States war plans (1945–1950)
* U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B

Incidents|

| World War II|

* Gorin v. United States
* Niš incident

|

Cold War|

* 1958 C-130 shootdown incident
* 1960 RB-47 shootdown incident
* 1960 U-2 incident
* 1961 F-84 Thunderstreak incident
* 1964 T-39 shootdown incident
* 1980 Summer Olympics boycott
* 1983 Soviet nuclear false alarm incident
* 1984 Summer Olympics boycott
* 1986 Black Sea incident
* 1988 Black Sea bumping incident
* Able Archer 83
* Autumn Forge 83
* Aeroflot Flight 244
* Air-to-air combat losses between the Soviet Union and the United States
* Arrest of Mark Kaminsky and Harvey Bennett
* Arthur D. Nicholson
* Berlin Blockade
* Berlin Crisis of 1958–1959
* Berlin Crisis of 1961
* Capture of the Tuapse
* Cuban Missile Crisis
* Crateology
* Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair
* Feodor Fedorenko
* Gambell incident
* Hollow Nickel Case
* Iran crisis of 1946
* John Anthony Walker
* Karl Linnas
* Kasenkina Case
* Korean Air Lines Flight 007
* Martin and Mitchell defection
* Moscow Signal
* Pan Am Flight 708
* Seaboard World Airlines Flight 253A
* Shostakovich v. Twentieth Century-Fox Film Corp.
* Siberian Seven
* Soviet submarine K-129
* Soviet submarine K-219
* Sputnik crisis
* SS Metallurg Anosov
* Transfermium Wars
* Turkish Straits crisis
* United States grain embargo against the Soviet Union
* Urengoy–Pomary–Uzhhorod pipeline
* We begin bombing in five minutes
* Yellow rain
* Yeniseysk-15

Military relations|

| Russian
Revolution|

* American Expeditionary Force, North Russia
* American Expeditionary Force, Siberia
* North Russia intervention
* Siberian intervention
* United States and the Russian Revolution
* White movement

|

World War II|

* Allied Control Council
* Allied Kommandatura
* Allied technological cooperation during World War II
* ALSIB
* Arctic convoys of World War II
* Belorussia-class cargo ship
* Berlin Victory Parade of 1945
* Elbe Day
* Four Policemen
* Line of Contact
* Northwest Staging Route
* Pacific Route
* Persian Corridor
* Persian Gulf Command
* SS Dakotan
* SS Iowan
* Tripartite Naval Commission
* USS West Bridge
* Warsaw airlift

Cold War|

* Eisenhower Doctrine
* Four Power Naval Commission
* Four-Power Authorities
* Military liaison missions
* Reagan Doctrine
* Truman Doctrine

Armaments|

* AG submarines
* Bell P-63 Kingcobra
* Comparison of the AK-47 and M16
* SS Indigirka
* Tupolev Tu-4
* Tupolev Tu-70
* Tupolev Tu-80
* USCGC Southwind

Organizations|

| Soviet Union|

* Amtorg Trading Corporation
* Ansonia Clock Company
* Foundation for Social Inventions
* Gennady Alferenko
* Institute for US and Canadian Studies
* Russian Soviet Government Bureau
* Soviet Government Purchasing Commission in the U.S.

|

United States|

* American Committee for the Liberation of the Peoples of Russia
* Ark Project
* American Peace Mobilization
* American Relief Administration
* American Russian Institute
* American–Soviet friendship movement
* American-Soviet Peace Walks
* Center for Citizen Initiatives
* Communist Party USA
* Dewey Commission
* Freedom Sunday for Soviet Jews
* Friends of Soviet Russia
* Friendship Flight '89
* Friendship Flight (Alaska Airlines)
* Fund for Armenian Relief
* Kennan Institute
* Kersten Committee
* National Committee for a Free Europe
* National Council of American–Soviet Friendship
* Organization for Jewish Colonization in Russia
* Russian-American Industrial Corporation
* Russian War Relief
* Society for Technical Aid to Soviet Russia
* Student Struggle for Soviet Jewry
* U.S. Commission on the Ukraine Famine
* U.S. Peace Council

Related|

* Baltic Freedom Day
* Captive Nations
* Captive Nations Week
* GAZ
* Georgi Bolshakov
* Little Joe
* New world order (politics)
* Refusenik
* Roswell Garst
* Samantha Smith
* Self-propelled barge T-36
* Sisson Documents
* Sovereignty of Puerto Rico during the Cold War
* Suzanne Massie

Category:Soviet Union–United States relations

Authority control databases |

* NARA

|

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